tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-10116811822457226212024-02-06T20:02:53.423-08:00The Real Mr FrankensteinSir Anthony Carlisle, Medical Murders, and the Social Genesis of Frankenstein.Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.comBlogger31125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-89557395278355170342022-06-08T13:47:00.003-07:002022-06-12T10:45:08.910-07:00Beneath the Varnish - Conventional Wisdom on Trial<p style="text-align: justify;"><b>Original Research</b> - the ebook <i><b>The Real Mr Frankenstein</b></i>, as available on this site, was largely written by 2015. The ebook is also available, as a PDF download, via www.researchgate.net see; <a data-ctbtn="2" data-cthref="/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjxhra62p74AhVf3jgGHRqJDYcQFnoECAQQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F338621859_The_Real_Mr_Frankenstein_-_Sir_Anthony_Carlisle_Medical_Murders_and_the_Social_Genesis_of_Frankenstein&usg=AOvVaw03BTTyLSB8nCViembmr6Wd" data-jrwt="1" data-jsarwt="1" data-usg="AOvVaw03BTTyLSB8nCViembmr6Wd" data-ved="2ahUKEwjxhra62p74AhVf3jgGHRqJDYcQFnoECAQQAQ" href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjxhra62p74AhVf3jgGHRqJDYcQFnoECAQQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F338621859_The_Real_Mr_Frankenstein_-_Sir_Anthony_Carlisle_Medical_Murders_and_the_Social_Genesis_of_Frankenstein&usg=AOvVaw03BTTyLSB8nCViembmr6Wd"><br /></a></p><h3 class="LC20lb MBeuO DKV0Md"><a data-ctbtn="2" data-cthref="/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjxhra62p74AhVf3jgGHRqJDYcQFnoECAQQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F338621859_The_Real_Mr_Frankenstein_-_Sir_Anthony_Carlisle_Medical_Murders_and_the_Social_Genesis_of_Frankenstein&usg=AOvVaw03BTTyLSB8nCViembmr6Wd" data-jrwt="1" data-jsarwt="1" data-usg="AOvVaw03BTTyLSB8nCViembmr6Wd" data-ved="2ahUKEwjxhra62p74AhVf3jgGHRqJDYcQFnoECAQQAQ" href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjxhra62p74AhVf3jgGHRqJDYcQFnoECAQQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F338621859_The_Real_Mr_Frankenstein_-_Sir_Anthony_Carlisle_Medical_Murders_and_the_Social_Genesis_of_Frankenstein&usg=AOvVaw03BTTyLSB8nCViembmr6Wd">The Real Mr Frankenstein - Sir Anthony Carlisle, Medical ...</a></h3><p></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Since then, the research has expanded to reveal to a new understanding of the Scottish Author, Tobias George Smollett. The research notes on him run to over five million words, and are available to all 18C researchers; as open-access at https://tobiassmollett.blogspot.com/ </p><p style="text-align: justify;">For the convenience of researchers a new ebook, of 300 pages, and 300 illustrations, has been written and made freely available as a PDF on Researchgate as<span style="font-size: medium;">,</span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><i>Beneath the Varnish - Conventional Wisdom on Trial</i></b></span> </span> </p><p style="text-align: justify;">The cover is the same as <b><i>The Real Mr Frankenstein</i></b>, but the 300 pages of content are very different, being a collection of published and previously unpublished essays<br /></p><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><u><b>Situation in</b></u></span><u><b><span style="font-size: medium;"> </span>May 2022</b></u>
- Most current research involves a slow, steady, methodical, and
careful search, seeking out new attributions to Tobias Smollett, in
early, 1730-34, issues of <i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, <i>London Magazine</i>, many being his contributions, as reprinted from <i>Grubstreet Journal</i>, <i>Universal Spectator</i>, <i>Weekly Miscellany</i>, <i>Fog's Journal</i>, and others.</div><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><br /></div><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><b>However</b>, there was also a 'burst' of publishing;</div><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">1.
For visitors wishing to understand the background to, and motive for,
my 18C research, an interview was published by STM Research Data,
www.stm-researchdata.org The interview is available, about half way down
the page, at; <span style="mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><a href="https://www.stm-researchdata.org/humanities-data-project-blog/">https://www.stm-researchdata.org/humanities-data-project-blog/</a></span> </div><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"> </div><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">The STM Project is a new, major, data sharing, publishing initiative, as it outlines on its website:</div><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">"A goal of the Research Data Program is to align data policies between
funders, institutions, and publishers. In 2020 the STM publishing association began its Research Data Year
(now the Research Data Program), encouraging its publisher members to
increase their activity on research data, with the tagline of ‘Share,
Link, Cite”. A great deal of progress has been made to introduce or
increase awareness of publishers’ data sharing policies, and kick off
conversations with other stakeholders about the handling of research
data. During the first year of the project, it became clear that while
researchers in areas of medicine, life, earth and natural sciences are
being well served by current policies and guidance, a different strategy
would be needed for humanities and social sciences.
This led to the launch of the<a href="https://www.stm-assoc.org/humanitiesresearchdata/"> Humanities Data Group</a>,
a team of representatives from different publishers who have come
together to share their expertise in supporting the sharing of
humanities data." <br /></div><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><br /></div><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">2.
The linked and detailed research notes on this Smollett website are
vast, and ever growing: at a guess, the equivalent of over five million
words, or say, 10,000 pages, if all was printed out! Most of the "posts"
are very long, and may thus seem slow in accessing. However, for
convenience, and to demonstrate the range and importance of research
conclusions, I recently published on Researchgate, a 300 page ebook,
including 300 illustrations: <b><i>Beneath the Varnish - Conventional Wisdom on Trial</i></b>. <i> </i>Pages 87-286 of the ebook are relevant to Smollett, but especially pages 205-286<i>. </i>The ebook is a collection of published essays, as listed below, and already
available on Researchgate; together with important new, unpublished,
essays summarised from publicly available research notes on this
www.tobiassmollett.blogspot.com The ebook is freely available at Researchgate, as a PDF, at; <br /><blockquote type="cite"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><a class="moz-txt-link-freetext" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360076490_Beneath_the_Varnish_-_">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360076490_Beneath_the_Varnish_</a></span><br />
</blockquote>
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"></div><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><b><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjB-xa3lR9pN1DTzXbphbGYh_apdDWecXEROqrhzZe-Ei01og7Wlq3M__dPyNnp_LwOIJcAO5yElLzPb_imj0-IbLnF2t-KKfTMk3ht0ETJQ91cfOvKodsEka58ijdyd-ndq5BA0A7ABL2wr-SMADzss7qILqXx-U2SE4s4s2xDcIi7unC2TJnn8FaKAQ/s478/Carlisle%20-%20colourtitle.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="478" data-original-width="373" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjB-xa3lR9pN1DTzXbphbGYh_apdDWecXEROqrhzZe-Ei01og7Wlq3M__dPyNnp_LwOIJcAO5yElLzPb_imj0-IbLnF2t-KKfTMk3ht0ETJQ91cfOvKodsEka58ijdyd-ndq5BA0A7ABL2wr-SMADzss7qILqXx-U2SE4s4s2xDcIi7unC2TJnn8FaKAQ/w501-h640/Carlisle%20-%20colourtitle.jpg" width="501" /></a></div><br /> </b></div>Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-2648931794104951972021-11-30T14:41:00.001-08:002021-12-01T08:52:12.560-08:00The Real Mr Frankenstein ©<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQn3VkhE6uP-Kk1wK6YQsfDvfmJ7olMy6uzytJXgJWkOdY0t4Q4T96SIybA6r-zFdOSwYfNCBz49j2UkqbVb-Iwyo0SmKHAA53CFQbLmsE87d27exX2Xs46tvqTXULJ-ruRbOUEcQyCvc/s1600/TheRealMr+Frankenstein_frontcover.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQn3VkhE6uP-Kk1wK6YQsfDvfmJ7olMy6uzytJXgJWkOdY0t4Q4T96SIybA6r-zFdOSwYfNCBz49j2UkqbVb-Iwyo0SmKHAA53CFQbLmsE87d27exX2Xs46tvqTXULJ-ruRbOUEcQyCvc/s1600/TheRealMr+Frankenstein_frontcover.jpg" width="498" /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQn3VkhE6uP-Kk1wK6YQsfDvfmJ7olMy6uzytJXgJWkOdY0t4Q4T96SIybA6r-zFdOSwYfNCBz49j2UkqbVb-Iwyo0SmKHAA53CFQbLmsE87d27exX2Xs46tvqTXULJ-ruRbOUEcQyCvc/s1600/TheRealMr+Frankenstein_frontcover.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>The
Real Mr Frankenstein </b></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<span style="font-size: medium;"><b>Sir Anthony Carlisle, Medical Murders,</b></span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<span style="font-size: medium;"><b>and the Social Genesis of Frankenstein</b> </span>
</div>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>(Second Edition – revised )</b></span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>by Don Shelton BCom ACA</b></span></div>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.9cm; margin-right: 0.85cm;">
“<b><i>most philosophers, most great men, most anatomists, and most
other men of eminence lie like the devil”</i> William Hunter,
anatomist</b></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<i><b>" [Medicine] is an art founded on conjecture and improved
by murder" </b></i>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" style="break-before: auto; font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; page-break-before: auto;">
<b>Sir Anthony Carlisle</b></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<i><b>"Oh! This is not the place where we bottle the children,
that's at master's workshop"</b></i></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<b>Reply to Lady Cork by a servant of Sir Anthony Carlisle</b></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<i><b>"past deeds must be brought to light for the benefit of
present and future generations"</b></i></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<b>Thomas Wakley, The Lancet, 27 April 1839 </b>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<i><b>"Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to
repeat it."</b></i></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<b>George Santayana, 1905</b></div>
<div style="break-before: auto; margin-bottom: 0cm; page-break-before: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
“<i><b>the longer you look back, the further you can look forward”</b></i></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<b>Winston Churchill, 1944</b></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 0.82cm;">
<b>eBook edition E2g - 2012 </b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">-
This edition is intended to be read as an eBook using computer word searching to locate key words or phrases. Thus, in this eBook version, there is no index, nor
bibliography. [Note in April. 2015 - the process of transferring the eBook onto this website has been tortuous due to font and other typographical complications. In this version many illustrations still need to be added, and there there is more tidying up of publication titles needed, e.g. to standardise the use of italics.] </span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">
</span></span>
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="LEFT" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<b>Portions of the ebook have been published as academic papers and
letters</b></div>
<div align="LEFT" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<i><span style="font-weight: normal;">1 -</span></i><i><b> Carlisle
and Mrs Carver</b></i><i><span style="font-weight: normal;"> –
Romantic Textualities Winter 2009<br />2 -</span></i><i><b> The
Emperor's New Clothes</b></i><i><span style="font-weight: normal;"> -
J R Soc Med 2010;</span></i><b><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">103</span></i></b><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">:46-50
</span></i>
</div>
<div align="LEFT" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><i>3 - <b>Response to Roberts et al,</b> -
http://www.jrsm.rsmjournals.com/cgi/eletters/103/5/205</i></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.06cm;">
<i><span style="font-weight: normal;">4 - </span></i><i><b>The
Internet and 'New' Historians</b></i><i> – </i><i>Soc Hist Med
2011; doi: 10.1093/shm/hkr165</i>
</div>
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5 –<i> </i><i><b>Don't Forget Those Who Were Murdered to Order</b></i><i>
- BMJ 2012: 344:e552</i></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.06cm;">
<i>6 – </i><i><b>Man-midwifery history: 1730-1930</b></i><i> –
Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, November 2012:718-723
doi:10.3109/01443615.2012.721031</i></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.06cm;">
<b>Publisher - Portmin Press - Email - donshelton@actrix.co.nz </b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">If
a recognised publisher is interested in a producing pBook version of
this book, they are invited to make contact by email. </span></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.06cm;">
<br />
<b>Website - www.therealmrfrankenstein.blogspot.com <br /></b><p><span style="font-size: large;"><b>NB The version here has few images, but <i>The Real Mr Frankenstein</i> is also available as a PDF at Researchgate;</b></span><br /></p><div class="tF2Cxc"><div class="yuRUbf"><a data-ctbtn="2" data-cthref="/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiJ3IHs7bv0AhUESGwGHZwmDK0QFnoECAQQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F338621859_The_Real_Mr_Frankenstein_-_Sir_Anthony_Carlisle_Medical_Murders_and_the_Social_Genesis_of_Frankenstein&usg=AOvVaw03BTTyLSB8nCViembmr6Wd" data-ved="2ahUKEwiJ3IHs7bv0AhUESGwGHZwmDK0QFnoECAQQAQ" href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiJ3IHs7bv0AhUESGwGHZwmDK0QFnoECAQQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F338621859_The_Real_Mr_Frankenstein_-_Sir_Anthony_Carlisle_Medical_Murders_and_the_Social_Genesis_of_Frankenstein&usg=AOvVaw03BTTyLSB8nCViembmr6Wd"><h3 class="LC20lb MBeuO DKV0Md">The Real Mr Frankenstein - Sir Anthony Carlisle, Medical ...</h3><div class="TbwUpd NJjxre"><cite class="iUh30 qLRx3b tjvcx" role="text">https://www.researchgate.net<span class="dyjrff qzEoUe" role="text"> › publication › 338621859_...</span></cite></div></a><div class="B6fmyf"><div class="TbwUpd"><cite class="iUh30 qLRx3b tjvcx" role="text"><span class="dyjrff qzEoUe" role="text"></span></cite></div><div class="csDOgf"><div><div data-acc="n" data-enjspb="true" data-ved="2ahUKEwiJ3IHs7bv0AhUESGwGHZwmDK0Q2esEegQIBBAE"><div><div><div><div aria-expanded="false" aria-haspopup="true" aria-label="About this Result" class="iTPLzd GUHazd lUn2nc eY4mx" role="button" style="padding-bottom: 20px; padding-right: 5px; position: absolute;" tabindex="0"><span class="D6lY4c"><span class="xTFaxe IjabWd z1asCe SaPW2b" style="height: 18px; line-height: 18px; width: 18px;"><svg viewbox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><br /></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div>
</div>
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<br />
<b>Copyright - Don Shelton 2015 <span style="font-size: x-small;">-
© - </span></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">The
moral right of the author has been asserted. </span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">All
rights reserved. This eBook is for the personal use of the
individual purchaser. Without limiting the rights under copyright
reserved above, no part of this eBook may be reproduced, stored, or
introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of both the copyright
holder and publisher of this eBook.</span></span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: medium;"><b>Dedication</b></span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<i>This volume is respectfully dedicated</i></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<i>to the unknown mothers and babies, depicted</i></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<i>in the anatomical atlases of William Smellie and William Hunter,</i></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<i>who are remembered by no other memorial. </i>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<i>Also to the unnumbered mothers and babies killed or maimed </i>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<i>prior to the obstetrics profession coming of age. </i>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<i>And to Sir Anthony Carlisle who tried to limit those deaths.</i></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: medium;"><b>Acknowledgements </b></span>
</div>
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<br /></div>
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A number of people have been exceedingly helpful in bringing the
content to this stage, their help and input has been greatly
appreciated. Several medical history and English literature scholars
have been particularly helpful. A number of authors have written
excellent books on various subjects related to this biography and,
while this largely covers new ground, their earlier research effort
is appreciated. Nothing in the volume should be regarded as a
criticism of 21C medical professionals, who are very much better
trained than those of the 18C and 19C, and thanks are due to those
who have been kindly supportive in analysing the conclusions arising
from the research. However, such academic kindness has not been
universal, with the author, to his surprise, quickly learning the
wisdom of another quote by William Hunter.
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“<i>Of all men, teachers of every kind, bear [new opinion] with the
least patience. For that reason we see in fact, that the seniors of
schools, colleges and universities, have generally been the most
obstinate in shutting out light, and claiming a birth-right for
opinion, as for property. A little reflexion into human nature, will
shew, that vanity is the principal force of this absurdity”</i></div>
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<span style="font-size: medium;"><b>Sources, Illustrations, and Further Research</b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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With over 300,000 words and 1600 sources, this ebook version is more
comprehensive and detailed than is practical for a normal pbook.
There have been suggestions it should be split into two ebooks. While
that may well have merit, a complication in considering that option
is that many different threads of 18C and 19C history have emerged
and been found intertwined as influences on one another. Some links,
previously unsuspected by historians, have become apparent due to
this broad approach, which itself does more truly recognise the
complicated social and medical interactions of the 18C. Some of
conclusions require a higher burden of proof and it was felt
important to provide relevant contemporary sources, so readers can
follow the threads of logic. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Efforts have been made to obtain approval to use illustrations, where
necessary and possible. Most illustrations are out of copyright, but
any copyright holders missed should make contact, so that approval
can be sought for future editions. Corrections and/or comments on
Carlisle and his work are also welcome, especially from anyone
knowing the whereabouts of any of his personal papers. Research is
ongoing. As it stands an ebook format suits this, with revisions
being made as more evidence is located.
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-9984278376417071272021-11-26T10:21:00.009-08:002021-11-29T17:02:07.070-08:00Modernist Support for my original 2009 paper in JRSM<p><span style="font-size: medium;"><b> Please note that<i> The Real Mr Frankenstein</i> is also available as a PDF at Researchgate;</b></span></p><div class="tF2Cxc"><div class="yuRUbf"><a data-ctbtn="2" data-cthref="/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiJ3IHs7bv0AhUESGwGHZwmDK0QFnoECAQQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F338621859_The_Real_Mr_Frankenstein_-_Sir_Anthony_Carlisle_Medical_Murders_and_the_Social_Genesis_of_Frankenstein&usg=AOvVaw03BTTyLSB8nCViembmr6Wd" data-ved="2ahUKEwiJ3IHs7bv0AhUESGwGHZwmDK0QFnoECAQQAQ" href="https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiJ3IHs7bv0AhUESGwGHZwmDK0QFnoECAQQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F338621859_The_Real_Mr_Frankenstein_-_Sir_Anthony_Carlisle_Medical_Murders_and_the_Social_Genesis_of_Frankenstein&usg=AOvVaw03BTTyLSB8nCViembmr6Wd"><br /><h3 class="LC20lb MBeuO DKV0Md">The Real Mr Frankenstein - Sir Anthony Carlisle, Medical ...</h3><div class="TbwUpd NJjxre"><cite class="iUh30 qLRx3b tjvcx" role="text">https://www.researchgate.net<span class="dyjrff qzEoUe" role="text"> › publication › 338621859_...</span></cite></div></a><div class="B6fmyf"><div class="TbwUpd"><cite class="iUh30 qLRx3b tjvcx" role="text"><span class="dyjrff qzEoUe" role="text"></span></cite></div><div class="csDOgf"><div><div data-acc="n" data-enjspb="true" data-ved="2ahUKEwiJ3IHs7bv0AhUESGwGHZwmDK0Q2esEegQIBBAE"><div><div><div><div aria-expanded="false" aria-haspopup="true" aria-label="About this Result" class="iTPLzd GUHazd lUn2nc eY4mx" role="button" style="padding-bottom: 20px; padding-right: 5px; position: absolute;" tabindex="0"><span class="D6lY4c"><span class="xTFaxe IjabWd z1asCe SaPW2b" style="height: 18px; line-height: 18px; width: 18px;"><svg viewbox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"></svg></span></span></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><span><i>The Real Mr Frankenstein</i> - Sir Anthony Carlisle, Medical Murders, and the Social Genesis of Frankenstein. January 2020. Publisher: Publisher </span><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><b> </b></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><b>An Introductory, Background, and History note of November 2021.</b></span> </p><p><i>The Real Mr Frankenstein</i> was fully available for public access from December 2015 to January 2019, and during that time had 29,500 page views. Access was then restricted from January 2019, as I was writing several academic papers, which were based upon the material in the book. Two of those papers have since been published by ATINER, and they are available via ATINER and also via Researchgate.net Hence it was decided to re-open the website in November 2021 for public access.<br /></p><p>Several "Modernist" comments as below, which were received in 2010, were very much appreciated by me at the time, and they did encourage me to research and write <i>The Real Mr Frankenstein,</i> and various other papers listed against my name at Researchgate, all written over the period 2010-2021. My more recent research is directed towards the Scottish author, Tobias Smollett. This is a major project, much larger than the detailed efforts behind the Sir Anthony Carlisle project discussed below, and it can be followed at www.tobiassmollett.blogspot.com </p><p>For example, the detailed research into Smollett has revealed that the previous "Conventional Wisdom", which claimed Smollett arrived in London in late 1739, and published nothing before 1746, was utterly false and misleading. Instead, Smollett had a vast amount of material published from c.1730, and then throughout his early career, at least up to 1750, but he was writing and publishing, anonymously and/or pseudonymously, Those works are gradually being identified and attributed to him, as part of the Smollett Project.<br /></p><p><span style="font-weight: bold;">Modernist Support in 2010</span><br />
For the record, and as examples, the following are extracts from emails of support. With the first from a highly respected and published scholar in the field of obstetrics, the second from a highly respected professor who has written a number of books on medical history, and the third from a respected and retired FRSM.</p><p><br />
I - <span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Dear Don,</span><br />
<span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"> For various reasons I had decided not to go back into the world of 18th and early 19th century medicine and obstetrics, but have done so because you have produced such important ideas and historical evidence from your research.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"> The central idea you have written so well, is the part played by and the understanding of the word 'murder' in the context of what we would now speak of as obstetrics.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"> In late 17th century France it was said to be common to carry out a Caesarean section if that was the only way to produce a live baby which could be - must be - baptised to avoid life in hell. Such an idea was said to be rare in England. Here the accusations of murder seem to be having taken part in a surgical delivery of which there were many because of rickets and poverty. In England this was not really murder, but an attempt to save the mother's life by forceps delivery. Often this involved the dissection of the baby so that the mother could survive - and it would be doubtful to accuse the physician of murder when that physician had dismembered the baby.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"> Some, such as Carlisle, were so anti- in the mere idea of a physician being involved in childbirth, would, if the mother happened to die, likely accuse the physician of murder.</span><br />
<span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"><br />
The section on Hogarth and the identification of William Hunter is fascinating, in fact all the work you have done has thrown a new light on physicians and obstetricians, and action taken by some physicians to shout 'murder' when a maternal death.</span><br />
<span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"><br />
These are only very disconnected thoughts, badly put together, but really my aim is simply to congratulate you for the work you have done.</span><br />
<span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"> With best wishes,</span><br />
<br />
II - <span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Congratulations on your splendidly reasoned article in this month’s RSM</span>.<br />
<br />
III -<span style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"> The Dr MacKenzie/Dr Smellie specific falling-out with criminal imputation was also acknowledged back in the 1960's at my medical school and there may well have been substance to that allegation</span>.<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
... I am little surprised that you have amassed evidence that the inquisitive butchery to explore beyond the techniques of Leonardo Da Vinci did occur. ... So what you have gleaned, particularly with the Art archives of Cruelty, may well be very true. ... And I wonder if there were law enforcers at the time of Smellie and Hunter and Co. who were able to deter the practice of 'burking' and what their tactics may have been. ... I find no real qualms with your assertions....they fit a general pattern of acquisitiveness that we all have to some degree. ...</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Disgust at your article is the likely result you will get, scorn maybe even derision, fear that what you suggest is true of humans, but from me the deeper wonder what should stay the hands of these inquisitive primates and so cloak such activities, brand the practices as generally unacceptable and look for other avenues to explore.</span><br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Thank you for your reply to me with all the evidence that you have amassed and sadly I think you are probably correct in your deductions but would extol you to ponder the factors that mitigate those crimes so that your analytic talent can enlighten our species a little bit more.'</span><br />
</span><br />
It was gratifying, and much appreciated, to receive those considered responses. They even correctly predicted the<span style="font-style: italic;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"> 'scorn, maybe even derision'</span></span> I then received from traditionalists! </p><p>The various attacks made by traditionalist historians and obstetricians were rebutted by me in published papers, including in the respected <i>Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology</i>. There now seems to prevail a sullen and embarrassed silence, from those historians and obstetricians who had made the attacks. </p><p>However, in late 2021 there are signs across the Internet, of the truth of the Carlisle and associated research discussed, becoming recognised and accepted by other researchers; thus, effectively spreading across the Internet as "green shoots". That research may take a further decade before it is fully accepted by academia, but "the longest journey starts with a single step", and so a subsequent arrival from any such long journey is always satisfying. - Therefore, Good Luck with your own research efforts!<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;"><br />
</span></p>Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-84799276819286082042015-04-13T16:23:00.002-07:002015-04-21T02:19:58.006-07:00 Introduction ©<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.98cm; margin-right: 1.08cm;">
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<i>[Note in 2015. The research below about Sir Anthony Carlisle was complied in 2007-12. It has been tabled here for public view as some sections overlap with my ongoing, and even larger, research project at <a href="http://www.google.co.nz/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CB8QFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Ftobiassmollett.blogspot.com%2F&ei=ohM2VbHTHIilmQXS2oGwBg&usg=AFQjCNEc5JxC-dIAOjxMkLN63EfXYxtHKg&bvm=bv.91071109,d.dGY">The Lost Works of Tobias Smollett and the War of the Satirists</a> as another case of fascinating literary archaeology where visitors with an interest in English Literature and satire of the mid 18C are welcome to contact me.]</i> <br />
<br />
Note in 2012. The research here might be described as a case of "literary archaeology" which explores the social, medical, and scientific
events shaping the life of the surgeon, Sir Anthony Carlisle FRS,
PRCS, (1768-1840) who, by the end, is shown as inspiration for Mary
Shelley's hero, Victor Frankenstein in her novel <i>Frankenstein</i>. Carlisle was twice President of
the Royal College of Surgeons, for sixteen years Professor of Anatomy
at the Royal Academy, and Surgeon Extraordinary to King George IV.
But these dry facts are only a springboard into an amazing life
revealing new facets of literary, art, and medical history.<br />
<br />
The biography
introduces Carlisle and his family influences in revealing his
authorship of the 1797 Gothic novel, <i>The Horrors of Oakendale
Abbey, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">and his influence on </span><i>The
Adventures of Hugh Trevor</i><span style="font-style: normal;"> by
Thomas Holcroft, also dating from 1797.</span> As with Mary Shelley's <i>Frankenstein</i>,
the underlying plots of both <i>Oakendale Abbey</i> and <i>Hugh Trevor</i> focus on
an anatomist dissecting bodies supplied by resurrection men,
an indication of <span style="font-style: normal;"><i>Frankenstein</i>'s </span>social
genesis.<br />
<br />
But why describe Carlisle as the real <u><b>Mr</b></u> Frankenstein? Because this research effort prefers accuracy, whereas both "conventional academic wisdom" and common usage rely on regurgitation of lazy research. In <i>Frankenstein</i> Mary Shelley only uses the term doctor to describe physician, Dr Erasmus Darwin, one of the class of medical men belonging to the Royal College of Physicians, who prescribed medical treatment but never drew blood. Mary knew from Anthony Carlisle as a close family friend that the courtesy term (then and now), for surgeon anatomists belonging to the Royal College of Surgeons was Mr, as in Mr Carlisle. As Victor Frankenstein was a surgeon anatomist, not a physician, Mary evidences her reliance on informed assistance from Carlisle by never referring to Victor as a doctor.</div>
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Further errors in "conventional academic wisdom" were discovered in analysing the famous series of prints, the <i>Four Stages of Cruelty</i> by William Hogarth. All academic opinion claims the series is about animal cruelty. However, as demonstrated by this research, Hogarth concealed within a simple <i>Sermon</i> for the uneducated about animal cruelty, his main message. His prime intent was a previously unrecognised cryptic <i>Satire</i> for his educated peers, seeking to halt cruel experiments and murder of pregnant women by the most prominent man-midwives of the age.<br />
<br />
The research process, including the
investigatory techniques of statistical and iconographic
analysis has thereby uncovered yet further errors in "conventional academic wisdom"; to arrive at a new understanding
of the history of obstetrics. Despite
the extensive literature on the history of midwifery,
man-midwifery, obstetrics, and anatomy over the last 250 years, there has never been a previous forensic analysis of the status and legitimacy of
the abundant undelivered pregnant subjects depicted in the anatomical atlases
of William Smellie and William Hunter. <br />
<br />
In focussing on the
procurement of these bodies for dissection, it became sadly clear
these vulnerable pregnant subjects were targeted and murdered by Smellie and Hunter. With
their total of over 60 documented murders, and hundreds more undocumented murders orchestrated by anatomists, William Hunter and John Hunter, thereby far exceeding the combined total of murders committed by the infamous Burke and Hare, and Jack
the Ripper. To use a modern term, the research has solved a major "cold case" of serial murder from more than 250 years ago and provided new insights into 18C history. The research here demonstrates a need for modern historians to go back to original sources, including study of contemporary
illustrations as an investigative tool, and to seek
out the motives underlying contemporary reports, rather than lazily
regurgitating past histories as if proven facts.<br />
<br />
[In 2015, subsequent and ongoing research into the early career of novelist Tobias Smollett (1721-71), as is gradually being posted at <a href="http://www.google.co.nz/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CB4QFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Ftobiassmollett.blogspot.com%2F&ei=hpEtVdCwLoTCmwW_lYDYAQ&usg=AFQjCNEc5JxC-dIAOjxMkLN63EfXYxtHKg&sig2=NQmschdWKXx-NaYC6rWUDw&bvm=bv.90790515,d.dGc">The Lost Works of Tobias Smollett and the War of the Satirists</a> is progressively reporting on the uncovering of still more major errors in "conventional academic wisdom". The errors call into question previous academic commentaries on Tobias Smollett, Alexander Pope, Henry Fielding, and Colley Cibber, as well as bringing the total of previously unrecognised Hogarth <i>Satires</i> to fifteen: <i>The Enraged Musician</i>, <i>Marriage A-la-Mode</i> (6), <i>The Gate of Calais</i>,<i> Gin Lane</i>, <i>Beer Street</i>, <i>Four Stages of Cruelty</i> (4), and <i>Paul Before Felix Burlesqued</i>.]</div>
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<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;">But, the background to all this. As
a collector of miniature portraits for twenty years, the history of
the sitter in a portrait is often absorbing, frequently more so than
the artist, with research uncovering people and stories forgotten by
history. This investigative biography and literary adventure, is that
of a sitter in a miniature portrait 'find' on the Internet auction
site eBay purchased for £650. An enamel portrait of Carlisle by the
famous painter, Henry Bone RA. Researching a portrait is an
adventure, in effect stepping behind the frame and viewing history
from the reverse, sometimes achieving a different perspective of
accepted history. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;">At the time of purchase Bone, as the artist, was
the focus, with nothing known of Carlisle. Subsequently, Carlisle has
shouldered Bone aside, to reveal himself as an outstanding man of the
19C in literature, medicine, and science. Researching
Carlisle has been like an archaeology dig, starting in a large and
apparently empty green field, with only a few 'lumps and bumps'
apparent. No previous biography, no voluminous piles of personal
papers, letters, diaries, and essays. Granted his scientific papers
exist but, apart from them, little else was obvious. The approach was
of necessity, a search for late 18C and early 19C fragments, seeking
foundations and other remains, and building them into a cohesive and
compelling framework. </span></div>
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A major puzzle was why Carlisle opposed man-midwifery. Solving that puzzle required an
assessment of his early career, the history of anatomy, and of the resurrection men.
Apart from uncovering details of the life and work of Carlisle, the
underlying theme of the book is bodily resurrection under various
definitions.<br />
<br />
Bodily resurrection was an important religious belief of
the ancient Egyptians, which flowed into Western religions as a
rising to Heaven of the Saved on Judgement Day. The term
resurrection, or resurrection men, was then used to describe the
body-snatching activities of the 18C to provide human subjects for
dissection by anatomists. Bodily resurrection was the initial intent
of the Caesarean operation, to save the life of the unborn child, if
the mother's death had just occurred, or was imminent. Bodily
resurrection was also the aim behind research into saving the life of
those apparently drowned, asphyxiated, or overcome by poisonous
fumes. Experimentation into bodily resurrection led to attempts to
save the lives of executed felons, as with Rev William Dodd, using
those techniques.<br />
<br />
The discovery of electricity was seen to herald
another means of achieving bodily resurrection, through experiments
which passed powerful electric charges through executed cadavers.
Carlisle experimented towards yet another form of bodily
resurrection. He believed the life force was contained within blood
and sought to reverse the coagulation of blood, which could be pumped
into a cadaver with the expectation of reviving life. All these
various attempts at bodily resurrection flow into 19C fiction, as the
social genesis of the bodily resurrection featured in Mary Shelley's
famous novel <i>Frankenstein</i> with
that novel's origin linking back to a deserted mansion in Llanstinan, Pembrokeshire, Wales.</div>
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Carlisle's research into bodily resurrection is revealed in the
carefully chosen iconography for his 1824 portrait. Although
untitled, it is clear it depicts Carlisle's anticipated, but
ultimately premature, belief he would achieve lasting fame, in
depicting <i>The Discovery of Muscular Motion</i>. The
skull is a symbol of anatomy and surgery, but more importantly
implies the knowledge of the ancient philosophers who are looking
towards Carlisle for inspiration. His hand on the top of the skull
indicates his research has turned the heads of the ancient natural
philosophers towards his work. They recognise Carlisle's leadership
and look towards him in admiration of his discoveries. <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyfQeRCdM-ogA4ZgKgt0nj2YfDBOGkYYf-aefKGs84KQOYBdBuNXdBGfv9QtqS_hYa6J-6aAbc59EDhZ1d6GuMYxTKvcZ5bhVmNbtUbvBLgzK4dHD99IQlN4mwtxS0JsuQxa3f8WKGkxQ/s1600/TheRealMr+Frankenstein_frontcover.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyfQeRCdM-ogA4ZgKgt0nj2YfDBOGkYYf-aefKGs84KQOYBdBuNXdBGfv9QtqS_hYa6J-6aAbc59EDhZ1d6GuMYxTKvcZ5bhVmNbtUbvBLgzK4dHD99IQlN4mwtxS0JsuQxa3f8WKGkxQ/s1600/TheRealMr+Frankenstein_frontcover.jpg" height="640" width="496" /></a></div>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
On
the left is a fabric tablecloth, the colour of dried blood, which
taken with the knowledge of Vesalius, the ancients, and Carlisle,
together with his experiments, converts the [human] 'fabric' from
dried blood, using his knowledge, into the fresh red blood colour of
the curtain fabric on the right. Being bright red and partially
opened, the curtain shows Carlisle as revealing the way to the
mysteries of life. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The
figure at the rear is a cadaver, beckoning to the door to the future,
opened by Carlisle. The cadaver holds a shroud in its left hand to
signify it is in the process of rising from the dead, the result of
Carlisle's solving the mystery of Muscular Motion. Its raised right
arm and leg muscles clearly delineated also show Carlisle's role as
Professor of Anatomy at the RA. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The choice of two inkwells, rather
than the normal single one for an author, acknowledges he wrote as an
author under two names, Anthony Carlisle and Mrs Carver. The painting
dates from 1824 and at that date it appears Carlisle was ready to be
recognised as inspiration for Victor
Frankenstein, the figure in the rear even matching Mary
Shelley's Creature. However, major social and political controversies between 1826 and
1830 caused Carlisle to shy away from that link. Instead, the
evidence shows good reasons to believe Carlisle encouraged Mary
Shelley to revise <i>Frankenstein</i> in 1831, by muting key references
pointing clearly towards Carlisle, as by 1830 both he and Mary feared the major risks associated with any public
identification of him as Victor Frankenstein.
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The surrounding historical circumstances of the 18C and 19C,
represent the Social Genesis of <i>Frankenstein</i>. Conventional wisdom, as expanded upon in countless academic works, accepts the origin of <i>Frankenstein</i> as a dream that
came to Mary Shelley in 1816, while she was in Switzerland
with Percy Shelley and Lord Byron, and as the result of a challenge
to write a ghost story.<br />
<br />
There can never be any proof for a dream as the source of Mary Shelley's creative process. However, there is
a great deal of evidence leading to the adoption of a contrary view. To instead regard the dream account as a deliberate myth coined by Mary, to mask and protect Sir Anthony Carlisle as the source of her inspiration, at a time she feared the real risk of widespread social unrest and rioting in England. The accumulated evidence shows her knowledge came from social and political conditions, people she knew, media comment,
other literature, and exposure to the philosophical and scientific
discussions latent in her mind. These were all assembled into <i>Frankenstein</i>.<br />
<br />
This book explores those prevailing conditions, revealing a wide and
complex web of anatomical research into revival of the apparently
dead. In exploring her creative process, evidence of prior exposure to
thoughts and ideas does not detract from Mary Shelley's novel,
instead it helps to explain it. Even William Shakespeare took earlier
stories and moulded them into great literature. Identifying those
earlier sources helps to show the skill of Shakespeare. While not as
great an author as Shakespeare, Mary is almost as well known, and her
creative thoughts and influences as interesting.<br />
<br />
That she wrote but
one famous novel, suggests something extra in the inspiration for
<i>Frankenstein</i>, that spark was Carlisle who, during their overlapping lives, was
far more famous than Mary. Throughout
the research there was a feeling of following in Carlisle's footsteps
and frequently, as matters and facts emerged in a random order, there
was a sense of 'Ah ha! - that explains why his footsteps lead in that
direction!' A late 'Eureka' being proof of his mistress, Mary
Eccles, and the sudden realisation of her influence on his public
footsteps.</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-44270789648392123962015-04-13T15:41:00.001-07:002021-11-26T09:24:29.206-08:001 - The Acorn - Carlisle and Lord Carlyle ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A miniature portrait of Sir Anthony Carlisle by Henry
Bone purchased on eBay was the spark for this investigative
biography. Those who have bid at any kind of auction will be aware of
the emotions that emerge as the final hammer fall approaches. This
was no exception and this exceptional find has sprouted like an
acorn, resulting in a roller-coaster of discoveries, representing an
opportunity to initiate significant revisions to medical and literary
history; as Carlisle's life and times became a tree. The door has
opened to reveal one of the most remarkable, but forgotten, men of
the 19C. With the facts emerging as fragments, the only practical way
to convey the emerging investigation was to group the different, but
overlapping, themes.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>Anthony Who?</b></div>
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It is hard to give a brief flavour of Carlisle, an intelligent, complex
man, with a multitude of interests, almost with the madness of
genius. Outspoken and unpopular on some subjects, but erudite and
persuasive on others. Unknown to this author at the time of
commencing this research, his Wikipedia entry was only;<span style="font-style: normal;">
</span>
</div>
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<br />
Sir Anthony Carlisle FRCS, FRS (Stillington, England 15 February
1768 - London, 2 November 1840) was an English surgeon. In 1800 he
and William Nicholson discovered electrolysis by passing a voltaic
current through water, decomposing it into its constituent elements
of hydrogen and oxygen. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society
in 1804.
</div>
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<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">One
can see</span> he had passed from history, almost without trace. But
he deserves more than that. He was a remarkable man, and the author
behind a 200 year old literary mystery. There
are few dedicated references to Carlisle and no personal papers, so
this search has involved fossicking for nuggets, seeking out
fragmented and isolated references to him across contemporary
sources. Flashing
a torch into dark corners of history to reveal fascinating and
controversial, insights and events. As if Carlisle has waited
patiently at the court of history, to be called as a forgotten
witness of the 18C and 19C. But, in his time, Carlisle
was even mentioned in the same breath as da Vinci by the famous
Scottish anatomist, Alexander Monro III;</div>
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<br />
On the construction of the skeleton much has been added of my own, and
also from the Lectures of Sir E Home and of Cuvier; and on the
proportions of its several component parts from Leonardo da Vinci,
Soemmering, and Sir Anthony Carlyle [sic].<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
</div>
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<span style="font-weight: normal;">The
absence of a Carlisle biography was pointed out o</span>n 12 March
1942, when George H Smith read a paper to the Beaumont Medical Club
of Connecticut.<sup> </sup>He detailed conversations between Joseph
Farington RA and Carlisle, recorded in the seventeen volumes of
Farington's Diary. In the opening comments to his paper, Smith
expressed the view;
</div>
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<br />
Anthony Carlisle, who, I think, has been somewhat neglected by
medical biographers, for Carlisle was one of the most versatile
persons, in an era when versatility was respected. Not only did
Carlisle become recognised as a competent surgeon, comparative
anatomist, and teacher, but he was also a collector, a lover of
black-books, an artist (he was recommended to the RA by no less a
sponsor than Joshua Reynolds), a sporting gentleman, and a critic.<sup><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a></sup><sup>
</sup>
</div>
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It is
seventy years since George Smith's implied challenge for a biography
of Carlisle, and time to accept the challenge. As Smith inferred,
Carlisle had been largely forgotten, even though the
painter William Bewick (1795-1866) recalled in <i>"Life and
Letters of William Bewick";</i></div>
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<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">There were times when the anatomy
lectures at the RA drew such crowds that people fought to get in, and
officers from Bow Street had to be stationed at the door to keep out
the disorderly element. Those were the addresses of Carlisle, when he
was Professor of Anatomy at the RA, and it was commented at the time
that the crowds were drawn to Somerset House not only by the merits
of the lecturer, but by his extraneous distractions.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
</span>
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At one of these
lectures, the author, William Hazlitt had a struggle to keep from
fainting when Carlisle passed round platters containing a human head
and a human heart; while discussing and comparing art from the head,
and art from the heart.</div>
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So why has he been forgotten? That becomes part of this tale. We will
see t<span style="font-weight: normal;">he
story of Carlisle is overdue for telling; a man who apart from being
a noted surgeon, was a talented scientist, a social activist, and
Professor of Anatomy at the Royal Academy (RA). From humble origins
he became surgeon to King George IV. We discover Carlisle was the
author of Gothic novels published anonymously in the 18C, he was
involved in early research leading to the discovery of photography,
sonar, and electrolysis, in studying evolution he used the phrase
'selecting the fit' in 1838, twenty years before Darwin's </span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">“Origin
of the Species”</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">, he
undertook several notable autopsies, he attempted to fly a glider, he
was a champion of midwives' rights, and influenced the writing of
Robert Southey and Thomas Holcroft. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;">Early faint trails led to Mary
Shelley's <i>Frankenstein</i> and following them has widened that trail to
uncover a solid path of contemporary evidence showing Carlisle as her
inspiration for Victor Frankenstein. Popular conception is that Mary
devised the whole story in 1816. But the genesis of the novel is far more
complicated than that. Events and literature of the 18C connected to
Carlisle are the literary and social genesis of <i>Frankenstein</i>.
However, the scene needs to be set by understanding his character and
conveying his family history. </span>
</div>
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<br /></div>
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A life long fisherman, Carlisle was both noted for his ability to make
friends and his bluntness, conveying how fishing enabled him to
achieve this in a letter he wrote in 1817; </div>
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<br />
You write of waiting
the suitable moment for speaking to the Duchess, I have found life
too short and uncertain to wait in any case. Men are like trouts, if
they do not rise at the first throw of your fly the chances are
against your taking such fish at all. The tediousness of diplomacy is
ill suited to my impatient temperament and yet I am a good angler.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
</div>
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<br />
However, his angling was not always successful. On one occasion he had been
trolling a line and was sitting quietly in a snug parlour at an inn,
taking lunch when he thought he heard a noise like the click of his
winch. He went out to resume his sport and found his rod, which he
had leant upright against the house recumbent, and the winch going
away at a fine pace. He wondered how big the fish was and followed
along the track of his line, but when he came near the hook found his
prize to be a great tom cat, which had attempted to steal his bait.
It is possible this inn was The Compleat Angler at Marlow, the same
village where Mary Shelley lived in 1817 while writing Frankenstein. </div>
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<br /></div>
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A public figure, Carlisle was prepared to champion causes he believed
in, as in his attempt to protect the role of the midwife against the
dangers he saw in the trend to men-midwifery. Carlisle expressed his
view as; 'The birth of a child is a natural process, and not a surgical
operation'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a> Carlisle
was sadly familiar with child-bed deaths of women. Both he and his
wife had lost their mothers when tiny babies, and Carlisle was in
attendance at the deathbed of his friend Mary Wollstonecraft, who
died only days after the birth of Mary Shelley. His close friend
Basil Montagu lost two wives in childbirth and, as an anatomist,
Carlisle saw post mortem evidence of man-midwifery malpractice. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Carlisle had a wide circle of literary friends including; Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, William Godwin, William Hazlitt, Thomas Holcroft, Charles
Lamb, William Nicholson, Robert Southey, and Mary Wollstonecraft,
also Mary Shelley. In <i>"Reminiscences"</i>, Thomas Carlyle
(1795-1881) commented;
</div>
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<br />
There was a Dr Sir Anthony Carlile [sic], of name in Medicine, native
of Durham, and a hardheaded fellow, but Utilitarian to the bone, who
had defined Poetry (to Irving once) as the 'prodooction of a rude
Aage!' We were clansmen, he and I; but had nothing of mutual
attraction, nor of repulsion, for the man didn't want for shrewd
sense in his way.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a>
</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglCkj-jjqFATJFMc67ZuUWpd1FMB7Vy-QcN01Nzs3U_D-GOGNaVng9YhB3DzjwZiElfN6iSKxniSYZhbCPYF-d9-h4ODDa5hnorb2ZC9sbLCCO8qs5EDfkDCLTNbxPPQkKccXJpiMAzQI/s1600/Carlisle+portrait.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglCkj-jjqFATJFMc67ZuUWpd1FMB7Vy-QcN01Nzs3U_D-GOGNaVng9YhB3DzjwZiElfN6iSKxniSYZhbCPYF-d9-h4ODDa5hnorb2ZC9sbLCCO8qs5EDfkDCLTNbxPPQkKccXJpiMAzQI/s400/Carlisle+portrait.jpg" width="313" /></a></div>
Their
meeting seems to have taken place around the mid 1830's, when
Carlisle was approaching seventy and still mentally capable in
Carlyle's eyes. From the pointed spelling in Carlyle's quote;
<span style="font-style: normal;">'prodooction of a rude Aage!',
Carlisle retained his Durham accent throughout his life. The
actor and theatre manger Robert William Elliston (1774-1831), who was
compared by Leigh Hunt to David Garrick, reminisced; 'O! it was a
rich scene - but Sir Antony [sic] Carlisle, the best of story tellers
and surgeons, who mends a lame narrative almost as well as he sets a
fracture, alone could do justice to it - that I was witness to in the
tarnished room (that had once been green) of that same little
Olympic'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
Carlisle was </span>noted for his use of language, it being noted in
1827
</div>
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<br />
Sir Anthony Carlisle
who has often filled the anatomical chair at the RA, is no less
abstruse and instructive than pleasant and amusing. His illustrative
anecdotes are always excellent, and his way of telling them quite
dramatic. We have found him even more agreeable as a private talker
than as a lecturer; he is rich in the old lore of England, - he will
hunt a phrase through several reigns, - propose derivations for words
which are equally ingenious and learned, - follow a proverb for
generations back, and discuss on the origin of language as though he
had never studied aught beside: he knows more than any other person
we ever met with of the biography of talented individuals, - in the
philosophy of common life he is quite an adept, - a capital
chronologist - a man of fine mind and most excellent memory: his
experience has, of course, been very great, and he has taken good
advantage of it.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
</div>
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<br />
He was
fascinated by puns and word plays; '</div>
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<br />
His illustrative anecdotes were always good, and his manner of
telling them excellent. We recollect on one occasion passing through
a great thoroughfare, witnessing a man setting a saw, the operation
of which appeared to annoy him, for he exclaimed in his peculiar
manner, that he supposed the fellow was a member of the
Phil(File)harmonic Society.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a>
</div>
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<br /></div>
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In Carlisle's novel <i>“The Legacy”</i> he names a main character Lord Mackwarling, a
portmanteau wordplay based upon the names of several food fish of the
northern coasts, a 'mackerel', a 'ling', and a 'herring'. Another
example of Carlisle's 'fishy' humour occurred in 1836. A butcher's
boy and a fishmonger's boy met in the street. Said the former. 'How
do you do Cod's head and shoulders?' “How are you, Mutton chops?'
said the latter. Charles Montagu said that Carlisle, who was present,
tossed the fishmonger's boy half a crown for his clever retort. </div>
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<br /></div>
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To some Carlisle demonstrated the eccentricity of genius, a characteristic not
uncommon in men of high intellect. He was self-conscious of, and
insecure in his modest social parentage, in mixing with the wealthy
and higher social classes. Helping to explain his friendship with
intellectuals among the more literary, scientific, and artistic
classes. Although long, the following description of Carlisle by Sir
Martin Archer Shee is insightful and reveals Carlisle suffered from
symptoms of Asperger's Syndrome; a condition not unrelated to autism,
and not medically described until 1944. </div>
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<br />
At the period to which this narrative now refers, he was an enthusiastic student of
the noble science to which he was about to devote himself, and a
scarcely less eager disciple of the chief political and social
heresies of the day. With some real and much assumed eccentricity of
mind and manner, he was remarkable for originality of thought, a vast
fund of general information, and an amusing quaintness of expression,
which gave a zest to startling opinions, often advanced and supported
in argument with more humour than sincerity. His extensive knowledge
and great professional skill combined with much that was estimable in
his character, and amiable in his disposition, seemed, at that time,
to hold out the fairest prospects of success in life. Nor can it be
said that these anticipations were altogether fallacious; as he was
destined to occupy a high rank among the scientific surgeons of his
day, and achieve most of those distinctions which depended for their
attainment, not on fashion or popular favour, but on the verdict of
more competent judges - his competitors in the arduous struggle of
professional life. But the worldly prosperity of his career was,
undoubtedly, marred in great measure, by the unusual and injudicious
means which he adopted for the purpose of insuring its success.
Impressed with a notion that the world at large, - so indulgent to
peculiarities of manner in those who, by conspicuous talent, have
commanded the respect, or extorted the admiration of society, are
prone to confound bluntness of speech and arrogance of demeanour,
with the genius in compliment to which they are often tolerated, and
sometimes extolled, he fell into the egregious mistake of
exaggerating his natural eccentricity by a too transparent
affectation.<br />
<br />
Oddity of dress, studied quaintness of language, and
paradoxical audacity of opinions on the most trivial as well as the
most serious topics, were all brought into play, in order to impress
the public with a belief in the superiority of an intellect which,
from its genuine vigour, might well afford to disdain the aid of
trick or artifice, in the assertion of its claims. But, with those
who had no previously acquired impressions on the subject, the
display of so much ostentatious, and, sometimes, offensive
singularity, was often productive of annoyance rather than
admiration, and tended to cast a doubt on the sterling character of
that genius which sought its social triumphs at the expense of the
minor proprieties of life. This was the more to be regretted, as his
conversation was full of interest and instruction, whenever he felt
himself at liberty to discard, for the time his ordinary colloquial
devices, which he would readily lay aside in the society of a few
attached friends who knew and thoroughly appreciated the value of his
mental qualities, and before whom, consequently, he could afford to
appear in his natural colours, as a man of learning, ability, and
wit. It was no uncommon thing, on such occasions, to observe a total
change in his tone and manner, when the unexpected expected addition
to the party of some stranger whom he thought it worth his while to
dazzle or subjugate by his intellectual powers, caused him at once to
resume that artificial demeanour and studied eccentricity of talk,
the temporary absence of which had just before lent an unusual charm
to his society.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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Asperger's Syndrome is too broad to discuss here, although it is interesting to
note other historical figures afflicted by it. In Philosophy, Jeremy
Bentham (1748-1832), who left his estate to a London Hospital, so
long as they allowed his body to continue to preside over board
meetings. His skeleton was clothed and fitted with a wax mask of his
face. It was present at the meeting for ninety-two years and can
still be viewed at University College. In Science, Isaac Newton,
Benjamin Franklin, Charles Darwin, and Albert Einstein. Newton in
Muscular Motion, Franklin in Electricity, and Darwin in Evolution,
all researched in areas also researched by Carlisle. In the field of
Art, Leonardo da Vinci is just one believed to have had Asperger's.
Its influence can be seen, as with events connected to Carlisle's
friend Basil Montagu (1770-1851), son of the 4th Earl of Sandwich and
the murdered Martha Ray. He was a famous bankruptcy
lawyer and a patient of Carlisle, and it was Montagu who summoned
Carlisle to attend Mary Wollstonecraft on her deathbed.
</div>
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<br /></div>
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A story
of the Carlisle/Montagu friendship was related by Hazlitt, and arose
when he was visiting Montagu. Carlisle came in, having just received
a complimentary testimonial from the Apothecaries' Hall. In answer to
the inquires of Mrs Montagu, Carlisle said, pompously and somewhat
profusely, <span style="font-style: normal;">'"Madam, the
glorious Company of the Apothecaries praise me!" "But"
retorted Mrs Montagu, "what say the noble army of martyrs, your
patients, Sir Anthony?''</span><i>'</i><span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
</span>Carlisle was normally in his element in the use of language,
but was so nonplussed by this witty rejoinder that he took his leave.<br />
<br />
Sometimes, Montagu's legal and literary lives came together; he acted
as junior counsel for Percy Shelley in the proceedings brought by the
poet after his wife's death to obtain custody of their children. On
one occasion Coleridge arrived to discuss Montagu's Francis Bacon
project, and on another, urgent steps were taken by Montagu and Bryan
Proctor to rescue Carlisle's friend Hazlitt from imprisonment for
debt. One of
Carlisle's stories likely described himself, when he related;
</div>
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<br />
A gentleman, residing about a post-stage from town, met with an accident which
eventually rendered amputation of a limb indispensable. The surgeon
alluded to was requested to perform the operation, and went from town
with two pupils to the gentleman's house, on the day appointed, for
that purpose. The usual preliminaries being arranged, he proceeded to
operate; the tourniquet was applied, the flesh divided, and the bone
laid bare, when, to his astonishment and horror, he discovered that
his instrument-case was without the saw! Here was a situation!
Luckily his presence of mind did not forsake him. Without apprising
his patient of the terrible fact, he put one of his pupils into his
carriage, and told the coachman to gallop to town. It was an hour and
a half before the saw was obtained, and during all that time the
patient lay suffering. The agony of the surgeon, though also great,
was scarcely a sufficient punishment for his neglect in not seeing
that all his instruments were in the case before he started.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
Near the end of his
life Carlisle was described by J F Clarke;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
I only knew Sir A
Carlisle when he was a septuagenarian; but, even then he bore traces
of an eminently handsome man – a fine intellectual face, a brow
denoting power, eyes intelligent and impressive, a Phidian nose, a
mouth of unquestionable power; but he was deficient the tact which
could render his really great powers subservient to his advancement
in life.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The
bluntness of Carlisle could contain a dry sense of humour, as with his answer in evidence
before the 1834 Select Committee on Medical Education. To the
question, 'Can a definite line be drawn in practice between medical and surgical
diseases?', he replied;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
I think it is
impossible. For example, in a syphilitic disease, there are
constitutional symptoms, and there are local symptoms. I will take
another example. Physicians say that they claim all internal
diseases. Suppose a man has a diseased state of the lower intestine.
If it is out of the reach of the finger, it belongs to the physician;
but the moment it comes down, and within reach of the finger, it
belongs to the surgeon. Now, can anything be more absurd than that
the same disease may be a stricture, a prolapsus, or a volvolus of
the intestine, or a strangulated hernia; and thus it falls within the
charge of the physician, at one hour, and of the surgeon on the
following.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Another view of
Carlisle's eccentricity was expressed by W B Howell;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
Carlisle
... had certain eccentricities which his enemies put down to
affectation; he would, for instance, appear in public with both his
gaiters on one leg, or without his waistcoat. Upon one occasion
Granville coming down to breakfast, found under his table napkin a
small bottle labelled "black dose." "It is the seventh
day of the moon," Carlisle explained, "on which everybody
who desires to enjoy health, and live long, should give a good
scouring to his alimentary canal."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
As Carlisle appears to have died from cancer of the colon, it is likely
that his 'black dose' over a period of years in fact brought about
his own condition and ultimately caused his death, with the
unadvertised pain associated with the affliction a reason he was
thought obdurate and crusty in his latter years. There are signs of a
sensitive and sympathetic interior below his crustiness. He would not
suffer fools gladly and was prepared to speak his mind to anyone,
even the scions of nobility. Frederick Bird recounted from his own
studentship that, many years previous to 1858, Carlisle encountered
in the hospital wards a coronetted simpleton, sauntering through
wearing a hat; 'Take off your hat, my lord,' said Sir Anthony, 'not
out of respect to me, but for the afflicted occupants of these beds,
whose misfortunes raise them above your nobility.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
Carlisle was pragmatic in commenting to his students on the
therapeutic value of drugs; 'In your ideas of the powers of remedies
do not be too sanguine, for you are liable to continuous
disappointment'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Although
many sources attribute to Carlisle the claim, 'medicine is an art founded on conjecture and improved by murder', Carlisle
himself attributed it to Dr Haslam.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
Even<span style="font-style: normal;"> Hansard,
the official record of British Parliamentary debates, attributed it
to Carlisle and also recalled in 1857 Carlisle's comment, 'instead of
appointing a council composed of the chartered bodies he would say,
'Leave the Colleges of Physicians and of Surgeons, the one to
prescribe for and the other
to operate upon the public, and let the Apothecaries' Company drench
them both'.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
</span><span style="font-style: normal;">Carlisle had
his supporters, in 1834, Blackwood's
Magazine commended Carlisle; 'The evidence of Sir Anthony Carlisle
shews a master mind. At every blow he knocks the right nail on the
head'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
But his forthright manner of speaking made him enemies, a</span><span style="font-style: normal;">s
in an 1829 opinion; 'A word or two, en passant, respecting this
luminary of medical science. Sir Anthony Carlisle has been
distinguished throughout the whole of his professional career by a
most sedulous opposition to all the usual habits and manners of
ordinary mortals'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a>
In researching the life of Carlisle, such diametrically opposed opinions
are typical.
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Family Life </b>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
So how did it all start? Little is known of his childhood. He was born
at Stillington, County Durham, a village of under 100 people, where
the family lived on a small estate owned by the Carlisle family.
Laurence Sterne (1713-1768), author of <i>Tristram
Shandy</i>, knew the Carlisle family as he held the living of Stillington from
1743. A cluster of villages associated with the Carlisle family,
Stillington, Redmarshall, and Great Stainton, each with under one
hundred inhabitants, are fifteen miles south of Durham, between
Darlington and Teesside. Other local villages to be noted, include
Carl(e)ton where his great-grandmother was born, and Thornaby.<br />
<br />
His
parents, Thomas Carlisle (1738-1802) of Redmarshall and Barbara
Hubback (1739-1768) of Great Stainton were married on 21 May 1764,
with Barbara dying in child-bed on Anthony's birth, her third son.
The eldest, Thomas Carlisle was christened on 11 July 1765 and died
unmarried, in the West Indies, as commander and part owner of a large
ship. John Hubbock Carlisle was christened on 18 December 1766 and
brought up to the sea-service, but was 'married imprudently' to Mary
Elizabeth Byers at South Shields on 24 January 1789, and had numerous
issue. Anthony Carlisle was christened on 1 February 1768 at
Redmarshall. When he was two, his widowed father married Susanna
Skottowe (1742-1797) of Ayton, a spinster, on 21 June 1770. Anthony's
half-brother Nicholas Carlisle (1771-1847) was christened on 8
February 1771 at Saint Mary Bishophill, York, little more than seven
months after their marriage.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Susanna's sister, Anne Skottowe, was wife of Robert Wood (1717-1771),
philologist, archaeologist, politician, and Under-Secretary of State
in 1762. Wood was an engraver and author of works on the ruins
of Palmyra and Balbec. A copy of his <i>Essay on Homer</i>
was bound in 1785 by Roger Payne, by order of Wood's widow for
presentation to Horace Walpole.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
It was likely through the Skottowe influence that Carlisle became
interested in drawing, language, and writing, with the Wood name
helping him to meet the right people when he went to London.<br />
<br />
The
Skottowe name is connected to the famous explorer, Captain James Cook, as Susanna's father
was Thomas Skottowe (1695-1771), the owner of Aireyholme farm, where
the father of Captain James Cook was employed as foreman. The young
Cook lived at the farm from age eight, until he left home at age
seventeen. Carlisle was relayed childhood memories of Cook by his
stepmother, who was nine years old when Cook left home.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Before focusing on Anthony, the career of his half brother, Nicholas
Carlisle warrants a page. Nicholas ultimately became Secretary of
the Society of Antiquaries, but before that he went to sea, being out
of England for most of the period from 1794 to 1799. The <i>Register
of Ships, Employed in the Service of the Honourable the United East
India Company, from the Year 1760 to 1810</i>,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
shows Nicholas sailed to the East as a purser, on voyages 4, 5, and
6, of the Skottowe ship <i>Bridgewater</i> of 799 tons. Voyage 4 sailed on 2 May 1794 to Bombay and China and
arrived back on 28 December 1795; voyage 5 sailed on 17 May 1796 and
returned on 18 December 1797; and voyage 6 sailed to China on 28
April 1798 and arrived back on 31 July 1799. Thus Nicholas and the
<i>Bridgewater</i> did three round voyages of 605 days, 580 days, and 459 days in one
tiny ship, a total of 1644 days, an amazing feat and apparently
without incident. In the intervening periods, he was busy with
repairing and provisioning <i>Bridgewater</i> for the next voyage.<br />
<br />
His obituary recorded he; 'entered the naval service of the East India Company in which he attained the post of
purser and enjoying opportunities of private trade he amassed a
considerable sum of money, most of which he expended as joint
housekeeper with his brother, to whom he was much attached and whom
he thus assisted at the commencement of his professional career'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a><span style="font-style: normal;"> The office of
Secretary became vacant on the death of John Brand in 1806, and
Farington recorded in his </span><i>"Diary"</i><span style="font-style: normal;">;</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Ant. Carlisle called to speak to me
respecting his brother offering himself for the office of Secretary
to the Antiquary Society. He said his brother is younger than him and
was born of a different mother, a second wife, sister to Captain
Scottowe, formerly in the East India Company' service; that he
inherited a fortune of about £16,000 which unfortunately [he had]
been induced to engage in shipping speculation for the Slave trade,
but the connections he formed proved to be bad and eventually he
lost everything. ... He had a good education, and is a very good
scholar. He had, said Carlisle, a great advantage over me in that
respect. I was taken from school at the age of 14, but he remained
there till he was near 19.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
Society of Antiquaries did not regard Nicholas Carlisle with great
fondness, even though he was Secretary for over forty years, partly
because he had scarcely settled himself in the Society's apartments
at Somerset House when he devoted his time to the laborious task of
compiling a Topographical Dictionary of England. The dictionary was
published in two volumes in 1808, and was followed by one of Ireland
in 1810, by a similar volume for Wales in 1811, and of Scotland, and
of the Islands of the British Seas, in two volumes in 1813.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Mr Carlisle is already known to the Public, as the Compiler of a Series
of Topographical Dictionaries of England and Wales, Scotland and
Ireland. Of the first of these, a brief notice was given in this
Journal at the time it appeared; and in justice to our Author, we
think it proper now to add, that his Topographical Dictionary of
England has been found peculiarly serviceable to Magistrates, in
making orders of removal under that most expensive part of the
present system of Poor Laws - the law respecting Parochial
Settlements.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
But other publications by Nicholas Carlisle, such as his <i>An Historical Account ... concerning Charities in England and Wales
...</i>.
were not as well received;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
The doubt with which we have been occasionally struck, whether the
publishers and compilers of such books as this one before us, might
not be indicted under the Statute of Frauds, and handed over from the
critical tribunal to the care of those gentlemen who watch attempts
to extort money from the pockets of his Majesty's liege subjects
under false pretences, has recurred to our minds with increased
force, while wading through the useless trash which Mr Nicholas
Carlisle ... has thought proper to put before the public ... that
learned gentleman might, we believe, have added that he holds another
sinecure ... from whose Reports ... he has cut at least nine-tenths
of the three hundred and thirty pages, for which he has the
conscience to demand twenty shillings. If ... we do not prove that
his volume would be dear at three-pence, we will be content to
undergo the penalty, and a heavier punishment our bitterest enemies
could not wish us, of reading all which Mr Carlisle may print for the
next ten years.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Nicholas resigned as secretary due to ill-health in May 1847 and was granted
an annual pension of £150, but he died that same year. The
President of the Royal Society commented; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Mr Carlisle was remarkable for the zeal that he displayed in whatever he
undertook to perform, whether for the public service or in behalf of
his friends; and his persevering industry and unwearied activity were
commensurate to his zeal. Pure and universal benevolence was the
distinguishing feature of his private character, and in his social
capacity he died, as he had lived without reproach. A bust of Mr
Carlisle, we believe by one of the family of Wyon is placed in the
meeting-room of the Society of Antiquaries.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Wife, mistress, and daughters</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Anthony Carlisle's comment to Farington implies
the Carlisle family estate was small, with the Skottowe family paying
to educate Nicholas, but not Anthony, who left school to earn a
living. Young Carlisle's childhood interests included
fishing from an early age and a keen interest in British history of
the medieval period. He studied hard at school, especially English
and Latin, and it was later said he was not surpassed by any on the
Court of Examiners of the Royal College of Surgeons (RCS) in London,
as the fact of his always being the Latin Examiner of the College
proved.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle's
1797 novel, <i>The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i> is
discussed later, but a passage in it refers to an illegitimate bir<span style="font-style: normal;">th;
'Everything was therefore arranged, and she went to a retired village
in Buckinghamshire; where, passing for the widow of an officer, she
was delivered of a son in the presence of only the accoucheur and her
faithful confident'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a>
This location is probably based upon Britwell Court in Burnham, Bucks,
which John Symmons leased from 28 July 1797 to 23 July 1801, and was
distant from his Paddington home. It may imply Symmons leased the
house for a discreet and illegitimate pregnancy for his daughter,
Martha to bear a child there, perhaps even to Carlisle himself,
before marrying him in 1800 at Alcester, itself puzzlingly distant to
Britwell Court and London, as if the marriage was to be discreet. The
novel </span><i>The Legacy</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
also refers to rumours of an illegitimate pregnancy and to the
Foundling Hospital. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlxCrWTezMK4qduZS31cAXgx73b-J4OtCH_KGkTJ3ArZj5nMKI6zJKxzvXsK_HsDfxgdTttEIOZHgdcc0ApwIaytKMOGOCML2hKFSCiUGC4Ye-0u0L_u4YfdaQMxPnneMvWPVTNDF8_lg/s1600/britwell.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="322" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlxCrWTezMK4qduZS31cAXgx73b-J4OtCH_KGkTJ3ArZj5nMKI6zJKxzvXsK_HsDfxgdTttEIOZHgdcc0ApwIaytKMOGOCML2hKFSCiUGC4Ye-0u0L_u4YfdaQMxPnneMvWPVTNDF8_lg/s1600/britwell.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<br />
As inferred, Carlisle's marriage
and family contain several puzzles. He married Martha Symmons on
23 August 1800 at Alcester, Warwickshire, although <i>The
Gentleman's Magazine</i> records it for 8 August; 'Mr Carlisle,
surgeon, of Soho Square, to Miss Symmons of Britwell House,
Bucks'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a>
Carlisle had known Martha Symmons for some years before their 1800
marriage, when she was 28 and Carlisle was 32, so neither married
young and neither seem to have had an obvious connection to
Alcester.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Both the
<i>Gentleman's Magazine</i><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a>
and <i>Annual Register</i> for 1842 record the death on 17 April at Mitcham
Green, aged 62, of Lady Carlisle, widow of Sir Anthony Carlisle, and
daughter of John Symmons Esq of Ewhurst Park, Hants. The notice looks
straightforward, but the statement is in conflict with the parish
christening records for Carlisle's daughters, which both refer to
their mother as Mary Eccles. A visitor with Carlisle connection, Jeremy Isherwood, has very kindly provided me with a copy of the baptism record and also a newspaper account of Carlisle's will:<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUxg1b3Ag2PVWDwxUEehNsh4QP1oUmBqOI43Wam-8z4WhpV7vRFzIvsKkBx6s-sjo9j8Yu6yIeF4U5wKxgJEy3KFooseUmuZ_MC6PUxxWwxTKurgyWRZI3TyT-A8DH0hN2H9JQ_wfuZz4/s1600/baptism.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUxg1b3Ag2PVWDwxUEehNsh4QP1oUmBqOI43Wam-8z4WhpV7vRFzIvsKkBx6s-sjo9j8Yu6yIeF4U5wKxgJEy3KFooseUmuZ_MC6PUxxWwxTKurgyWRZI3TyT-A8DH0hN2H9JQ_wfuZz4/s1600/baptism.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Thundridge baptisms for 1812</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
One daughter, Barbara Leonora Carlisle,
was christened on 23 August 1812 at Thundridge, Hertford, as daughter
of Anthony Carlisle and Mary Eccles, together with the notation born 29 May, 1811 on the baptism record. She died unmarried on 7 December
1865 at Brighton as the daughter of Sir Anthony Carlisle.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a>
The second, Annabella, daughter of Anthony Carlisle and Mary Eccles,
was also christened at Thundridge, on 24 December 1812 as age one month. She died
unmarried on 20 October 1856 and was buried with her father, being
described as the daughter of Sir Anthony Carlisle.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
There being only four months between the two christenings, Barbara
must have been at least several months old at her christening.
Barbara's name being chosen in memory of Anthony Carlisle's mother
Barbara Hubback. As we will see, Carlisle's predilection for language
appears in naming his second daughter Annabella, recording his
disappointment she was not a son, her name being a word play on
Annandale, the title of Robert de Brus, Lord Annandale.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
Thundridge parish references to Mary Eccles as Carlisle's wife raised
two interesting possibilities. Either they were transcription errors
for Martha Symmons, nee Carlisle, or Mary Eccles was mistress of
Anthony Carlisle, and mother of his two daughters. However, now the record has been sighted it is clearly Eccles. The
speculation of Mary as a mistress (a servant?), was supported by the age of Martha, in that when they
married in 1800, Martha was twenty-eight, being born in 1772.
Although only christening dates are given for his daughters, they
imply the girls were born in 1812, when Martha would have been forty.
A transcription error is ruled out and so the alternative of Mary
Eccles as Carlisle's mistress seems probable, especially with both
christenings taking place at a village church at Thundridge,
Hertfordshire, well away from London.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
There are
references to Carlisle attending social occasions, but none showing
him as accompanied by his wife. For example, in 1810 Carlisle
addressed a letter to Benjamin West inviting him to Soho Square for a
meal with "the Reynolds and myself", inferring Martha
Carlisle was not present. A related circumstance, is that, in his
will written two months before his death, Carlisle left his whole
estate to his two daughters, and omitted mention of his wife, even
though she was still alive. Martha is not obvious in the 1841 census,
but a<span style="font-style: normal;">n enumerator error may record
Martha Carlisle in the census as Martha Careless or Carlless aged 70,
of independent means, living in Albert Place in Southwark, together
with a companion and one servant. </span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsj0piMDWo9uSShbQhOJ9fV1rZpyk2-wpYvI93WpmmhMXTee-H3br_UMbI4WTZ00wQqCH4ouGVfoG2VbqdFxHk0TEIxYqJF2kB9P4LD8gDwfO6xQKLeRnKF90oud3AzYEF2lC-tzhyphenhyphenngs/s1600/West+Kent+Guardian+06+February+1841+Anthony+Carlisle+will-2.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsj0piMDWo9uSShbQhOJ9fV1rZpyk2-wpYvI93WpmmhMXTee-H3br_UMbI4WTZ00wQqCH4ouGVfoG2VbqdFxHk0TEIxYqJF2kB9P4LD8gDwfO6xQKLeRnKF90oud3AzYEF2lC-tzhyphenhyphenngs/s640/West+Kent+Guardian+06+February+1841+Anthony+Carlisle+will-2.jpg" width="552" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #1f497d; font-size: 14pt;">West Kent Guardian of 6 February 1841</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Reasonable speculation therefore is
that he was at least partially estranged from Martha before 1810, and had two daughters
by Mary Eccles. Late in the research for this book, this speculation
was confirmed by in an attack by Thomas Wakley on Carlisle, in <i>The
Lancet</i> of 1854; <br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
<br />
Sir Anthony wished the 'wives, widows, and female kindred' of
'general practitioners' to devote themselves to 'a dishonourable
vocation', and it came out afterwards that the writer kept a
mistress, whom he was very anxious to introduce into practice as a<i>
sage femme</i>![a midwife] <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The
illegitimacy, and lack of any inheritance, of Annabella and Barbara
largely explains their life long spinsterhood. As noted 'When
Annabella and Barbara Carlisle found themselves destitute on the
death of their father, the family lawyer tried his hardest to
persuade them against the 'last and most wretched hope of earning
your living as governesses'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
Carlisle had had expectation of vast wealth via Martha, only daughter
of John Symmons who was worth £200,000, but later lost everything. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Although the nature of the ill fortune suffered by Carlisle is
uncertain, he also died without wealth; 'From professional ill health
and ill fortune, [Carlisle] died leaving his two daughters destitute
of all provision. The medical men of England are now preparing to
erect a memorial to the late Sir Astley Cooper. How much more
rationally naturally and humanely would their subscriptions be
employed, in administering to the wants of the impoverished daughters
of Sir Anthony Carlisle, than in heaping monumental vanities on the
tomb of a man who is charged with having made, and </span><i>kept,</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
half a million of money.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">One reason he did not accumulate wealth was that; 'Sir Anthony
Carlisle was not less distinguished for his knowledge of anatomy,
physiology, and natural history, than for his professional merits,
and for his patience and skill as an instructor of medical students.
As a practitioner he was invariably kind and attentive to those who
were entrusted to his care and eminently liberal in devoting his
professional services to those who had no adequate means of repaying
them'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a>
We will later compare how history has treated Carlisle and Astley Cooper.
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">A
possible reason for Anthony Carlisle's financial misfortune is hinted
at in the will and testament of his brother, Nicholas, dated 16
October, 1840, only weeks before Anthony died, and when his demise
was seen as imminent. Nicholas instructed; 'As I have frequently in
my lifetime assisted my relations and friends with large sums of
money, they will not therefore expect any farther gift or bequest
from me, and indeed all such expectations must now be relinquished as
every farthing which I possess has recently been lost by fraud and
villainy in the failure of The Royal Union Association and Bank of
Deposit at No 5 Lancaster Place'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Martha did not attend Carlisle's funeral on 2 November 1840, when he
died after an illness of some weeks from a chronic disease of the
colon, probably cancer. He left directions that his body should not
be examined<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
and; 'the remains of Sir A Carlisle were deposited in Kensal-Green
Cemetery, in the most unostentatious and simple manner, attended by
two relatives and a few intimate friends'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Carlisle's </span>grave is now unmarked, but records show on 7
November 1840, Barbara Leonora Carlisle and Annabella Carlisle
purchased grave number 2736 in Square 21 for the sum of £3 3s 0d.
The grave was 6' 6" x 2' 6'' x 12' deep with a head and foot
stone, curbs, and a rail, but they are no longer there. Annabella
Carlisle was buried in the grave in 1856, but neither Martha, nor
Barbara, joined him when they died in 1842 and 1865.
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgt0YwIiKCCWQ3zhT3VSif0Faa9ctb8ftvckgdYULvWN655nfX9ZTdTyjUsgXNo5ZZyPs6Bf6eqWY7claJJidnzLWF0wdoIsUayStiLthQkgHZ6FLY9aNjoEYb7cwhY3IT8g_OqdfZdrTI/s1600/Salisbury+and+Winchester+Journal+25+April+1842+Lady+Carlisle+death+notice.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="205" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgt0YwIiKCCWQ3zhT3VSif0Faa9ctb8ftvckgdYULvWN655nfX9ZTdTyjUsgXNo5ZZyPs6Bf6eqWY7claJJidnzLWF0wdoIsUayStiLthQkgHZ6FLY9aNjoEYb7cwhY3IT8g_OqdfZdrTI/s400/Salisbury+and+Winchester+Journal+25+April+1842+Lady+Carlisle+death+notice.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The notice of the 17 April 1842 death of Martha appeared in the Salisbury and Winchester Journal on 25 April, 1742. It includes the comment, "deeply deplored by a few but sincere friends, who knew her long, and admired her pious resignation under severe affliction". It is not clear whether that refers to her fractured relationship with Anthony Carlisle or to her health. Her life seems to have been sad, her mother died when she was a baby and over her life she had three stepmothers. Her father was very wealthy and so she had access to whatever money could buy, but he lost his fortune, and died abroad. She never had any children of her own, and seems to have been estranged from Anthony and his illegitimate daughters, who were not even Martha's legal step-daughters. Martha had two much younger half-brothers, one of whom emigrated to Western Australia and the other seems to have died unmarried. Hence her "pious resignation" was perhaps all that was left to her, and that too possibly compounded by a disease such as cancer.<br />
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Lord
Carlyle</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle's
boyhood interest in history was enhanced by a legal dispute over an
ancient lost title, which is relevant to Carlisle's literary career.
The title was Lord Carlyle, in the peerage of Scotland, conferred in
1473 by King James the Third on Sir John Carlyle of Torthorwald.
Carlisle's interest is shown in a reference published during his
lifetime, claiming; '<span style="font-style: normal;">This able
anatomist is descended from an ancient noble family of Scotland, one
of whom, Sir James Carlisle married Miss Margaret Bruce, whose
ancestors obtained a peerage with the barony of Torthorwald'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Brother Nicholas set out to prove a family link to Lord Carlyle, but
was unsuccessful when in 1822 he wrote; </span><i>"Collections
for a History of the Ancient Family of Carlisle"</i><span style="font-style: normal;">.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
It ran to 414 pages, but Nicholas could only trace his family descent
to John Carlisle of Witton le Wear, ten miles south-west of Durham,
who was buried on 26 May 1670.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">That Nicholas did not correct impressions of a royal link, is seen in
Anthony's obituary; 'Sir A Carlisle was the third of four sons, was
born in the year 1768, and was a descendant of an ancient noble
family, Sir James Carlisle having married Margaret Bruce, whose
successors obtained a peerage with the barony of Torthorwald'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
The left shield, a red cross on a gold ground, is that of the
Carlyle family of Annandale from the 15C. The central coat of arms is
Lord Carlyle of Torthorwald, with the red cross of Annandale
quartered in the central shield. On the right is the coat of arms
elected by Carlisle when knighted in 1821, similar to the Annandale
arms, with the addition of an English rose in the upper left. In
heraldic symbolism, the red flory cross indicates military fortitude
and magnanimity, with the gold ground showing generosity. The mailed
arm represents a person with qualities of leadership, with the lance
denoting devotion to honour, and the rose showing hope, all
symbolising Carlisle's aim of leadership with honour. Thus Carlisle hinted at a link to the earlier Carlyle families. <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup></sup></a></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJsKx8Xzn5FbMc1Q4sfYaejT-dAdlbCbaaovA6AJotgTSTMm57RpEtwqEThQENWI91oOzyaFXVNcvZ01_MJ0HniEX9lHylIHtUfghOlqfKzjjMqqVuKVh7CHGxr2X0K7Ic53gGahbnQgw/s1600/arms.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="236" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJsKx8Xzn5FbMc1Q4sfYaejT-dAdlbCbaaovA6AJotgTSTMm57RpEtwqEThQENWI91oOzyaFXVNcvZ01_MJ0HniEX9lHylIHtUfghOlqfKzjjMqqVuKVh7CHGxr2X0K7Ic53gGahbnQgw/s1600/arms.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-style: normal;">The Carlisle
history here is condensed from various sources.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a></span> The main point to note being the recurrence of names and places,
including; Robert de Brus, Lord Annandale, Carleton, Carlisle,
Carlyle, Carrick, Clifford, and Thornaby. The history commences with
the Norman invasion of 1066 which led to a rise to nobility of the
Carlyle family. One, Fulk de Panell held Hart and Hartness on the
Durham coast, but after the Battle of Hastings in 1066, de Panell
slaughtered a Norman, Robert Comyn, and his followers. As a result
Robert I de Brus, a knight with William, marched north and entered
parts between York and Durham, which he wasted with fire and sword.
The resulting famine was so great it was said the northerners were
forced to eat human flesh. As a result, Robert was rewarded by
William with possessions in Yorkshire, including Thornaby. Robert
then proceeded to Scotland, where King David, made him Robert, Lord
of Annandale. The Annandale district being a long north-south valley,
east of Dumfries, and adjoining the English diocese of Carlisle. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The first
record of the name Carlyle name in Scotland, was a colonist brought
by Robert de Brus from Carlisle into Annandale. Among the knights who
went on the Crusades was Robert, son of the 6th Robert de Brus. After
his return, Robert was hunting near the castle of Turnbery in west
Scotland. This was the seat of Martha, the young Countess of Carrick,
whose father Earl Neil fell in the crusades, and Robert met Martha in
the woods.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
Reportedly, she was so enamoured of him at first sight, that she
invited him to her castle. When he betrayed a reluctance to agree,
she forcibly drew his reins with her own hands and led Robert to her
castle where she apparently kept him in 'gentle durance' for fifteen
days and more. They were shortly afterwards married, whereupon King
Alexander, provoked at the clandestine union, seized the lands of
Carrick, but soon restored them, and Brus became Earl of Carrick. In
1306 the 9th Robert de Brus, after many vacillations, asserted a
claim to the crown of Scotland; on which he was declared a traitor
and a rebel by King Edward and all his property in the bishopric of
Durham, was granted to Robert Lord Clifford.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Later,
Sir William de Cairlyle married Lady Margaret Bruce whose eldest
brother was Robert the Bruce, King of Scotland and so Sir William de
Cairlyle was granted Annandale. An odd coincidence, concerning the
Caesarean operations to be discussed later, is that Lady Marjory,
daughter of Robert the Bruce, was thrown from her horse and died;
with her unborn son, afterwards Robert II, said to have been
extracted by Caesarian operation. A Sir John Carlyle of Torthorwald,
became the first Lord Carlyle. One hundred years later, Michael, the
4th Lord Carlyle's eldest son, William died in the lifetime of his
father, leaving an only child, Elizabeth Carlyle. On William's death,
his father granted the barony of Carlyle in favour of his second son,
thus disinheriting Elizabeth. After long and ruinous litigation the
barony of Carlyle was found to belong to Elizabeth, who succeeded to
the peerage in her own right. The Carlyle family surrendered their
main title in 1638 when James, Lord Carlyle resigned his title to the
Earl of Queensberry, who had acquired portions of the Carlyle estate.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
However,
the title of Lord Carlyle of Torthorwald was retained and held by
Michael Carlyle who left his estate to whoever was the legitimate
male heir of the Carlyle family. By 1770 much of the residual Carlyle
estates had been consumed by legal battles over the inheritance, with
the House of Lords decreeing in 1770, the heir was a George Carlyle
whose ancestor had settled in Wales. The next heir was Rev Joseph
Carlyle, Professor of Arabic at Cambridge who died in 1831, when the
Royal House of Carlyle officially ended. It was knowing Joseph
Carlyle had no heir, that Nicholas Carlisle researched the family
name, with the Durham Carlisles keenly interested in any prospects
for the title, and with Anthony hearing tales of knightly deeds,
castles, inheritances, and lost titles.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Training, Early
Career, and the Irish Giant</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
medical apprenticeship of Anthony Carlisle commenced at age fourteen
in 1782 at York, under Anthony Hubback, his surgeon uncle. When
Hubback died in 1784, Carlisle transferred to work with William
Green, founder of the General Infirmary hospital in Durham. Carlisle
demonstrated his scientific intent when, after reading of
Montgolfier's balloon, he made a model hot-air balloon.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Sir Anthony a native of Stillington,
in Durham; and received his medical education in the county town,
under Mr William Green, the leading surgeon of the place. During his
apprenticeship he showed a taste for philosophical and mechanical
studies; and after reading a description of Montgolfier's balloon, he
amused himself with making a fire balloon, the first ever seen in the
county of Durham.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
As an
apprentice, Carlisle was exposed to the harsher side of life.
Executions of convicted felons were held at Durham, not far north of
his home in Stillington. Carlisle went to Durham in 1784, with five
executions while he was there. Hence before leaving for London,
Carlisle collected corpses from the Durham gallows and assisted in
their dissection. As the supply of executed felons was insufficient
for teaching purposes, Carlisle body snatched while in Durham. He
left Durham for the 1785 London medical year.<br />
<br />
Although leaving
Durham, Carlisle likely knew a local murder victim and her accused,
both from Little Stainton, only two miles from his birthplace. On 22
July 1799, Mary Nicholson, was brought to the Durham gallows to be
hanged for poisoning her mistress. The circumstances of her execution
were particularly grim. At Mary's hanging, the rope broke after she
was thrown off the cart, and another rope had to be procured. An hour
elapsed before this could be done, and in the interval she recovered
her faculties and conversed with her relatives, until the resumption
of the execution, when she was hanged.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
arrived in London aged seventeen in late 1785 and soon attracted the
notice of John Hunter, who ventured to predict his future
professional eminence. 'Amongst those who successively became members
of Hunter's house,
as private pupils, were Dr. Jenner, Mr. Grey, of Colchester, Mr.
Kingston, Dr. Physick, and Sir Everard Home. Mr. Lynn, and Sir
Anthony Carlisle, although not living in his house, were received
there on the most intimate terms, assisted in his dissections, and
contributed valuable preparations to his museum'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
Carlisle won approval by 'making
the first perfect cast of the labyrinth of the ear which he presented
to Mr Hunter,<span style="font-style: normal;"> who
was highly delighted with the acquisition'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
Circumstances alluding to this were referred to by the author of a
letter to the <i>London Medical and Physical Journal</i> in 1803. The letter
was signed 'Rembrancer', but the content of the letter, referring to
Carlisle as the inventor of the process, suggests the author of the
letter was Carlisle himself, as over the years he wrote many letters
to the media;</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Mr Low has stated a method by which
metallic casts may be obtained from the osseoas cavities of the human
ear. The same process has been described in the Lectures on the Art
of making Anatomical Preparations, as delivered by Dr Baillie and the
late Mr Cruikshank full ten years since, and that process was
regularly mentioned for at least five successive years, to the
writer's knowledge as well as the person's name who contrived it. ...
Preparations of this kind have been long used at the lectures in
Windmill-street and those were presented to the teacher by Mr
Carlisle, who contrived the method of making them. I am, yours, &c.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
entered John Hunter's School of Anatomy in Windmill Street and, so
high an opinion did Hunter come to have of Carlisle's abilities, he
requested him to conduct dissections for the collection.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
Medical students were chronically short of money and it was common
for them to participate in grave robbing expeditions to earn extra
money or pay for their tuition. Carlisle had participated in this, as
indicated an 1818 letter from Southey to Sharon Turner;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">You have made a wise decision for
your son William, for I believe that medical students are of all
others the most unfavourable to the moral sense. Anatomical studies
are so revolting, that men who carry any feeling to the pursuit are
glad to have it seared as soon as possible. I do not remember ever in
the course of my life to have been so shocked as by hearing Carlisle
relate some bravados of young men in this state when he was a student
himself.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
As a
favourite student of Hunter, Carlisle was positioned to be privy to
many confidences of Hunter, including the history of the first Irish
Giant, Charles Byrne (1761 – 1783) (aka Charles O'Brien), who
claimed to be eight foot four inches tall and who exhibited himself
in London. Byrne's skeleton makes a stark contrast with that of tiny Caroline Crachami whose own skeleton did not even reached Byrne's knee. Hunter met the Irish Giant in 1782 and, realising Byrne
was a sick man, openly vowed to seek Byrne's body for his personal
museum. Byrne's health deteriorated quickly and hearing on his
deathbed of Hunter's intention, Byrne was so afraid he requested his
friends bury him at sea. Hunter was not the only anatomist after the
body, so on Byrne's death;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
The whole tribe of surgeons, put in a claim for the poor departed
Irish giant and surround his house just as Greenland harpooners would
an enormous whale. One of them has even gone to the trouble of having
a niche made for himself in the giant's coffin, in order to his being
ready at hand on the witching time of night, when church-yards yawn.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcUY1r49J5rVYoC7xPR6XRkTrVyE7Q8qZWc-f0tk3SP-ajGCDgy64MGrbH-j6ocLQjNPba_Ar7bdo2b6NyO5d52QkB-MYwAGkKt_Aqq62oom81QybTvQ9_YuRyTYfOqoTM14QbshztE4s/s1600/crachami.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="358" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcUY1r49J5rVYoC7xPR6XRkTrVyE7Q8qZWc-f0tk3SP-ajGCDgy64MGrbH-j6ocLQjNPba_Ar7bdo2b6NyO5d52QkB-MYwAGkKt_Aqq62oom81QybTvQ9_YuRyTYfOqoTM14QbshztE4s/s1600/crachami.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Church-yards yawn, referring to resurrectionists leaving a 'yawning'
grave after stealing the body. Against Byrne's wishes, his corpse was
purchased in a ruse by John Hunter. He kept his purchase secret for
five years until 1788, but Carlisle as his student was familiar with
the skeleton. In 1891, Sir Benjamin Ward Richardson recounted the
story;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">How Hunter, after O'Brien's death,
found out and bribed the undertaker with a round sum of £500; how
that worthy official, accompanying the procession, led the way to an
inn, where the door being too small to admit the coffin containing
the remains, he had the coffin carried to a barn, and deposited there
for a brief interval of rest, after a weary walk on a sweltering day;
how the barn door was carefully locked, and the key of it safely
deposited in the pocket of the captain of the escort; how the bearers
with their captain and friends went into the inn to be right royally
entertained by the kind undertaker; how, ere the entertainment had
scarcely commenced, some men, concealed in the barn, removed the
giant from his coffin, and exchanged him for paving stones of the
same weight as his body, and hid the body in the straw with
themselves; how the faithful but innocent Irishmen, after refreshing
their inner men, were brought back by the undertaker to their
bearers' task, and, never dreaming of the trick played upon them,
marched on stage by stage, carrying their precious burden of stones
towards the sea, into which they solemnly consigned it.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
</span>An anonymous poem of the period, originally published with
blank spaces, refers to Byrne. It appears here with '<u>Irish Giant</u>'
inserted in the <u>vacant</u> spaces, bar two which refer to a tiny
woman. The poem discloses to a plan to sink him ten thousand feet
deep in the ocean, matching the unsuccessful plan to thwart Hunter.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.36cm;">
<b><i>The Irish Giant's Dream: or The
Devil opposing the Resurrection Men</i>.<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a></span></span></b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="400*"></col>
<col width="400*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="49%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">At rest on a sofa the <u>Irish
Giant</u> was laid,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Not asleep, the <u>Giant</u>
yet a drowsiness over him hung;</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Some say that he thought on
his bills yet unpaid,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">But the notion at this time
was certainly wrong.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Alas the poor <u>Irish Giant</u>
was humbled, and sore</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">At the storm he had rais'd
for the sake of the dead,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And he vow'd to himself,
should he 'scape this once more</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">With foreign concerns ne'er
to trouble his head.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">He thought, and he thought,
but he labor'd in vain,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">For a plan to relieve him
from such a commotion:</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Could he find but a box to
imprison his pain,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">He'd sink it ten thousand
feet deep in the ocean.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">With such deep conceptions,
no wonder his mind</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Grew jaded and weary—he
soon ceased to weep;</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And in spite of his trouble,
the rain, and the wind,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">His head gave a nod, and he
fell—fast asleep.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">But woe for the <u>Irish
Giant</u> the slumber that seiz'd him,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Brought terrors unknown to
his sensitive breast;</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Dissection had sicken'd, and
pamphlets amaz'd him,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Now, something he knew not,
his bosom oppress'd.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Anon, (so he thought) the
wind fearfully blew,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And whistled, and roar,d with
a deep hollow sound.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And dark, and more dark, the
thick atmosphere grew.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And the light'ning flash'd
luridly over the ground.</span></div>
</td>
<td width="51%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">All at once— in an instant,
the tempest was o'er,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">No flash dim'd the eye with
its red sudden glare;</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">But the palpable, terrible
darkness was more</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And a silence like death was
around in the air.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">The heart of the Caitif now
panted with fear;</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">A deadly chill ran o'er his
shuddering frame,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">He felt that some Being
unearthly was near, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">But he saw not, nor knew,
from which quarter it,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">At last a most horrid
sensation he found,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Like the plague coming near
in a bodily form,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Then a hand grasp'd his own,
whilst a harsh hollow sound,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Thus broke on his ear—"thou
friend of the worm.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Know, the Devil am I, and not
to alarm ye,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">I came in a sort of invisible
dress:</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Ne'er tremble nor start man,
be sure I'll not harm ye,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">True brothers are we in all
weal or distress.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">I came just to tell ye, the
doctors are writing,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And thinking to ruin both us
and our cause;</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And faith man there's some,
pretty good at inditing,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Yet burn 'em, I'll conquer or
forfeit my claws.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Our sister in league, Miss
........shall lie for us</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">She's staunch to her trust,
with her you may flout 'em,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Good brother adieu, you can
but dye for us,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: -0.08cm;">
<span style="font-size: small; font-style: normal;">But
the Devil and Miss... and the </span><span style="font-size: small; font-style: normal;"><u>Irish
Giant</u></span><span style="font-size: small; font-style: normal;">
must rout 'em."</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The name of Miss ... is unknown, she
was likely exhibited alongside Byrne in 1782; 'Just arrived from
Ireland, and to be seen at the late bird-shop, the corner of the
Haymarket and Piccadilly, the astonishing Irish giant whose height
surpasses the Patagonian; with admirable symmetry of body, and
esteemed to be the most proportioned ever seen.' The advertisement
goes on to describe a female dwarf, twenty-two years old, and
thirty-two inches high, exhibited at the same place. </span>After
studying with John Hunter, Carlisle became a resident pupil with
Henry Watson (1702-1793), Surgeon to Westminster Hospital since 1762.
In the 18C poetry was widely used as a means of social commentary
Some thirty years earlier, in 1757, Samuel Boyce published a poem
about the lectures of Watson which Carlisle must have been familiar
with. Although the words used by Boyce seem stilted in the 21C, they
show how closely religion and medicine were interlinked in the 18C.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<b>On attending the Lectures of Mr Henry Watson, Surgeon </b>
</div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="328*"></col>
<col width="328*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Come; Reflection, solemn
pow'r,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">From the grot, and from the
bow'r;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">From the philosophic cell,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Where devotion's wont to
dwell,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And the pure up-lifted eye </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Meditates its parent sky;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Here, where Science courts
its ray, </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">From inanimated Clay,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">O'er my soul thy influence
shed;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Wake the Living, by the Dead.
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">What a scope for thought is
here! </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">This is contemplation's
sphere! </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Lo, the Subject, pale and
cold!</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Nature sickens to behold:</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">There her workings all are
o'er;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">There the lamp of life's no
more.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Life, what art thou? - fickle
breath:</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Is there n thing certain? -
death.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Tho' with pride the bosom
glow;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Tho' it melt at other's woe;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Tho' the passions all rebel;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Tho' in virtue they excel;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Tho' by learning's lore
refin'd;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Tho' in ignorance the mind;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Tho' it pant for worldly
toys;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Tho' it hope sublimer joys;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Still precarious is our
state, </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Open to impending fate; </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Nought can tyrant death
asswage;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Youth must fall as well as
age. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Why, alas, then, all our
cares, </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">All our wishes, all our
fears, </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">When 'tis out of mortal
pow'r,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">To insure the present hour?</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Hush, oh, muse, suspend the
strain!</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">All is just the skies ordain:</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Sinks
my heart at what I see? </span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">'Tis but what myself must be!</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Rise, ye thoughts, to nobler
ends!</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Melancholy, heav'n offends.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Waken'd now by Watson's
voice,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Sense adopts a happier
choice: </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Tracing o'er the wond'rous
plan;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">All the great machine of Man.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Now I learn how parts
combine;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">How unnumber'd fibres join;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">How distinct th' internal
maze;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">How the mechanism plays;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">How the limbs their force
improve;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">How we see, and hear, and
move;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">How the pow'rs assistance
call,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Each from each, and all from
all:</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">How disease can health
controul;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">How the body waits the soul.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Oh eternal! all divine!</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">God! this glorious work is
thine!</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Atheist, if their live the
name,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Rise, inspect the human
frame! </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Here thou'lt own th'
Almighty's pow'r,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Wonder first, and then adore.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Watson, oh, that thou had'st
skill </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">To extirpate Mental ill!</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">To dissect the living breast,
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And the soul's disease
arrest;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Amputate the fraudful part,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And to virtue cleanse the
heart;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Then indeed the world might
know </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Truth from cunning, friend
from foe: </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">But, tho' genius in thee
lives,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Bright with all that study
gives;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Tho' thy fame expand abroad,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">'Till the gen'ral voice
applaud,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Yet thy art must be confin'd;
-</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-left: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Thine's
the body; - heav'n's the mind. </span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Although
a good teacher, Watson persisted in wearing the clothes of a bygone
era; a curled wig, a full-cuffed coat with a number of huge buttons,
a cocked hat, and a cane. His dress inspired Carlisle to adopt
similar attire for his lectures as Professor of Anatomy at the RA.
Watson was still on the staff at the age of 91 when he died; 'having
imprudently gone into the street without his nightcap, upon a false
alarm of fire, he being then very frail from an attack of the
palsy'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a>
Eager to obtain the vacant position, on 31 October, 1793 and again on
2 November, Carlisle advertised in </span><i>The Times</i><span style="font-style: normal;">;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
To the Trustees of the Westminster Hospital, My Lords, Ladies, and
Gentlemen,</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
As the place of Surgeon to the Westminster Hospital is become vacant
by the death of my much lamented friend Mr Watson, I humbly beg leave
to solicit the honour of your votes and interest to succeed him. My
pretensions are founded on a long attendance and residence at your
hospital, both as a pupil and Mr Watson's attendant. These, with my
general character, encourage me to hope for success and give me, I
trust, a strong claim to your approbation and support. I have the
honour to be, Your most obedient humble servant. Anthony Carlisle.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Carlisle
tended Watson during his last illness and this was in his favour
during voting. On 28 November 1793, Carlisle was elected in a ballot
where he obtained 84 votes as against the 60 votes obtained by his
rival. Thus Carlisle became one of three surgeons at Westminster
Hospital. The position was honorary, with no remuneration, the
benefit being the ability to carry out operations on hospital
patients, and attract paying students and private patients. A</span>
second Irish Giant associated with Carlisle, was Patrick Cotter
O'Brien (1760-1806), the first person in medical history to stand at
a verified height of eight feet or more. Carlisle gifts to the
Hunterian Collection<span style="font-style: normal;"> included; 'Item
722. A plaster cast of the right hand of Patrick Cotter an Irish
Giant whose height in the year 1802 was eight feet seven inches and a
half, presented by Sir A Carlisle 1819'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In 1823 Charles
Lamb, himself considered to be one of the finest essayists in the
English language, wrote that Carlisle
was 'the best story teller I ever heard; The Quaker incident did not
happen to me, but to Carlisle the surgeon, from whose mouth I have
twice heard it, at an interval of ten or twelve years, with little or
no variation, and have given it as exactly as I could remember it. …
The story loses sadly in print, for Carlisle is the best story teller
I ever heard'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a>
The story also does not retell as well in the 21C, but Lamb recounted the
full story as told him by Carlisle; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
I was travelling in a stage coach with three Quakers ... We stopped to bait at Andover,
where a meal, partly tea apparatus, partly supper was set before us.
My friends confined themselves to the tea table. I in my way took
supper. When the landlady brought in the bill the eldest of my
companions discovered that she had charged for both meals. This was
resisted. Mine hostess was very clamorous and positive. Some mild
arguments were used on the part of the Quakers for which the heated
mind of the good lady seemed by no means a fit recipient. The guard
came in with his usual peremptory notice. The Quakers pulled out
their money and formally tendered it - so much for tea - I in humble
imitation tendering mine for the supper which I had taken. She would
not relax in her demand. So they all three quietly put up their
silver as did myself and marched out of the room, the eldest and
gravest going first, with myself closing up the rear, who thought I
could not do better than follow the example of such grave and
warrantable personages. We got in. The steps went up. The coach drove
off. The murmurs of mine hostess not very indistinctly or ambiguously
pronounced, became after a time inaudible and now my conscience,
which the whimsical scene had for a while suspended, beg[an] to give
some twitches, I waited, in the hope that some justification would be
offered by these serious persons for the seeming injustice of their
conduct. To my great surprise not a syllable was dropped on the
subject. They sate as mute as at a meeting. At length the eldest of
them broke silence by inquiring of his next neighbour, 'Hast thee
heard how indigos go at the India House?' and the question operated
as a soporific on my moral feeling as far as Exeter.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In contrast to Carlisle's meek acceptance of the landlady's demand, we will later
learn how Mary Shelley feared the widespread demands of rioters in
Britain in 1830-1831 might culminate in revolution. Thus leading Mary
to revise <i>Frankenstein</i> in 1831. Her fears being similar to those of her mother who, in 1793,
expressed concern about scenes witnessed during the French
Revolution; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
I would I could first inform you that out of the chaos of vices and
follies, prejudices and virtues, rudely jumbled together, I saw the
fair form of Liberty slowly rising, and Virtue, expanding her wings
to shelter all her children! I should then hear the account of the
barbarities that have rent the bosom of France patiently, and bless
the firm hand that lopt off the rotten limbs. But if the aristocracy
of birth is levelled with the ground, only to make room for that of
riches, I am afraid that the morals of the people will not be much
improved by the change, or the government rendered less venial.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
But, before
considering that, just what use did Carlisle make of his superior
storytelling skills?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
</div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Monro, Alexander, <i>Elements of the anatomy of the human body</i>,
Vol I, Edinburgh, Maclachlan, 1825, p xxviii</span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Smith, George H, <i>Some Physician Friends of Joseph Farington, RA,
II. hum</i> 1942 March; 14 (4), p 407-434 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Bewick, William, </span><i>Life and letters of William Bewick</i>,
Vol I, ed by T Landseer, London, Hurst & Blackett, 1871, p 140</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in Langdon-Davies, John, <i>Westminster
Hospital, </i>London, John Murray, 1952, p 167</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Elliot, Jabez H and Wilder, Alexander, </span><i>History of
Medicine,</i> New Sharon, Maine, 1931, p 360 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Carlyle, Thomas, <i>Reminiscences,</i> Oxford, OUP, 1997, p 290
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a><i>
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">Elliston, Robert William,
quoted in </span><i>The Annual Biography and Obituary for 1832,</i>
London, Longmans, 1832, p 61</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
<i>The Mirror of Literature, Amusement, and Instruction</i>, Vol.
10, Issue 267, of August 4, 1827</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a><i>
The Medical Times</i>, Vol III, September 1840 to April 1841, p 79</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
Shee, Martin Archer, <i>The Life of Sir Martin Archer Shee</i>,
London, Longmans, 1860, p 160</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a><i>
The Ladies Repository,</i> London, Wright and Swormstedt, 1867, p
501</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
<i>The Mirror of Literature, Amusement, and Instruction,</i> Vol.
10, Issue 267, of August 4, London, 1827 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Clarke, J F, quoted in Langdon-Davies, John, <i>Westminster
Hospital, </i>London, John Murray, 1952, p 112</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Carlisle, Anthony, </span><i>Minutes of Evidence</i>, Parliamentary
papers, House of Commons, Q 5983, 1834, pp 139-152 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Howell, W B, <i>Augustus Bozzi Granville – Journeyman Physician</i>,
CMA Journal, Dec 1931, p 722</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a><i>Medical
Times and Gazette</i>, London, 1858, p 367
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>Carlisle,
Anthony, quoted in Bengali, Neville, <i>Magnet Therapy</i>, B Jain,
2001</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a><i>The
Lancet,</i> Vol II, London, Wakley, 1833, p 668</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a><i>Internet</i>,
http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1857/jul/01/debate-resumed
accessed April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
Blackwood, William,<i> Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine</i>,
Edinburgh, W Blackwood, 1833, p 432-433</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
<i>The London University Magazine</i>, Vol I, London, Hurst, Chance
and Co, 1829, p 204</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>Carlisle,
Nicholas,<i> Collections for a history of the Ancient Family of
Carlisle</i>, London, 1822 is a prime source</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a><i>The
Gentlemen's Magazine</i>, August 1847, London, p 208</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Hardy, Charles, <i>Register of Ships, Employed in the Service of
the Honourable the United East India Company, from the Year 1760 to
1810</i>, London, Heseltine, 1811, p 166 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a><i>The
Gentleman's Magazine</i>, August 1847, London, p 208</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a><i>
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">Farington, Joseph, </span><i>The
Farington Diary,</i><span style="font-style: normal;"> Vol IV, New
York, Doran, 1924, p 61</span></span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a><i>Eclectic
Review</i>, (July-December 1818) p.528, quoted at
http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/OXFORDSHIRE/2008-02/1203454021
accessed April 2009 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>Buckingham,
J S, <i>The Athenaeum,</i> London, William Lewer, 1828, p 386</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a><i>The
Gentlemen's Magazine</i>, August 1847, London, p 208</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a><i>The
Medical Times</i>, Vol III, September 1840 to April 1841, p 79</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 122</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a><i>The
Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, August 1800, p 691</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a><i>The
Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, May, 1842, p 565 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a><i>The
Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, January, 1866, p 153 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a><i>The
Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, July, 1856, p 782</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>Wakley,
Thomas, <i>The Lancet </i>Vol 1, London, T Wakley, 1854, p 345</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>Peck,
Winifred, <i>A little learning</i>, London, Faber, 1952, quoted in
Hughes, K, <i>The Victorian Governess</i>, 2001, p 33
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a><i>The
World in the year 1840</i>, London, 1841, p 126</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>Compton,
Spencer Joshua A, <i>Address at the Royal Society</i>, London, 1840,</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a><i>Last
Will and Testament</i> of Nicholas Carlisle, National Archives</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a><i>A
New General Biographical Dictionary</i> Vol VI, London, T Fellowes,
1857, p 52</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a><i>The
Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, 1840, p 661</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Pettigrew,
Thomas Joseph,</span><i> Biographical memoirs</i>, London, Fisher,
1838 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>Carlisle,
Nicholas, <i>Collections for a History of the Ancient family of
Carlisle, </i><i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Humilitate, 1822</span></i></span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a><i>The
Gentlemen's Magazine</i>, August 1847, London, p 208</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a><i>The
Medical Times</i>, Vol III, September 1840 to April 1841, p 79</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Blakely,
Ruth Margaret, </span><i>The Brus family in England and Scotland</i>,
New York : Boydell, 2005, p 16,189-191 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Blakely,
Ruth Margaret, </span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>The
Brus family in England and Scotland</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">,
New York, Boydell, 2005, p 83</span></span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
Clarke, <i>The Georgian Era</i>, Vol II, London, Vizetelly, Branston
and Co, 1833, p 588</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>Gross,
Samuel D, <i>Lives of Eminent American Physicians and Surgeons,</i>
Philadelphia, Lindsay, 1861, p 359
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Pettigrew,
Thomas Joseph,</span><i> Biographical memoirs</i>, London, Fisher,
1838 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a><i>The
London Medical and Physical Journal, </i>London, Vol X, Richard
Phillips, 1803, p 171</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a><i>The
Medical Times</i>, Vol III, September 1840 to April 1841, p 79</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>Southey,
Charles Cuthbert, <i>The Life and Correspondence
of Robert Southey,</i> New York, Harper &
Bros, 1851, p 366</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>Wood,
Edward J, <i>Giants and Dwarfs,</i> London, Richard Bentley, 1868, p
163</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a>Richardson,
Benjamin Ward, Sir, <i>The Asclepiad,</i> London, Longmans, 1884, p
52-53
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>National
Library of Scotland,
http://www.nls.uk/broadsides/broadside.cfm/id/15312/transcript/1
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>Boyce,
Samuel, <i>Poems on Several Occasions</i>, London, Dodsley, 1757, p
101-105</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
Humble, J G, and Hansell, Peter, <i>Westminster Hospital 1716-1974</i>,
London, Pitman, 1974, p 50</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a><i>The
Times.</i> London, 31 October 1793</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a><i>Catalogue
of the Hunterian Collection in the Museum of the RCS in London,</i>
Part V, London, R Taylor, 1831, p 51</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a>Lamb,
Charles, <i>The Letters of Charles Lamb</i>, Part II, London, Edward
Moxon, 1848, p 26</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a>Lamb,
Charles, <i>Essays of Elia</i>, Paris, Baudry, 1835, p 70</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote64">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>Wollstonecraft,
Mary, quoted in Pennell, Elizabeth Roberts, <i>Mary Wollstonecraft</i>,
Boston, Roberts, 1890, p 196-197</span></div>
</div>
<br />
[April 2015 - A kind visitor to the website who is a distant relative of Sir Anthony Carlisle has written to me and provided the following interesting information about the family:
<i> </i><br />
<i>Dear Mr Shelton,
I have been dipping into your fascinating, scholarly and learned researches into the background of Sir Anthony Carlisle since at least 2009 and have just come across this new section of yours concerning your researches about a possible link with Mary Shelley and her Frankenstein book. May I thank you for all of your hard work in compiling this information. </i><br />
<br />
<i>Let me explain my particular interest in this subject. I have always known that I am related to Anthony Carlisle in some way. I was told that he was surgeon to one of the King Georges (I didn’t know which one) and that he was in some way responsible for the rebuilding of the Westminster Hospital, but that is all I did know about him. My own father was a chief laboratory technologist, my sister became a senior casualty sister and midwife, my first cousin was a hospital consultant, my aunt was a nurse, my great aunt was also a nurse …the list goes on in respect of my family links to the medical profession. I did not however, follow in my ancestors’ footsteps and instead became a chartered architect! </i><br />
<br />
<i>My late brother Francis, who was a priest, began family tree research about 25 years ago, building on information supplied by a first cousin and he had managed to establish a Carlisle link about two generations away from Anthony:- my great great grandmother Clara Carlisle.
It is only comparatively recently that I have definitely been able to ascertain that I am directly descended from Anthony’s elder brother John Hubback Carlisle. Given that Anthony’s two daughters died childless, that his eldest brother Thomas died without issue in the West Indies and that his half-brother Nicholas also died without issue, I guess that those in my family line would be the closest living relatives to Anthony. I’ve worked out that he was my great great great great great uncle and that Anthony’s father Thomas was my great great great great great grandfather. </i><br />
<br />
<i> I have not been able to find much out about my 4 times great grandfather John Hubback Carlisle, except that he was a master mariner, as was his elder brother Thomas. His half-brother Nicholas hardly gives him a mention in his Collections for a History of the Ancient Family of Carlisle of 1822, and summarises his life as someone who was “brought up in the sea service, but married imprudently and has a numerous issue”. None of that issue nor his wife Mary Elizabeth Byers appear on the family tree at the beginning of the relevant chapter dealing with the Carlisles of Stillington, although Martha Symmons appears on the same tree as Anthony’s wife, even though you suspect she was estranged from him by that time. I have found at least three children of John Hubback Carlisle and Mary Elizabeth Byers:- Thomas (my great, great, great grandfather born in 1790), John Hubback junior (born in 1799) and Barbara Jane (born in 1801). I am pleased to attach transcriptions of these records.
I have found an entry from the Durham Records Office of a legacy dating to 1795, which names Anthony, Thomas (presumably the eldest brother) and John Hubback Carlisle as beneficiaries to a will. Nicholas is conspicuous by his absence. I am pleased to attach the relevant extract which also shows John Hubback’s calling as a master mariner. </i><br />
<br />
<i>Perhaps I am being unduly sensitive, but I get the impression that Nicholas Carlisle did not have much time for his improvident half-brother John. You have written that Nicholas was not a very popular person amongst his employers at Somerset House. I do wonder if he had a bit of a chip on his shoulder for some particular reason – perhaps he gave too much money away to his improvident siblings (including Anthony) and regretted it afterwards. John Hubback Carlisle died in 1828 and I am pleased to attach a transcription of his burial record at St Cuthbert’s, Redmarshall.
John Hubback Carlisle’s children, being the issue of an imprudent marriage, possibly fared better than their uncles. </i><br />
<br />
<i>By the time of Nicholas’ 1822 book publishing, his nephew and my great great great grandfather Thomas was a silk mercer and haberdasher in Bristol, running his own business, T. Carlisle &; Co. (later Carlisle, Robson &; Co.) at the age of 32 and seemingly doing rather well. He went on to invest in ships and the new railway lines being built throughout the kingdom. He was a director of one of those railway companies. He also became a founding trustee of the Bristol Municipal Charities in 1836 and was a Bristol city councillor and alderman. I suspect that he probably knew Brunel, given his Bristol connections and interests in the railways and shipping. He moved to London in 1846. Thomas was also an art collector. When he put some the contents of his Bristol House up for auction in 1845, among the contents on sale were artworks by Rubens, Wildens, Bockhorst and Mucheron. When he died in 1865, another auction was held, which included works by W. Muller, Branwhite, Rippingille, S. Cooper, Luny, Johnson, Reinagle, Anderson, Carter, Danby and Tovey. Thomas was evidently a man not without substance. One of Thomas’ sons, John Carlisle, was a well-known watercolourist and sculptor, who at one time, lived at the poet Keats’ house in Hampstead.
Whatever Nicholas might have thought of his half-brother John, John’s son Thomas and Thomas’ uncle Anthony were apparently on good terms. Both of them were subscribers to book publications. I have found both their names on a very illustrious publication – Sir John Ross’s account of his second voyage in search of a North West Passage, published in 1835. I attach a section of this showing the relevant entries. </i><br />
<br />
<i>You probably already know that a blue plaque has recently been erected in his honour close to Anthony’s birthplace of Stillington. I attach a snippet from The Biologist of 21 March 2015 in case you have not yet seen it.
Just so you know, this is my line of descent from Anthony Carlisle’s father:- Thomas Carlisle (1738-1802) – John Hubback Carlisle (1766-1828) – Thomas Carlisle (1790-1865) – Clara Carlisle (1824-1861) – Thomas Carlisle Macoubrey (1852-1925) – Sophie Macoubrey (1879- ) – Laurence Isherwood (1912-1976) – Jeremy Isherwood (1954- ) </i><br />
<br />
<i>Nicholas Carlisle tells us in his 1822 book about the family, that his grandmother Elizabeth Hutchinson (as well as Anthony and John Hubback Carlisle’s) “was an immediate descendant of the celebrated Colonel Hutchinson………..” This Colonel Hutchinson (1615-16<strike>44</strike>64) was one of the regicides responsible for the decapitation of King Charles I in 1649, so that makes him rather persona-non-grata. Nicholas writes about him in glowing terms, so I think that with his description of the Colonel and prose-style, he was a bit of a roundhead! I haven’t yet been able to definitely establish the link to Hutchinson, but have no reason to doubt that Nicholas was correct in his supposition – he wasn’t far away in generational terms from his granny and she was probably the Colonel’s great granddaughter if I have my dates right. That being the case and that Colonel Hutchinson’s wife was Lucy Apsley (1620-1681); both of these families are well documented and have trodden the corridors of power in England for centuries. </i><br />
<br />
<i>It has not been difficult to establish close familial links through the Hutchinson line with the poet Byron (Possibly another connection here with Mary Shelley?) and direct lines of descent from the Royal Houses of England and Europe all the way back to the Emperor Charlemagne and beyond. I include in these lines the dukes of Normandy, The Angevins, and The Royal House of Wessex. Perhaps Anthony was barking up the wrong tree in trying to establish family links with Lord Torthorwald et al!
I know that my little researches pale into insignificance in comparison to your great mass of findings, but I do hope that they will be of some interest to you. </i><br />
<br />
<i>Further - I do not get the impression that Nicholas Carlisle ever married. I did find him living at Somerset House during the 1841 census where, at the age of 70, he was still described as “Secretary”. That was presumably a grace and favour apartment. I know that he died in Margate on 27 August 1847 and I couldn’t find anything about him marrying in his obituary published in the Gentleman’s Magazine. Quite why he settled in Margate is beyond me – perhaps he knew the London artist J M W Turner, who also stayed there from time to time.
I forgot to send you the attached dedication that I found to Barbara Leonora and Annabella Carlisle in a book by Donald Walker, published in 1836 and rather long-windedly entitled “Exercises for Ladies calculated to preserve and improve beauty and to prevent and correct personal defects inseparable from constrained or careless habits: founded on physiological principles”. The dedication refers to their “amiable qualities and high accomplishments”. I do get the impression from that this that they were both ladies who were well-known in London society, so I imagine that Anthony was quite proud to show them off. I wonder if they lived with Anthony at Langham Place, which would have been a very fashionable address; that area having been recently developed going up to Regents Park by the then Prince Regent and his architect John Nash. </i><br />
<br />
<i>I found Anthony’s will rather difficult to read, but it seems that Barbara and Annabella were both named as executrixes. I imagine that any personal papers would have passed into their hands.
I know that Anthony and Martha Symmons were married by Rev. Matthew Bloxham in 1800. I don’t think that he was either the incumbent or the curate, as I found elsewhere on the register the names of Matthew Booker as Curate and John Chambers, Vicar of Coughton. Coughton Court is in Alcester, where Anthony married. Interestingly enough, the 1841 census shows Barbara Leonora and Annabella staying at the parsonage of Ide Hill, near Sevenoaks in Kent – about 20 miles away from me, where the 65 year old Mathew Bloxham was head of the household and described as a Clergyman of the Church of England. I can’t help but think that Matthew and Mathew Bloxham were one and the same person. An article in the Gentleman’s Magazine of 1824 states that Matthew Bloxham (note the 2 “t”s) M.A. of Worcester College, Oxford, was the first incumbent of a chapel of ease at Ide Hill that was consecrated by the Archbishop of Canterbury on 12 June 1807. It seems to me therefore, that Matthew Bloxham was probably a family friend of Anthony’s. </i><br />
<br />
<i>I should be very pleased for you to publish on your website any useful information that I can impart. There was one small typo concerning the dates for Colonel Hutchinson. He didn’t die in 1644, as he wouldn’t then have been a regicide. He was rounded up in 1663 after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. He had very influential royalist relatives and was spared the ignominy of execution or of being dug up and “executed” like Cromwell, but he was incarcerated at the Tower of London and then Sandown Castle in Kent, where he died in 1664. </i><br />
<i>With my very best wishes, </i><br />
<i>Jeremy Isherwood</i>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-29200379524685434042015-04-11T13:41:00.001-07:002021-11-26T09:24:58.829-08:002 - Mr or Mrs Carver? The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">As a young surgeon from a modest background, Carlisle's
shortage of money led to a method of supplementing his income
followed by another young doctor in similar circumstances 100 years
later. That later young doctor becoming famous as Sir Arthur Conan
Doyle, author and creator of Sherlock Holmes. In fact we will later
find that research into the life of Sir Anthony Carlisle has
uncovered an 18C murder mystery which would have fascinated, and
challenged, Sherlock Holmes and his companion, Dr Watson. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;"> </span>In
1793, Carlisle's income was minimal. Already he was friendly with a
number of literary people and was inspired by their writing. These
authors included William Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft, Robert Southey
and Thomas Holcroft. Mary Wollstonecraft's unfinished Gothic novel <i>The Cave of Fancy</i>, may have been the inspiration for
Carlisle to commence writing anonymous Gothic novels, which he
continued at least until his marriage in 1800. He also wrote medical
literature and his miniature portrait depicts two inkwells, a clue
for posterity he had written under two different names.<br />
<br />
Gothic novels
as a literary form tended to replace novels based upon high-profile
scandals of the period, written such that their success depended upon
readers recognising the particular scandal the novel was based upon.
Most Gothic novels were little regarded, with many published
anonymously, but interest in the author was beginning to emerge, as
William Godwin noted;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
In those days it was deemed a most daring thought to attempt to write
a novel, with the hope that it might hereafter rank among the
classics of a language. The most successful English writers in that
province of literature had scarcely gone beyond three It had not then
been conceived that the same author might produce twenty or thirty,
at the rate of two or three per annum, and might still at least
retain his hold upon the partiality of his contemporaries.....One of
my most valued friends [Mr Northcote – who painted Godwin's
portrait] has often told me, that the public may sometimes be
interested in the perusal of a book, but that they never give
themselves any trouble about the author. He therefore kindly advised
me on no occasion to say any thing in print about myself. The present
race of readers seem scarcely disposed to verify this maxim, They are
understood to be desirous to learn something of the peculiarities,
the 'life, character, and behaviour,' of an author, before they
consign him to the gulph of oblivion, and are willing to learn from
his own testimony what train of thoughts induced him to adopt the
particular subject and plan of the work, upon the perusal of which
they are engaged.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
Authors of the late 18C were, for the most part, well educated and
Gothic novels were often like modern day romantic or detective
stories, with the main plot being a mystery, various family
relationships concealed in the early part of the story, false leads,
a trick in the solution, and all loose ends tied up by the
conclusion. The main thing missing, when compared to modern detective
novels, is a police inspector!<br />
<br />
Some anonymous novels were written by
women, at a time when writing was not considered a suitable
occupation for a lady. If a man wrote anonymously, it was often a
wish to conceal his identity for social or career reasons, as a
modern introduction to <i>The Cavern of Death</i> comments;<span style="font-style: normal;">
'Was this work...written by a well-to-do gentleman for self
amuseme</span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">nt?'</span></span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">'</span></i><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
</span></span>The novels written by Carlisle were in a transitional
form, drawing on the scandalous novel format, in basing characters
upon real people and events, but with a Gothic plot. There was a
precedent for educated men to write Gothic fiction. Horace Walpole
(1717-1797) wrote<i> The Castle of Otranto</i> in 1764
and Matthew Gregory Lewis (1775-1818) wrote <i>The Monk</i>
in 1794, with Mary Shelley recorded as having read the latter. Both
men were wealthy and not dependent on the success of their novels. In
contrast, Carlisle needed to establish an income. Carlisle had read
<i>Castle of Otranto</i>, for in <i>Old Woman</i> he writes; <span style="font-style: normal;">'as
to the book she mentioned, neither herself or the man who understood
it. It was written by a very ingenious man, in order to display the
powers of fancy upon the subject of terror, but by no means intended
to be considered as truth, and was called the Castle of Otranto.</span><i>'</i><span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a></span><i>
</i>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
The key to unlocking Carlisle's literary efforts is a novel of 1797,<i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey,</i><span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a></span>
previously attributed to Mrs Carver, a name generally accepted as a
non de plume, but described as author in 1814.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a>
<i>Oakendale</i> represents an even earlier example of science
fiction than <i>Frankenstein</i>. The focus on <i>Oakendale</i> as key
to Carlisle was pure serendipity (a word coined by Horace Walpole,
distant cousin to Carlisle's wife, Martha), when an Internet search
for 'resurrection men' revealed; 'those wretches, and pest of
society, called <span style="font-style: normal;">Resurrection men,
who brought numbers of bodies to Oakendale Abbey. They were generally
received in the night; and the person, who was a chief
superintendent, and who paid the man who procured the bodies, was
named Marcel...'</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a>
Signifying the author was familiar with body snatching.<br />
<br />
This prompted
study and, gradually, coincidences emerged connecting to Carlisle and
the Carlyle history. There was reference to Milford Haven in Wales,
near to Slebech where Carlisle's father-in-law, John Symmons, had a country
estate. The heroine, Laura, comm<span style="font-style: normal;">ented;
'We landed in Milford Haven, at a place which appeared almost
uninhabited; and consisted only of an inn and a few houses.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
</span>Then, as with a cryptic crossword puzzle, more clues were
solved, building an ever stronger conviction Carlisle was Mrs Carver.
Almost the last realisation was of Mrs Carver being a word play on
both Mr Car... and on Carlisle's occupation as a surgeon, i.e. a
'carver' of meat. The pun is obvious in hindsight, but the dots were
only connected after conviction that Carlisle was the author.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
Carlisle was fascinated by the Carlyle story, and the Welsh histories
of the Symmons and Philipps families, who owned adjacent mansions at
Slebech Hall and Picton Castle. <span style="font-style: normal;">One</span>
can understand Carlisle's wish to conceal his identity, fearing an
adverse impact on his career. When he married in 1800, it became even
harder to consider revealing his authorship, as a flawed main
character in <i>Oakendale Abbey</i> was based upon his father-in-law, John
Symmons FRS. <i>Oakendale Abbey</i> was published by William Lane of Minerva
Press in Leadenhall Street, who published many Gothic and other
novels between 1794 and 1808, mostly by identified authors, but
including fifty novels by anonymous authors. A disapproving 1797
review of the novel notes the author was a man, and the comment, "to find a writer cast away those powers he
possesses", indicates the writer knew the author's identity;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
This work, as an imitation of Ann Radcliffe, is perhaps one of the
most despicable performances that ever appeared: the tremendous
ghosts and half-hanged men, excite nothing but laughter; and we are
at every moment disposed to cast away the volume with disgust, at the
unmeaning curiosity of Laura. We are sorry for the author's
attempting the sublime, as we discover at intervals, touches of
feeling, and situations so replete with the genuine pathetic, that we
are really displeased to find a writer cast away those powers he
possesses, to follow a painted cloud which melts in his embrace.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Several
books are attributed to Mrs Carver, although not all sources are
consistent in their attributions. The Corvey Collection lists; <i>"The
Horrors of Oakendale Abbey"</i> in 1797, <i>"Elizabeth"</i>
in 1797, <i>"The Legacy"</i> in 1798, and <i>"The Old
Woman"</i> in 1800.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a>
The Open Library also attributes <i>"The Cavern of Death"</i>
in 1794,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a>
although a modern edition does not do so.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
The Legacy is set in Wales, significant, as both Oakendale Abbey and
Old Woman are set in Wales.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
It is possible some of the fifty anonymous Gothic novels published by
William Lane are also by Carlisle. An example is <i>“The Animated
Skeleton”</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
Evidence for Carlisle as author of Oakendale is in several
categories;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
1 - Names of characters drawn from place names connected to the
history of the Carlyle name.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
2 - Names of characters drawn from place names close to where
Carlisle was born.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
3 - The location of the story in a place visited by few people in 18C
Britain, Milford Haven in Pembrokeshire, where Carlisle's future
father-in-law, John Symmons, had a country estate.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
4 - Character and other references making it clear the main character
is based upon Symmons.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
5 - Various medical references, which make it clear the author
possessed medical knowledge.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
6 - References to the resurrectionists, showing the author was
familiar with their activities.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
7 - The date and location of publishing.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
number of educated men in London in 1797 capable of fitting any four
of the above seven categories, is no more than the fingers on one
hand. Carlisle is the only person to fit all seven categories, and pun to
match the pen-name of Mrs Carver.<br />
<br />
Alternative possibilities
considered included Anthony's younger brother, Nicholas. Against him
is that he was not a surgeon, he was unlikely to have visited Wales,
and he was travelling as a purser on multiple trading voyages to the
East Indies when the novels were written. Other discounted
possibilities as author include Carlisle's future wife Martha
Symmons, daughter of John Symmons. A major reason for discounting her
is that Lord Oakendale has predatory designs on the heroine Laura,
despite his being married, until late in the novel when he finds out
she is his niece;<span style="font-style: normal;"> '..his pride
exulted in calling that woman a niece, whom he had a short time
before designed and solicited for prostitution.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a></span>
It is improbable Martha could have written of her own father in such
a negative manner. Other faint possibilities include Carlisle's
literary friends, such as Godwin. However, it is unlikely they had a
need to remain anonymous, nor the collective medical, scientific, and
geographic knowledge so peculiar to Carlisle himself.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Explaining
and appreciating the links between Carlisle and <i>Oakendale</i> is
difficult without reading the novel, but an attempt can be made to
convey the links. The underlying location within <i>Oakendale</i> is at a
remote mansion owned, but not visited by Lord Oakendale, where
unknown to him, dead bodies collected by resurrection men are
dissected.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
Lord Oakendale has designs on a young woman he meets at Milford
Haven, but later finds out she is his niece. In <i>Oakendale</i>, Carlisle
portrays himself as Eugene, a lesser character of modest background,
who emerges as Lord Vincent, with titles and wealth, and wins the
heroine Laura. A full analysis suggests the theme is a personal
fantasy, based upon Carlisle regaining the titles and fortune lost by
Lord Carlyle. Several names connected to the Carlyle family history
emerge. The main character is variously described as Lord Oakendale,
Thornaby, and Robert Carleton, thus his title is Robert, Lord
Oakendale, with Oakendale Abbey described as an empty family mansion
near Carlisle in Cumberland.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
It soon became
apparent 'Oakendale' was a word play on 'Annandale', a district in
Scotland adjoining Cumberland and near the city of Carlisle (itself a
clue). <span style="font-style: normal;">In <i>Oakendale</i>, t</span>he main
character Robert, Lord Oakendale corresponds to Robert, Lord
Annandale. With Robert, Annandale, Thornaby, and Carleton all names
appearing in the Lord Carlyle history.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
In addition, Thornaby and Carlton are names of two villages close to
where Anthony Carlisle was born. Within <i>Oakendale</i> it becomes apparent
Lord Oakendale is based upon John Symmons, who owned a country house
at Slebech, near Milford Haven in Wales, and another vacant Symmons
family mansion fifteen miles north at Llanstinan.<br />
<br />
In researching
Symmons it became apparent Carlisle had been introduced to Symmons by
the famous surgeon John Hunter. Carlisle's younger brother, Nicholas,
under the heading of Llanstinan, writes<span style="font-style: normal;">;
'The ancient and hospitable Mansion of the Family of Symmons is now
rapidly falling to decay.' W</span>hen describing Little Newcastle,
two miles south-east of Llanstinan, he refers to;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">There is a moat or mound in the
middle of the village, near the church which is called The Castle,
and from whence it is thought the parish derives its name and
probably in contra-distinction to an apparently much older work a
little above the village. Here is the site of Martel, the ancient
residence of the family of Symmons before they removed to
Llanstinan.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
</span><i> </i>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
A 19C
reference to Llanstinan states;<span style="font-style: normal;">
'there was the ancient mansion of the family of Symmons, which
remained in a neglected state for some time, but was restored and is
now the handsome seat of Col. Owen.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
</span>Thus, during the 18C, a Symmons' home existed at Llanstinan.
Although restored in the early 19C, it was unoccupied in the late
18C. In Oakendale, this vacant Symmons mansion is renamed Oakendale
Abbey and 'transported' to Annandale, north of the city of Carlisle.
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
heroine, Laura records meeting Lord Oakendale at Milford Haven, when
he is using the name Thornaby. In the novel, Lord Oakendale is
already married to Miss Rainsford, only daughter of Lord Westhaven
and he <span style="font-style: normal;">'was leading a life, not only
of inactivity, but of unlimited debauchery of every kind. Two years
after the death of the late Earl, Robert found himself so embarrassed
and his fortune so little equal to his expenses, that he was under
the necessity of repairing it by a marriage, in which love formed no
part of the contract'.</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
From 1783, John Symmons was one of the twenty-five members of the
Noblemen and Gentleman's Catch Club,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a>
along with the Earl of Sandwich and the Earl of March, both noted for
their debauchery.<br />
<br />
The name Westhaven is a word play on the town of
Haverfordwest and its harbour of Milford Haven, both close to the
estates of the Symmons and Philipps families. Carlisle uses a word
play of 'haven' and 'west' for Lord Westhaven. He does not use the
name Milford, as the owner of Picton Castle was Lord Milford and too
obvious. Thus he is left with 'Haverford', also too obvious and
instead we find that the daughter of Lord Westhaven is Miss
Rainsford. Carlisle probably considered changing Haverford to
Waterford, but as there is a real Waterford, it was logical to use
'rain' instead of 'water', to reach Rainsford, as the name of Lord
Westhaven's daughter. In real life, Miss Rainsford was based upon
Anne Trevanion, nee Barlow, a wealthy widow who, as the last of the
Barlows, owned the Slebech estate. Symmons married her for her
fortune, as did Lord Oakendale marry Miss Rainsford.<br />
<br />
Thus we have
John Symmons (Lord Oakendale) marrying Anne Trevanion, nee Barlow
(Miss Rainsford) on 24 March 1773 at Bath, Somerset, with Slebech
thereby becoming the country estate of John Symmons, and the reason
the Symmons mansion at Llanstinan became vacant. Lord Oakendale is
referred to as a senator, a euphemism for MP.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
Symmons was not a MP, but his father, John Symmons (1701-1764), was
MP for Cardigan from 1746-1761,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
and married Maria Philipps, daughter of Charles Philipps of
Sandyhaven and Haythog, and cousin to the Philipps family of Picton
Castle.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
<i>Oakendale</i>, Lord Oakendale had a younger brother who went to the East
Indies and never returned. This is based upon Carlisle's eldest
brother, Thomas, who sailed as an officer on a ship and died in the West Indies. Carlisle signals his
interest in chivalry and medieval history; <span style="font-style: normal;">'Heraldry
was Laura's favourite study, but she could not give up the present
time to investigate the arms of the house of Oakendale.</span>'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
As shown, Carlisle's coat-of-arms was almost identical to that of
Annandale. In <i>Oakendale</i>, there is a reference to Thornaby (Lord
Oakendale) making annual trips to the Welsh seaside from his London
home, to places such as Milford Haven.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
Such activity fits with the Society of Sea Serjeants, a group of
twenty-five southern Welsh gentry, including members of the Symmons
and Philipps families, who met each July for a week at different
southern Welsh seaside town. John Symmons MP and Sir John Philipps
were both Sea Serjeants and their portraits were on display in the
18C.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The last
name for the heroine Laura Carleton comes from the Carlyle history
and Carleton, a village close to Carlisle's birthplace, where his
great-great-great-grandmother Elizabeth Tompson lived. Research
suggests Laura may be based upon the poet Caroline Symmons
(1789-1803), cousin of Martha and niece of Symmons, the same
relationship as Laura had to Lord Oakendale. Oakendale
includes medical references demonstrating the author's medical
knowledge; such as accoucheur,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
a French word meaning man-midwife.<br />
<br />
The first name of Laura
reflects Carlisle's knowledge of mediaeval history. Francesco
Petrarca (1304 – 1374), known in English as Petrarch, was an
Italian scholar, poet and is often called the 'Father of Humanism'.
He is famous for his poetry about Laura who he loved from afar but
was unable to marry as she was already married. In Oakendale Thornaby
loves Laura, but is unable to marry her when he finds out she is his
niece. Although, Laura falls into the hands of the anatomists, they
do not harm her, but carry her to a safe cottage.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
Later, she is rescued by a surgeon named du Frene,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a>
who also tends two wounded duellists.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a>
The surgeon and the anatomists are kind to Laura, reflecting a
chivalric stance typical of Carlisle.<br />
<br />
A resurrection men, Patrick,
reveals he was born in Carrick, a name in the Carlyle history, saying
he,<span style="font-style: normal;"> 'joined a set of coiners in the
neighbourhood of Penrith, where they were soon after discovered,
taken, and brought to condign punishment.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a>
</span>The detail indicates the author's familiarity with; the
resurrection men, survival from a hanging, the knowledge execution
was the penalty for coiners (counterfeiting)<span style="font-style: normal;">.
</span>Patrick survives his execution and of his recovery, speaks in
the words of a medical man;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
The first idea of recollection he experienced (after the noise of the
crowd and the mob that tended him to the gallows had ceased) was of
extreme pain in his head and neck, and a violent oppression upon his
lungs. He struggled for a few seconds, and gained respiration; a mist
before his eyes seemed to vanish and recovered sight....and he tried
to articulate; but found his throat so swelled that he could only
utter a gurgling sound..<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Occasionally
felons survived hanging. In 1740 William Duell was hanged for raping
and murdering Sarah Griffin. He was to be anatomised after execution,
but one of the attendants perceived signs of life. Steps were taken
immediately and Duell was aroused, and eventually taken away in
triumph by the mob, who got wind of the affair and refused to allow
the law to re-hang their man. He was returned to Newgate, but the
authorities decided to reprieve him and his sentence was commuted to
transportation. A similar thing happened on Christmas Eve 1705 to
John Smith. Having been turned off the back of the cart, he dangled
for some minutes until the crowd began to shout; 'Reprieve!'
whereupon he was cut down and hurried away to a neighbouring tavern
and restoratives were given. Blood was let, and after a time he came
to himself. When asked what it felt like to be hanged, Smith told his
rescuers his previous agony was surpassed when the blood began to
circulate again.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
When I was turned off I was, for some time, sensible of very great
pain occasioned by the weight of my body and felt my spirits in
strange commotion, violently pressing upwards. Having forced their
way to my head I saw a great blaze or glaring light that seemed to go
out of my eyes in a flash and then I lost all sense of pain. After I
was cut down, I began to come to myself and the blood and spirits
forcing themselves into their former channels put me by a prickling
or shooting into such intolerable pain that I could have wished those
hanged, who had cut me down.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Carlisle
also drew on another executed criminal, Patrick Redmond a tailor,
hanged in Cork, Ireland in 1767, for a street robbery, but revived
when he had hung twenty-eight minutes. The mob rescued his body, and
carried it to a surgeon in attendance to experiment with a
bronchotomy, an incision in the windpipe which, in less than six
hours, produced the desired effect of reviving Redmond.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
A collection was made for Redmond and he was later pardoned. Unusual,
as the law said the condemned shall hang until he is dead, so in a
strict interpretation he was liable to be hanged again.<br />
<br />
<i>Oakendale</i> refers to
anatomists whose activities Carlisle was familiar with: 'but how
she was struck with horror and astonishment, when the skeleton of
a human body presented itself to her afrighted view!' And <span style="font-style: normal;">'The
dead body of a woman hung against the wall opposite to the door
she had entered, with a coarse cloth pinned over all but the face;
the ghastly and putrefied appearance of which bespoke her to have
been sometime dead.' </span>And; <span style="font-style: normal;">'those
unfeeling monsters of society, who make a practice of stealing our
friends, and relations from the peaceful grave where their ashes,
as we suppose, are deposited in rest.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle's knowledge of the skeleton of the eight foot tall Irish Giant, Charles
Byrne, concealed for five years by the anatomist John Hunter, was
inspiration for a scene in <i>Oakendale</i>; '<span style="font-style: normal;">They
approached the trunk, wherein the skeleton was deposited. Lord
Oakendale ordered his servants to lift up the lid; and the light had
no sooner glanced upon the the ghastly figure, than the man, dropping
the lid from his hand exclaimed, “God preserve us! Here is a dead
man, bigger than a giant. With saucer eyes, and huge limbs!"'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
</span><br />
<br />
There is sign of Carlisle's friendship with Coleridge and
Wordsworth, in the <i>Oakendale</i> reference; '<span style="font-style: normal;">He
had been in company with a gentleman who had given him so charming a
description of the Lakes in Westmorland and Cumberland, that if
anything could remove his melancholy, and divert his imagination, it
would be to visit those celebrated Lakes, and to ramble about that
romantic and delightful country'.</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a>
It seems Coleridge, in referring to his then depressed state, is
telling Carlisle that Wordsworth's descriptions brought about his
ambition to visit the Lake District in 1799. A character in <i>Oakendale</i>
is described as a Hibernian,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a>
unusual in a novel of the period. C E Drew found that Carlisle was
the first person to use its root form, 'hibernus' meaning winter, in
his Croonian Lecture of 1804, so coining a new English word
'hibernate', meaning 'to pass the winter in a dormant state' with
reference to animals such as bears.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
instances linking <i>Oakendale</i> with Carlisle and Symmons are so strong,
the case becomes proved as when a body-less murder is proved by
circumstantial evidence. Other novels attributed to Mrs Carver have
been reviewed. <i>The Cavern of Death</i> <span style="font-weight: normal;">is
the earliest book attributed by some sources to Mr</span>s Carver, a
Gothic novel published anonymously on 12 February 1794, much of it
having appeared in parts during 1793 in the newspaper <i>The
True Briton. </i><span style="font-weight: normal;">In one of
Robert Southey's letters, of 8 February 1795, he writes </span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">'My
troublesome guest, called honesty, prevents my writing in The True
Briton'.</span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"> Thus Southey
may have introduced Carlisle to <i>True Briton</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
</span><br />
<br />
The theme of <i>Cavern</i> is medieval knights of the 12C and it is
apparent the author was familiar with the period which corresponds to
the time of Robert, Lord Annandale. Several rare words are found;
individually they can be debated, but their sum supports a tentative
attribution to Carlisle. They include; page 22, the word seneschal,
the name for a steward of the household of a medieval prince;<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>
page 25, corslet, a piece of armour for the top part of the body;
page 31, a reference to clad in refulgent arms, where refulgent means
shining, brilliant, or radiant; page 45, parricide, the killing of
either of one's parents; page 66, casque, a helmet or a helmet-like
structure, as with the bill of most horn-bills, hinting at an author
familiar with zoological terms; page 77, reference to Tutelary Saint,
where tutelary means invested with the role of guardian or protector.
In isolation, the content and the specialist words within <i>Cavern</i> are
regarded as insufficient to confirm Carlisle as the author. However,
taking <i>Oakendale</i> and <i>Cavern</i> as a joint package, the probability of
Carlisle being the author of <i>Cavern</i> increases. In <i>Cavern</i>, Carlisle
again fulfils his Lord Carlyle chivalric fantasy on the last page,
where Sir Albert (for Sir Anthony!) attains his rightful hereditary entitlements to noble rank
and estates, and wins the heroine.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Carlisle
was well read and delighted in the use of obscure words, word plays,
literary puns, and historical references. </span><i>The Legacy</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
by Mrs Carver, contains signs of Carlisle's authorship, including
extensive medical references to illness, the Foundling Hospital, the
Magdalene Hospital for Prostitutes, a murder, and a duel. There is
reference to Charles Orkney contemplating a curacy in Wales, to be
compared with the brother of John Symmons, Rev Charles Symmons, who
did serve as a curate in Wales. Lord Mackwarling who is wealthy, has
a large library, and is interested in science is based upon John
Symmons. A character is named Mrs Owen, a family name connected to
the Symmons' family. A wedding takes place in York, a city Carlisle
was familiar with and a scene at Covent Garden draws on the story of
Martha Ray and James Hackman. Carlisle was an atheist who, in <i>The
Legacy</i>, pokes fun at religion, with the crux of the plot involving
the impact of unread bibles.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A further
Gothic novel published by William Lane in 1798, and likely written by
Carlisle is <i>The Animated Skeleton</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
The opening scene of Animated Skeleton is reminiscent of the opening
of<i> Oakendale</i>, and there are medical, medieval, and similar references
linking the novel to Carlisle;<span style="font-style: normal;"> 'the
pangs of parturition seized her with redoubled force, and she shortly
after delivered of a dead child'.</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
Non-medically trained authors would refer to a baby dying during
childbirth, not parturition. There are detailed comments about
poison, with page 97 referring to to a post-death examination,
unusual in 18C fiction. References include a medical description of a
dead body;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The body appeared to have been many
days deprived of life; but the extreme coldness of the weather had
prevented it from becoming putrid ... a countenance of rage and often
fear (alternately from pale to red, and from red to pale) .... A
blackness round the throat of the infant attracted his attention: he
demanded the reason.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The
reference to poison, together with extracts</span> on the title page
of Animated Skeleton, links to a book <i>Olaudah Equiano</i> and
to <i>Gustavus Vasa</i> an obscure play written in 1739
by Henry Brooke (1703-1783), dealing with the liberation of Sweden
from Danish rule in the 16C. Despite the context, Robert Walpole,
Prime Minister at the time, believed the play's villain was intended
to represent him and had it banned; the first English play banned
under the Licensing Act 1737.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a></div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Two extracts from the play <i>"Gustavus Vasa"</i> appear
on the title page of <i>Animated Skeleton</i>;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
<i>... I oft have sought,</i></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<i>With friendly tender of some worthier service,</i></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<i>To win him from his temper; but he shuns</i></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<i>All offers....</i><br />
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<i>... Is there cause for this?</i></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<i>For sin without temptation, calm, cool villany --</i></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<i>Deliberate mischief, unimpassioned lust,</i></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<i>And smiling murder--</i>-<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Although they seem strangely obscure extracts, there is a subtle
link, fitting Carlisle's intellectual sense of humour, and the
poisoning which is a major plot element in <i>Animated Skeleton</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
In the 18C, the name Gustavus Vasa was also given to Olaudah
Equiano, a prominent African ex-slave living in Britain, and
involved in the struggle to abolish slavery. In 1789 his
autobiography was published; <i>The Interesting Narrative of
the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African
Written By Himself</i>.
</div>
<br />
“<i>Olaudah
Equiano" </i>contains a list of subscribers, among them John
Symmons, and the content was of medical interest to Carlisle, as he
frequently prescribed bleeding to his patients. The book contains
descriptions in Africa, of poisoning and of bleeding by cupping<span style="font-style: normal;">.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a> </span><i>Animated Skeleton</i> is set in medieval Europe with
several archaic words implying an author familiar with the medieval
period. They include a description of heraldry on page 21, and words
such as; plebian on page 24, palfrey on page 24, parley on page 29,
poniard on page 73, grafted windows on page 79, and caitiff on page
83. A name standing out is the heroine, Hildegarde. Her name appears
chosen for Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) regarded as the ideal
woman, a rare female author on medical subjects, and a 'first' in
many fields. At a time when few women wrote or were accorded respect,
Hildegard's writings were unique for their generally positive view of
sexual relations. She wrote that strength of semen determined the sex
of the child, while the amount of love and passion determined a
child's nature. The worst case, where the seed was weak and parents
felt no love, led to a bitter daughter.
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm;">
In common with <i>Cavern</i> and <i>Oakendale</i>, supernatural occurrences occur in <i>Animated
Skeleton</i>, but are rationally explained before the end; endorsing an
author unwilling to propose an outcome not provable in a scientific
manner. As with <i>Cavern</i> and <i>Oakendale</i>, Edgar, a minor character
inherits land, unexpected titles, and the heroine by the end, an
allusion to Carlisle recovering Lord Carlyle's title and estates.
<i>Animated Skeleton </i>was published in 1798, the year before Godwin's <i>St
Leon, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">and Carlisle </span>was
able to assist Godwin with background material. In considering books
attributed to Carlisle, there are many references to surgeons,
whereas references pertaining to other professions are rare.
References to clergymen, lawyers, bankers, teachers, builders,
soldiers, naval officers, tradesmen, university professors,
politicians, farmers, and merchants are non-existent, or nearly so.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm;">
<br />
Another book by Mrs Carver attributed to Carlisle is <i>The Old
Woman</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
A hint Carlisle was busy writing the book in 1799, is conveyed by an
announcement in <i>The London Medical and Physical Journal;</i><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
'Mr A Carlisle we understand will not be able to deliver his usual
course of lectures on the general science of anatomy in the present
season on account of other engagements.' <i>Old Woman</i> contains more word
plays, medical references and, as with <i>Animated Skeleton</i>, the title
page includes an obscure literary quotation from a largely forgotten
play<i> Scanderberg</i> written in 1733 by William Havard
(1710-1778) an actor-playwright who appeared in London theatres from
1730.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm;">
<br />
Fear on guilt attends and deeds of darkness</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
The
virtuous beast ne'er knows it<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Born in
Dublin the son of a vintner, Havard abandoned surgery<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
for acting. By 1800 Havard was consigned to history and <i>Scanderberg</i>
no longer regarded as of literary merit. In his <i>Memoirs of
the Life of David Garrick</i>, Thomas Davies commented;
'<span style="font-style: normal;">Scanderberg is a juvenile
performance, not destitute of merit; in many scenes of it there is a
deficiency of judgment with language somewhat too swelling and
boisterous; but many passages of it are vigorous and pathetic.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a>
</span>Carlisle's use of such an obscure quote from <i>Scanderberg</i> begs
the question, why did he use it? The answer appears to be Carlisle
being tempted to follow the examples of Havard, Tobias Smollett, and
others who gave up surgery as a potential career, and instead became
writers.<br />
<br />
Carlisle's choice of
Arkley Castle as the main location in <i>Old Woman</i>, with several
scenes in Ireland, is based on <span style="font-style: normal;">Picton
Castle, ancestral home of the Philipps family, and only a mile
from Slebech Hall owned by John Symmons, with both Arkley Castle
and Slebech reached from Ireland via Milford Haven. </span>Arkley
Castle is referred to as having a vast number of rooms, with areas
closed off and unused, where someone lives semi-secretly. This
seems far-fetched until one sees a picture of Picton Castle, with
four above ground levels and several wings.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Old Woman is written in an epistolary style, unlike
Oakendale, Cavern, and Animated Skeleton. It comprises many letters
without intervening text. Prior to its publication, Robert Southey
regularly stayed with Carlisle in London and, as discussed later,
Carlisle assisted Southey in writing <i>The
Surgeon's Warning</i>. While staying with
Carlisle, Southey wrote many letters to his wife Mrs Edith Southey
and Carlisle would have been familiar with the fact of Southey's many
correspondents. The names of two early characters in Old Woman are
word plays on names of friends of Carlisle; Mr Goodworth,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a>
a clergyman, for William Godwin, who trained as a clergyman before he
became a writer. The other, Mrs Elinor Safforey, for Mrs Edith
Southey, wife of Southey. Two main characters have names commencing
"Car", Charlotte Carroset and Robert Carrington. A main
character is Ann Clifford, with a link between the Carlyle and
Clifford names, as in 1306 Lord Annandale was declared a traitor,
with his Durham property seized and granted to Robert, Lord Clifford.<br />
<br />
There
are various obscure words used in <i>Old Woman</i>, including the French
phrase 'mauvaise honte' meaning bashfulness or sheepishness.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
This is used rarely in English books of the 18C, although it does
appear in the Gothic novel, <i>The
Monk</i>
by M G Lewis and in <i>She Stoops to
Conquer</i>
by Goldsmith. Another obscure word is carasposa, from the Italian
cara sposa, meaning a dear wife or a devoted wife. It was used in the
1780 poem; <i>Dialogue Between a
Macaroni and his Cara Sposa</i>
by Ned Ward and Edward Ward.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a>
The poem likely alludes to William Dodd, executed in 1777, who was
dubbed the Macaroni Parson. </div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>Old Woman</i> contains a
detailed description of the swollen body of a woman, written by a man
familiar with the state of drowned bodies, as would Carlisle be from conducting autopsies;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
She had lain too long in the water for any means to be used towards
effecting her recovery ..... 'her a been dead a long while; why the
fish had begun upon her, and you could scarce tell a feature that her
had: her cloaths all drapt off by bits, and we could only save these
here papers that was in her pockets—they be dried and persarved—and
two rings upon her fingers, as we have honestly brought to your
honour; and it is all a had about her'. … There was nothing found
in her pockets besides the papers, but a smelling-bottle, a
handkerchief, and two shillings, which money, the man says, he gave
to two others who helped to haul the body on shore, and the
smelling-bottle, which he believes to be gold, the clergyman keeps
till somebody comes to own the body. Lucy, her maid, is to be
dispatched for this purpose; not that there can be any doubt of the
identity of the person. The body is to be brought here, and deposited
in the family-vault, and I hope we shall make some excursion during
that dismal ceremony .... According to my directions, Lucy had
ordered the coffin to be so slightly screwed, that the lid was easily
again taken off. - There is a something in the contemplation of a
dead body, even under the most uninteresting circumstances, which is
awful in the extreme. I confess, when I entered the room, I
shuddered, not with horror or fear, but an indescribable sensation
seemed to overpower me, and it was some moments before I could
recover myself sufficiently to approach the coffin, and when I beheld
the mangled features of our dear departed Julia, I could not avoid
uttering a shriek of terror. Lucy supported and encouraged me to
examine the features of her beloved mistress; the frequent sight
having rendered her less shocked at the contemplation of an object so
dreadful. The body was dressed exactly as it was found in the water,
that is, the remains of the dress, for it was partly torn to pieces,
and the face so entirely mutilated, that it must be impossible to
ascertain from that whether or not it was really Julia. The size and
shape corresponded with her’s, and the hair is the same colour, but
upon examining the hands, I think they appeared larger, and not so
beautifully formed as were Julia’s; but this might be accounted for
by having been so long under the water, and being swollen. Her
stockings and the remains of her linen were marked J.S. and Lucy
says, she could swear to the work being hers. The gown was the very
one in which she had dressed her on the day she was missing. These
are proofs strong enough of the body’s being no other than that of
our unhappy friend, even were any wanting; but the letters, the
rings, and the smelling-bottle, which is now sent, and was a present
from myself to her, with the initials of my own name upon it, are all
such convincing testimonies, as to require no other; and as to the
face, as I said before, it is so entirely mutilated, that no trace of
feature or countenance could possibly be discovered. After I had
contemplated the body, heard, and joined in the lamentations of Lucy,
and breathed a most humble and devout wish for her eternal happiness,
I ordered the coffin to be screwed down.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In <i>Old Woman</i> there is reference to duelling, an event Carlisle as a
surgeon, was called to attend;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">On his return he brought the sad
intelligence that surgeons had been sent for to the village we had
left, to attend two gentlemen who were both desperately wounded in a
duel .... Our wounds were dangerous, but I have reason to think mine
was aided in recovery by my resignation and total indifference to
life; while on the other hand, Lord Fitzarnold’s was rendered worse
by his agitation and impatience .... His wound was in as fair a way
of recovery as mine, when a rumour of Mrs St Edward’s being drowned
was incautiously related to him. The distraction this intelligence
occasioned threw him into a violent fever, which terminated in his
death.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
One clear
reference in <i>Old Woman</i> is to surgery in the late 18C, when surgeons
were also dentists. Teeth robbed from corpses were sold to surgeons
for to use as dentures in the mouths of wealthy clients, the price
charged by a dentist for a complete set being from fifteen to twenty
guineas.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a>
A variation of this appears in <i>Old Woman</i>, with Carlisle inferring
personal disapproval;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Do you remember how poor Mrs.
Loveless was reprobated, for having her daughter’s teeth taken out
after she was dead, and placed in her own mouth? Why now really, I
see no such great matter in it. The girl died when she was only
seventeen; had an amazing fine set, which it would have been a sin to
have let rot in the grave. Mrs. Loveless’s were beginning to decay,
and whose could have been so natural to her as her own child’s? I
declare I should have done just the same, only I would have taken
care to have been more secret, and not given an opportunity for
people, who affect fine feelings, to have abused me</span><i>.</i><span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
That Carlisle practised dentistry is indicated in a letter from Southey;
<span style="font-style: normal;">'the gold leaf which Carlisle
stuffed into my tooth is all come out'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a></span>
Unrefined sugar was so popular with the wealthy, their teeth rotted
until they were black. To remedy this visual defect, healthy teeth
were transplanted direct from young servants into the mouth of their
master or mistress, as described by John Hunter;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">We can actually transplant a tooth
from one person to another, without great difficulty. Nature
assisting the operation, if it is done in a way that she can assist;
and the only way in which nature can assist, with respect either to
size or shape, is by having the fang of the transplanted tooth rather
smaller than the socket. The socket in this case grows to the tooth.
If the fang is too large, it is impossible indeed to insert it at all
in that state; however, if the fang should be originally too large,
it may be made less; and this seems to answer the purpose as well.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Teeth were often
removed illegally from deceased bodies as in an 1825 instance;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
A young woman died there possessing a remarkably fine set of teeth,
on her friends proceeding to remove the body for the purpose of
interring it, they found that all her teeth had been extracted. This
excited both a general feeling of surprise and indignation in the
minds of the public, who are not aware that the teeth of those who
die in these establishments form part of the regular perquisites of
some one or other of the medical attendants.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Related, were the
battlefield scavengers who stole teeth from bodies after the Battle
of Waterloo;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
Crouch [a resurrectionist] who now resides in the neighbourhood of
the Kent Road, retired with an easy competence, the fruits of his
enterprise and industry, and has since directed his talents to a less
hazardous and equally lucrative occupation, that of a dealer in human
teeth.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A
separate review of <i>Elizabeth</i> by Mrs Carver, published in three
volumes in 1797, reveals Carlisle's 'fingerprints' on the novel.
These include medical references to dentists, a death during
childbirth, surgeons attending duels, several corpses, a physician,
an accoucheur, physiognomy, and the murder of a baby by a medical
man. There are also references to earlier works of English
literature, as with the other novels by Mrs Carver. Part of Elizabeth
even takes place in Lisle in France, surely a word play on Car-Lisle.
Taken as a group, the various references allow confident attribution
of <i>Elizabeth</i>, <i>Oakendale Abbey</i>, <i>The Legacy</i>, and <i>Old Woman </i>to Carlisle,
and infer <i>Cavern of Death</i> and <i>Animated Skeleton</i> were probably written
by him.<br />
<br />
Later it will be shown the plot of <i>The Horrors of
Oakendale Abbey,</i> sited in Pembroke and written twenty years
before Mary Shelly's dream in Switzerland, was inspiration for key
elements of <i>Frankenstein.</i> Carlisle was a family friend of the Godwins, and there being further reason for Mary
to connect to Pembroke as her mother, Mary Wollstonecraft, lived in
Pembroke for a year in 1776, at Laugharne only 20 miles from Slebech.
Additionally, Mary W's sister, Eliza Bishop, was for a time,
governess at Upton Castle, Pembroke, just 10 miles south of Slebech.
Thus, arguably, the embryo of Mary's inspiration can be traced back,
not to Switzerland in 1816, but much earlier, back to the Symmons'
remote and unoccupied mansion at Llanstinan, Pembroke.
</div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>Godwin,
William, <i>Travels of St Leon,</i> London, Henry Colburn, 1832, p
vi</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Anon,
</span><i>The Cavern of Death</i>, Anon, London, J Bell, 1794,
Chicago, Valancourt, 2005, p 1 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Old Woman</i>, London, Minerva, 1800,
http://www.chawtonhouse.org/library/novels/carver_old.html Vol I,
letter IX</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>Blakey,
Dorothy,<i> The Minerva Press, 1790-1820</i>, Oxford, OUP, 1939, p
181 and 196</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 179</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 99</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a><i>The
Monthly Visitor</i>, 1797, London, Symonds, p 478</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>Corvey
Collection,
http://www2.shu.ac.uk/corvey/CW3/AuthorPage.cfm?Author=MC2 accessed
April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>Anon,
Open Library,
http://openlibrary.org/b/OL13377163M/The-Cavern-of-Death, accessed
April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Anon,</span><i>
The Cavern of Death</i>, London, J Bell, 1794, Chicago, Valancourt,
2005 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>Personal
email of 24 April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Anon,
</span><i>The Animated Skeleton</i>, London, Minerva, 1798, Seattle,
Valancourt, 2005</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 103, 138, 143</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 179</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 25</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Blakely,
Ruth Margaret, </span><i>The Brus family in England and Scotland</i>,
1100-1295, Woodbridge, Suffolk ; New York : Boydell Press, 2005,
p189 for Thornaby and p 16 and p 191 for Carlton </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carlisle,
Nicholas, </span><i>A Topographical Dictionary of the Dominion of
Wales</i>, London, Bulmer, 1811</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Lewis,
Samuel, </span><i>A Topographical Dictionary of Wales</i>, London, S
Lewis ,1845, p 105 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 38</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Gladstone, Viscount; Boas, Guy; Christopherson, Harald, <i>Noblemen's
and Gentleman's Catch Club</i>, Three Essays Towards History,
London, Cypher Press, 1996, p 109</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p148</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardigan_(UK_Parliament_constituency),
accessed April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>Namier,
Lewis and Brooke, John, <i>The House of Commons 1754-1790,</i> p 515</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 52</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 39 and p 100</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Jones,
Francis,</span><i> Portraits and Pictures in Old Carmarthenshire
Houses,
</i>http://carmarthenshirehistorian.org/cgi-bin/twiki/view/Historian/PortraitsAndPicturesInOldCarmarthenshireHouses
accessed April 2009 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p122</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 75</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 86-92</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 93</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p178-179</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Carver, Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London,
Minerva, 1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p180</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>Internet,
http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org/hangedt.html accessed July 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Gibson,
Charles Bernard, </span><i>The History of the County and City of
Cork, </i>Vol II, London, T C Newby, 1861, p 204 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver,
Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London, Minerva,
1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 47, p 73, p157-159</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Carver, Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London,
Minerva, 1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p112</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a><i>
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">Carver, Mrs,</span><i> The
Horrors of Oakendale Abbey, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Minerva, 1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p130</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Carver, Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London,
Minerva, 1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p177</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
Humble, J G, and Hansell, Peter, <i>Westminster Hospital 1716-1974</i>,
London, Pitman, 1974, p 64</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
Southey, Robert, <i>The Collected Letters of Robert Southey</i>,
UMD,
http://www.rc.umd.edu/editions/southey_letters/Part_One/HTML/letterEEd.26.letterlistPartOne.html
<span style="font-weight: normal;"> 8 February 1795, letter 124,
accessed April 2009</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Anon, </span><i>The Cavern of Death</i>, Anon, London, J Bell, 1794,
Chicago, Valancourt, 2005, p 22</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Anon,</span><i> The Animated Skeleton</i>, Anon, London, Minerva,
1798, Seattle, Valancourt, 2005, p 3</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Anon,</span><i> The Animated Skeleton</i>, Anon, London, Minerva,
1798, Seattle, Valancourt, 2005, p 10</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Anon,</span><i> The Animated Skeleton</i>, Anon, London, Minerva,
1798, Seattle, Valancourt, 2005, p 18, 22, 67, 97</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a><i>
Wikipedia</i>, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Brooke_(writer) ,
accessed April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
<i>British Theatre</i>, Vol 2, London, J Bell, 1795, p 26 and p 28</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Anon,</span><i> The Animated Skeleton</i>, Anon, London, Minerva,
1798, Seattle, Valancourt, 2005, p 104-105</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Equiano, Olaudah</span><i>,The Interesting Narrative of the Life of
Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Vol. I,</i>
Internet, http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/equiano1/equiano1.html ,
accessed April 2009, p 34-36</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Carver, Mrs, </span><i>The Old Woman</i>, London, Minerva, 1800,
http://www.chawton.org/library/novels/carver_old.html </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
The London Medical and Physical Journal, London, J Souter, 1799, p
90</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Hale, Sarah Jospeha, </span><i>A complete dictionary of poetical
quotations,</i> Philadelphia, Lippincott, & Co, 1852, p 173 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a><i>
Internet,</i> http://www.answers.com/topic/william-havard , accessed
April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
Davies, Thomas, <i>Memoirs of the Life of David Garrick,</i> Vol II,
Boston, Wells & Lilly, 1818, p 145 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Carver, Mrs, </span><i>The Old Woman</i>, London, Minerva, 1800, Vol
I, letter I</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Carver, Mrs, </span><i>The Old Woman</i>, London, Minerva, 1800, Vol
I, letter XXI</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
Ward, Ned, and Ward, Edward, <i>The Comforts of Matrimony, </i>London,
Fielding and Walker, 1780, p 27</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
Carver, Mrs, <i>The Old Woman</i>, London, Minerva, 1800, Vol II,
letters XV and XVI</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
Carver, Mrs, <i>The Old Woman</i>, London, Minerva, 1800, Vol II,
paper 4th</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances,</i> London, Ann
Millard, 1825, p 57</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a>
Carver, Mrs, <i>The Old Woman</i>, London, Minerva, 1800, Vol II,
letter XX</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a>
Southey, Charles Cuthbert, <i>The
Life and Correspondence of Robert Southey,</i>
New York, Harpers, 1851, p 154</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a>
Hunter, John, <i>The Natural History of the Human Teeth, </i>London,
J Johnson, 1778, p 126</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances,</i> London, Ann
Millard, 1825, p 56</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances,</i> London, Ann
Millard, 1825, p 16</span></div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-4611857154478504322015-04-10T17:36:00.002-07:002021-11-26T09:25:29.601-08:003 - John Symmons - The Real "Lord Oakendale" ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
We will later find t<span style="font-style: normal;">here was a tall, mute,
'creature' raised from the dead in <i>Oakendale</i>; 'Laura gave a fearful
shriek, when a tall figure, dressed only in a checked shirt,
staggered towards her. The face was almost black; the eyes seemed
starting from the head; the mouth was widely extended, and made a
kind of hollow guttural sound in attempting to articulate'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
The 'creature' is later revealed as a hanged felon, revived from the
apparently dead after it was found the hangman's noose had not done
its appointed task. There is much social history to discuss before
drawing any comparison with Mary Shelley's 'Creature' in
<i>Frankenstein</i>, but it is worth bearing the <i>Oakendale</i> 'creature' in
one's mind, as described by Carlisle in 1797, 20 years, before Mary
Shelley's wrote of her 'Creature'. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj74x_Hcjs2FQMUz1v8ShrPhfBj1xGpFxfdnUxr-NZgj7H4C7OLaS1RpUFqBJfTG5B8Gh5PXCRPOkCMD6jimThTW2CNAAauOU6sPDCXuGJW_Se9d-EDOrTcO1y-iYj9I_uGorQdj88P9xU/s1600/llanst.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="340" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj74x_Hcjs2FQMUz1v8ShrPhfBj1xGpFxfdnUxr-NZgj7H4C7OLaS1RpUFqBJfTG5B8Gh5PXCRPOkCMD6jimThTW2CNAAauOU6sPDCXuGJW_Se9d-EDOrTcO1y-iYj9I_uGorQdj88P9xU/s1600/llanst.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<span style="font-style: normal;">However,
first more history: t</span>he Symmons family who lived for many
generations on the western slopes of the Preseli Mountains,
stretching from Fishguard in the north of Pembroke, to the border of
Carmarthen. Llanstinan Hall was their early 18C home and appears
above left after 19C restoration, framed by a famous avenue of lime
trees. The house dated from 1680, but it fell into decay much to the
regret of Richard Fenton, who writing in 1811, described it as
'embosomed in majestic woods' but 'now, alas, denuded, deserted and
rapidly hurrying to decay - a mansion that ever ranked in this
county, among the first class with regard to its pretensions in every
respect, and second to none as to the character of its possessors,
its hospitality, its popularity or its influence - a mansion to me
endeared by a thousand tender recollections that I could never see,
think of or refer to, without a melancholy pleasure.' Unfortunately
the avenue no longer exists, and the hall burned down in 1942. Even
so, one can understand it providing inspiration for <i>Oakendale Abbey</i>.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The area
was the source of the famous bluestones used at Stonehenge, which
itself has a continuing magic, as was perceptively noted by Horace
Walpole in suggesting that if early ancestors had left us a faithful
and complete genealogy of the descendant of their superstitions,
<span style="font-style: normal;">'such a curiosity would destroy much
greater treasures; it would annihilate fables, researches,
conjectures, hypotheses, disputes, blunders, and dissertations, that
library of human impertinence'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
To add to those conjectures</span>, it is probable dim distant
ancestors of the Symmons were among those who quarried the bluestones
for Stonehenge.<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEigkRZv-KVvEM57OEySg-0oqoiPBnqgtpBAl0LaxrPpE1tD4KBYHKDMojdB61Hbt4L479RUGXHlQJBGz0lk5RHKO-UOzZ4FkqVDl3LNnVdKf05n-z0aY_IJgXBi6f0R1RzskWl_vBpHgZ4/s1600/slebech.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="479" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEigkRZv-KVvEM57OEySg-0oqoiPBnqgtpBAl0LaxrPpE1tD4KBYHKDMojdB61Hbt4L479RUGXHlQJBGz0lk5RHKO-UOzZ4FkqVDl3LNnVdKf05n-z0aY_IJgXBi6f0R1RzskWl_vBpHgZ4/s1600/slebech.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<div align="CENTER" style="margin-top: 0.21cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Slebech
Park,
<span style="font-size: x-small;">http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/media/images/39593000/jpg/_39593987_slebechpark_203.jpg
</span></i></span>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div class="western">
Modern researchers believe that around 2300BC,
bluestone boulders were quarried in the Preseli Mountains, hauled to
tidal water, and transported to the Salisbury Plain, to be part of
the Stonehenge circle. The path for hauling the bluestones from the
Preseli was south for several miles, to the Eastern Cleddau river at
Canaston Bridge, close to Blackpool Mill, where the bluestones were
placed within a form of raft, or more likely suspended from a
flotation device by ropes within the water to improve stability, and
transported to Stonehenge. There were about eighty of these great
stones, the largest weighing as much as four tons, and it was a
massive undertaking to move them. The area of the Cleddau identified
as where the bluestones were transshipped onto water was, 4000 years
later part of the Slebech estate, the 18C country home of John
Symmons, reportedly worth at one time £200,000, perhaps £50,000,000 in current terms, so that his daughter Martha Symmons had substantial prospects at the time Carlisle married her.</div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The<span style="font-weight: normal;">
Baronetcy</span> of Slebech was created in 1677 for Sir John Barlow.
He was succeeded by his son, Sir George Barlow who represented
Cardigan Borough<span style="text-decoration: none;"> </span>and
Haverfordwest in the House of Commons. The title became extinct on
the death of his son, Sir George Barlow, 3rd Baronet in 1757, leaving
as heiress of Slebech, Anne Barlow, who married William Trevanion of
Caerhays, Cornwall, in 1758. Trevanion died in 1767 and in 1773 Anne
married John Symmons, becoming step-mother to Martha, when her mother died during or soon after Martha's birth. When
Anne brought her inheritance of Slebech to John Symmons, the
house was in need of attention and a letter from Anne to her mother,
written in 1774, complained the house was cold and they were unable to
shut the door because the smoke would not go up the chimney. Symmons thus set out to renovate it and by
1776 another letter described it
as;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">An elegant, substantial, and
comparatively modern mansion, presenting a quadrangle of noble
elevation, and containing a fine collection of paintings by the old
masters, marble busts, and bronzes, with every appendage of luxury.
Near the house is an extensive garden, strikingly pleasing in its
appearance, with curious and ancient terraces, planted with the
rarest fruit-trees and choicest vines, forming a rich and ornamental
vineyard, attached to a long range of hot-houses: the park has lately
been very considerably enlarged, and enclosed with a lofty wall.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgosjcOlYUX_eTNqfiFVpARcgIi-Rt8I4NEHZ2O8AZF5L1vQ3K8I3tf-lSe4xS4H7ITDiEMTWj1WHhzRqmppweVW3hLX5NScbtjydxCAUMUhl860P_XV87igIVE3SJFUkMFaK1oaS9aRIM/s1600/picton.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="254" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgosjcOlYUX_eTNqfiFVpARcgIi-Rt8I4NEHZ2O8AZF5L1vQ3K8I3tf-lSe4xS4H7ITDiEMTWj1WHhzRqmppweVW3hLX5NScbtjydxCAUMUhl860P_XV87igIVE3SJFUkMFaK1oaS9aRIM/s1600/picton.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
A mile
away was Picton Castle, an estate of 54,000 acres and, as late as
1873, the Philipps family still owned 21,500 acres in Pembrokeshire
and Carmarthenshire. In <i>Old Woman</i>, Picton Castle appears in the guise of
Arkley Castle. The Philipps family history is relevant as John
Symmons' mother was Maria Philipps, a distant cousin of Sir John
Philipps 4th Baronet (c1666-1737), MP for Pembroke. The Philipps and
Symmons families cooperated to share the parliamentary seat of
Pembroke for many years, and they shared membership of the Society of
Sea Serjeants. A niece of Sir John Philipps married Sir Robert
Walpole in 1700. Thus Maria Philipps, wife of John Symmons MP was a
distant cousin of Robert Walpole's wife and of Horace Walpole. Sir
John Philipps (1701-1764), succeeded to the estate as 6th Baronet.
He was a staunch Tory and ‘a notorious Jacobite’ said Horace
Walpole. He was MP for Pembroke 1761-4, when he succeeded John
Symmons MP, who held Pembroke from 1746-1761. On his death the
baronetcy passed to his son, Sir Richard Philips who was raised to
the Irish peerage on 22 July 1776, but as Lord Milford, for Milford
Haven in Wales. A 1784 writer criticised the recent rash of peers
created in;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
Ireland, where the absurdity is frequently rendered more glaring and
ridiculous than in England or Scotland, by creating peers of that
kingdom with titles taken from places in Scotland or England ...<span style="font-style: normal;">
who have little or no property in, or connection with, the respective
kingdoms from whence they derive their honours … I am sorry to see
the dignity of peerage made so cheap by such a multitude of new
creations, and one of them unconnected with this kingdom: the last
six months have produced a dozen new English peers; and for some
years past English and Irish Peers have sprung up at so prodigious a
rate, as almost literally to verify what the late Duchess of
Queensberry [sic, but may have been Lady Townshend] used pettishly to
say; 'There are so many new Lords made that I can hardly spit out of
my coach without spitting upon a Lord'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTcnl4rp5jMlYYR6ajsO2OWS3qpHQMf-XPj9gCZaL8feMyt_uKwsz7m_E7ccUUlgGm7S4uCK091Ln-e6p_oMXLINd7wPPPyveqFSA98NmBr237HW1J9BNKzPcQf2vVZTr9MZ9KojWd_5s/s1600/milford.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="228" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTcnl4rp5jMlYYR6ajsO2OWS3qpHQMf-XPj9gCZaL8feMyt_uKwsz7m_E7ccUUlgGm7S4uCK091Ln-e6p_oMXLINd7wPPPyveqFSA98NmBr237HW1J9BNKzPcQf2vVZTr9MZ9KojWd_5s/s1600/milford.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
In 1791, Mary Morgan in
her,<i> "A Tour to Milford Haven"</i> described Picton
Castle and Slebech;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">[Picton] is a castle complete in all
its parts on the outside. Within it is a very handsome and commodious
house, to which they are making a considerable addition of state
rooms. Amongst a number of other apartments, it contains a grand
hall, and a chapel....The views from every window of this castle, and
every part of the grounds, are fine beyond description. ... Lord
Milford has cut a way through the fine wood I before mentioned to
another gentleman's seat called Slebeach [sic]. Exclusive of the
pleasures of such a shady walk, it must make two agreeable families
very sociable and happy, to have such an easy communication with each
other. If I had not seen Picton, I should have thought Slebech
delightful; but its situation is too near the river, and it cannot
but be deprived of its greatest beauty when the tide is out. It is an
exceeding handsome house and has accommodations for a vast many
people. I think they told us there were twenty-five bed rooms, with
each a dressing room adjoining; and likewise two parlours, a study, a
drawing-room, a dining room, and a billiard room, besides offices and
accommodations of every other kind.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Fifteen
miles north of Slebech and west of the Preseli Mountains, are several
small villages, early homes of the Symmons family. They include
Llanstinan, Little Newcastle, and Martel, all within a radius of
three miles. John Symins was High Sheriff of Pembrokeshire in 1713
and had two sons; George Symmons (1707-1756) and John Symmons MP
(1701-1771), who appears as Sheriff of Pembrokeshire in 1734,
described as John Simmonds of Llanstinau.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a>
He was also joint secretary of the Society of Sea Serjeants, which is
alluded to in the Oakendale reference to Thornaby's annual holiday in
Wales. Tradition had it, the Sea Serjeants sprang from the Knights
Templar who, until the dissolution of the monasteries, held Slebech.
In 1726 the rules and regulations of the Sea Serjeants limited the
number of members to twenty five gentlemen. Supposedly the Society
was secret, with a form of initiation, although the simple questions had
more in common with a Boy Scouts' investiture;</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Do you bear true allegiance to
His Majesty?</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Are you a member of the Church
of England as by law established?</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Will you be faithful to your
friends in prosperity and cherish them in adversity?</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Do you desire to be admitted a
member of this Society?</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Will you faithfully observe the
rules and orders that have been read to you?</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;">Will you upon the honour of a
gentleman keep the secrets of the Society, and the form of your
admission into it?</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The
members held an annual meeting at a Welsh seaport town. That there
might be no suspicion of their want of gallantry, they came to a
resolution in 1749, to every year elect as a lady patroness, an
unmarried lady of the town of their meeting, and to present each one
with a star. In 1755, the lady patroness was Miss Anne Barlow who
later married Symmons.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
Every member heard to curse or swear, during the meeting incurred a
penalty, while every person who presumed to play at dice in the
public room paid a heavy forfeiture of five guineas.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<b>Diary
extracts of Sir John Philipps</b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="303*"></col>
<col width="143*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="68%"><div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i><b>1760
</b>- July 11 Mr Tho Bowen for two stars, one for Lady Patroness
and one for Richard [Sir John Philipps's son, afterwards Lord
Milford]; 1.1.0 </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
12th In ye evening went with Richard to ye meeting of the Sea
Serjeants at the Long Room at Haverfordwest; Ringers 1.1.0; lay at
Mr John Phillips's; </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
13th Dr James Philipps preached before us at St Mary's; </i></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
15th Rode to Hubberstone, and went with ye Gentlemen of ye Society
on board Sir Tho Stepney's yacht; din'd on board, sailed to
Harbour's Mouth and back to Langwm Pool, where my barge met us and
took us to Haverford. </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
17th Lady Patroness (Miss Jenny Philipps) and 20 other Ladies,
din'd with ye Society at Long Room; when was a Ball at night and I
danc'd with Lady Patroness. </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
18th Ladies breakfasted with us there. </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
19th Mr John Phillips's Maid 5s; his Man 2s 6d; barber, 5s;
Taylor's man 2s 6d; Gloves 2s 10d; </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Expense
of the meeting 2l 8s 0d; Ditto, for Richard 2l 8s 0d, who was
elected a Probationer 2l 8s 0d; Ditto for Mr Martin and
forfeiture, 3l 9s 0d; Breakfasts at ye Long Room 3s 6d; hostler
1s; </i></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>22nd
Returned to Picton.</i></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i><b>1761
</b>- June 18th. Went with my son to ye meeting of ye Sea
Serjeants at Cardigan; lodg'd at Revd Mr Davies's; din'd and
supp'd at Black Lyon. </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
19th Dr Philipps preach'd before the Society. </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
20th, Rode to Blaenpant, breakfasted with Dr Philipps and
returned, 2s; Miss Anna Louisa Lloyd, of Bronwydd, was elected
Lady Patroness. </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
21th Rode towards Cardigan Bar to see 'em fish for Salmon. </i></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
22nd Went up the River as far as Kilgerran. </i></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
23rd Lady Patroness and the Ladies dined with us in the Town Hall
and at night there was a Ball there. </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
24th, They breakfasted with us and then went up the River as far
as Kilgerran; in ye Evening went on board Mr Vaughan's yacht. </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
25th, Horse bill, and for Post Chaise boys, 1l 7s 9d; hostler 4s;
Lodging for self and Son 1l 11s 6d; maid 7s6d; barber, 6s; Thos
Davies and David Thomas, board wages 1l 1s 0d; Mr Geo Bowen's
son's nurse 2s 6d; poor, 1s; </i></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Expense
of the meeting 2l 14s; Ditto for my son 2l 14s, Ditto for Mr
Martin and Fine 3l 15s; Ditto for Mr John Pugh Pryse 3l 16s; Lent
James Philipps Esq 3l.3s.0d; breakfasts 2s; Returned to Picton."</i></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i><b>1762
</b>- July 31 Went to the Meeting of the Sea Serjeants at
Haverford; I lodg'd at Mr John Phillips's. </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Aug
2 Gave two Serjeants and Coyer 7s 6d; to Poor 1s; </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
3rd My daughter Katharine was elected Lady Patroness. </i></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
6th she and 18 other Ladies din'd with the Society, danced at ye
Ball at Long Room at night, and breakfasted with them there. </i></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Ye
7th Bill for Horses at the Angel 8s 8d; Barbers 6s 6d; Mr John
Phillips's serv 7s 6d; hostler 1s; Breakfasts at Long Room 3s 6d;
Tho Davies's board, wages, 10s 6d; Expense of the meeting 3l 2s;
Ditto for Son 31 2s; Ditto for Mr Will Vaughn and forfeiture 4l 3s
0d; Ditto for Mr Sparks Martin; Recd for Mr Hitchins 5l 5s 0d and
for Mr Williams 2l 2s 0d; for Star for Lady Patroness 1l 1s 0d and
advertising ye Meeting 19s 6d.</i><span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a></span></span></div>
</td>
<td width="32%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b> One
Day's Expenses 31 July 1745</b></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="RIGHT">
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 204px;">
<colgroup><col width="156"></col>
<col width="48"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Breakfast</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">£
s d</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Tea
and coffee</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
5-6</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Cards,
three packs</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
4-6</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Dinner</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Thirty
one gentlemen</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">3-17-6</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Red
port, twelve bottles</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">2-
4-0</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> White
wine, two bottles</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
4-0</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Rhenish,
six pints</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0
- 6-0</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Ale,
forty two quarts</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-14-0</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Cyder,
twenty-five quarts</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
8-4</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Punch</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
2-6</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Tobacco</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
2-6</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Four
men's dinners</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
2-0</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Ale</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
3-4</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Coffee
in the afternoon</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
2-0</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Supper</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Seventeen
gentlemen</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-17-0</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Ale,
twenty quarts</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
6-8</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Cyder,
six quarts</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
2-0</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Punch</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
2-0</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Tobacco</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
0-2</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Ale
to the boatmen</span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
0-8</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Ale
to music at the bumper</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">0-
1-0</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="156"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b> Total
Expenses<span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a></span></b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="48"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>£9-
6-8</b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.16cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Member portraits in 1783
were:-</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.16cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> Mr Gwinne, <i><span style="font-style: normal;">President,</span></i>
Mr Warren, Sir Edward Mansel, Mr Barlow, Morgan Lloyd, Governor
Rogers, Old Mr Gwinne, George Symmonds, Young Mr Gwinne, Capt John
Morgan, Sir John Phillipps, Mr Vaughn, John Symmonds, Mansel
Langdon, Wm Skyrme, Mr Bowen, Dr Roger Phillipps, Mr Tom Popkins,
Sir Thomas Stepney, David Rice, Gwinne, Dr Philipps, DD, Rawley
Mansel, George Noble, Mr Hitchins, Mr Parry, Mr Lewis, and Mr
Williams. </span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
These
entries by Sir John Philipps in his personal diary covering several
of the Society's annual outings, in 1745 and 1760, 1761, and 1762,
infer the purpose of the meetings, with the details interesting as
18C social history. The gatherings were an opportunity for drinking
and conviviality, but there were predictable detractors who
attributed such periodical assemblage of gentleman to sinister
motives.<br />
<br />
The 31 July 1745 meeting was midway between Bonnie Prince
Charlie leaving France on 5 July and six weeks later, on 17 August,
when he raised a 16ft-high standard to rally his troops to march on
Edinburgh. The old definition of bumper is; 'a glass tankard, etc.
filled to the brim, esp. as a toast', so the bumper mentioned in the
expenses, was likely a drinking evening, singing songs. The
coincidence of the Society's annual meeting being so close to the
landing in Scotland, was a factor for detractors to accuse the
Society of being Jacobites. However, it is probable leanings in that
direction were token only.<br />
<br />
Sir John Philipps was cousin to the
Walpole family, and became president of the Society with, as noted,
his son raised to the nobility as Lord Milford. Similarly, John
Symmons was a cousin of the Walpole family and moved in exclusive
circles in London, including sharing club membership with the royal
princes. It is unlikely he would have been accepted in London, nor
Lord Milford raised to the peerage, if the Philipps or Symmons
families had been seriously regarded as Jacobite. Anyway, judging by
the drinking expenditure at the meeting on 31 July, there cannot have
been much serious plotting. In 1783, oil portraits of members of the
Sea Serjeants hung on the walls of Taliaris, the home of Richard
Gwynne, including<span style="font-style: normal;">;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">John Symonds of Llanstynnan Esq, in
the County of Pembroke, in blue velvet, gold button hole, wig, round
who married Miss Philips of Haverfordwest ... Mr John Symmons of
Llanstynnan in the County of Pembroke, Esq. in lawn coloured velvet,
gold lace, white sattin waistcoat, wig, neckcloth, a head, father of
the present who married the Widow Barlow. …. George Barlow of
Slebech in Pembrokeshire, Esq, in a white coat with an ermine collar
and ermined waistcoat, round brown wig, oval. He married a Miss
Blundel, a dancing master's daughter, by whom he had an only daughter
who first [sic s/be second] married Mr Symonds of Llanstynnan. Mr
Barlow died 1756 (recte 1757).<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;">John
Symmons FRS (1745-1831) has been noted as inspiration for Lord
Oakendale. He was elder son of John Symmons MP, (1701-1764), who
married Maria, daughter of Charles Philipps of Sandyhaven.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
Their younger son being the cleric and author, Rev Charles Symmons,
father of a third of the name, John Symmons AM. From their wills it
was established Symmons died in August 1831 and his nephew John
Symmons AM died in June 1831. A society gentleman, Symmons was
associated with the surgeon John Hunter through their research into
cross-breeding of dogs and wolves. Symmons was an interesting man,
mixing with royalty, and in botanical and literary circles of London
for fifty years, with a library of 40,000 volumes, and elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society on 10 July 1794, before later fleeing to
Belgium to escape his own debts. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Symmons
had four wives during his long life. As John Simmons, there is a
record of his first marriage to Martha Dawes on 19 July 1770 at Saint
Luke Old Street, Finsbury, with the birth on 8 June 1772 of their
daughter Martha Symmons. Martha Dawes was christened on 8 July 1748
and her parents were Matthew and Deborah Dawes. John Symmons' wife,
Martha died at the birth of their daughter and, within a year, he
married the widow Anne Trevanion, nee Barlow on 24 March 1773, widow of William Trevanion of Caerhays, [Carhais] Cornwall, also
daughter and heiress of George Barlow of Slebech.<br />
<br />
Anne
Trevanion's sister-in-law, Sophia Trevanion, was Byron's grandmother.
Martha Symmons was thus raised between 1773-1793, by the widow of
Lord Byron's great-uncle. Byron presumably knew Martha before her
marriage in 1800, and later as Anthony Carlisle's wife. Symmons also
had a niece, Caroline Symmons (1789-1803), who died young, but was
regarded as a child prodigy for her poetry. Byron being only a year
older than Caroline, he must have known of her and her poetry. Anne
died without issue, and Symmons sold Llanstinan and Slebech to William Knox. Symmons' selling price
was likely similar to that indicated by a;
`On the way to Haverford West call at Slebech, a handsome house built
Castle-wise, surrounded with fine Woods. The apartments are neat and
pleasant. The estate is for sale, the purchase money £75,000. It
appears to disadvantage from symptoms of neglect attending the
family's leaving it'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzkzDEqWMpIBJcSSvx-Yk9cFrnMaY2y2Jb057GoPTFSFSjWnHIV7otj1hwQ2OkwIbns5CKt-WGUm4jpBuGQOJOKiq5vIJn6wjD08stspllhn1tKL5iPnNuhVRep6QCSJ1zvHxEYzW4fjQ/s1600/paddington.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="448" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzkzDEqWMpIBJcSSvx-Yk9cFrnMaY2y2Jb057GoPTFSFSjWnHIV7otj1hwQ2OkwIbns5CKt-WGUm4jpBuGQOJOKiq5vIJn6wjD08stspllhn1tKL5iPnNuhVRep6QCSJ1zvHxEYzW4fjQ/s1600/paddington.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Paddington House</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
About 1800 Symmons married a third time to Elizabeth Mary, maiden
name unknown, but she died on 2 June, 1813;'After
a long and painful illness, the lady of J Symmons Esq of Paddington
House'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
They had two or three sons, Charles Augustus John Symmons born 9 July
1804 and baptised 6 August 1804 and George Richard Edwardes Symmons
born April 16 1806 and baptised on 7 May 1806, who died in 1850. Also
[perhaps?] John Symmons baptised on 18 March 1810. Unusually for St
James, Paddington, the parish record includes mention of the
god-parents; The Rt Hon'ble Augustus [2nd Earl of Ludlow [1755-1811] and the Rt Hon'ble Charles Francis
Greville [1749-1809] were the godfathers of [Charles] and Miss Lucy
Kingston of South Place Kennsington (Kennington? Kingston?) Surrey
was the godmother.)(The Rt Hon'ble Richard Baron Milford, the Rt
Hon'ble William Baron Kensington, Anne Maria Fairfax of Kepple Street
Russell Square and Martha Carlisle of Soho Square were the sponsors
for George.) Symmons married a fourth time, to Charlotte Hill, in Boulogne, France on 27
March, 1828 when he was 83 years old.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
John Symmons had inherited the Llanstinan estate on his father's death in
1764, and went on the Grand Tour, as revealed in letters from Maurice
Morgann. In 1767, Morgann writes that he has just heard from John Symmons then at Marseilles, who was
indisposed and depressed, so Morgann offered to go to him and
accompany him homewards. Symmons talked of going on to Lausanne or
Geneva, but "it is the nature of low spirits to complain and to
be dejected without sufficient cause, and that, I truly believe to be
his present situation". It is likely Symmons' low spirits were
due to gambling losses. A little later he addresses a letter from
Caerhays where he is staying with John Symmons who is now well and
cheerful.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjZBmF46JWGhoZSBtj7sHTjSJcnPJ2zvh8xiVbon-od3vQTUTjCgmpChkYxJyOksV8TlUOZmzrZhDEtHwGRLJ3fLadymeng0rmRlUjpcZTIxzFehNpDrfBUxGF-9uM7-GNmYKptYSJ9Kk/s1600/caerhays.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="396" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjZBmF46JWGhoZSBtj7sHTjSJcnPJ2zvh8xiVbon-od3vQTUTjCgmpChkYxJyOksV8TlUOZmzrZhDEtHwGRLJ3fLadymeng0rmRlUjpcZTIxzFehNpDrfBUxGF-9uM7-GNmYKptYSJ9Kk/s1600/caerhays.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Caerhays Castle</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
As Caerhays was the ancestral home of Sophia Trevanion, grandmother
of Lord Byron, Symmons knew Sophia.
He did not come into ownership of Caerhays on marrying Anne Trevanion, the heir's widow,
but the fate of that estate gives a financial hint as to why Symmons fled to
Belgium. Caerhays Castle was built by the famous architect, John
Nash, for the Trevanion family. Building work started in 1807 and was
completed by 1810. The Trevanions were stretched by the construction
cost and by 1825 had a mortgage with The Bank of England for £20,000.
Further mortgages accumulated along with gambling debts and the
Trevanion family fled to Bruges, leaving their estates with their
creditors. Symmons must have acquired some of their possessions as in
2012 there was a sale of a copy of the 1639 book <i>A
Large Declaration</i> about
'the late tumults in Scotland', which contained Symmons' bookplate, as well as the signature of a
Charles Trevanion dated 1699. In 1855 the roof at Caerhays had fallen
in and the Castle was derelict with geese nesting in the Drawing
Room. It took four years to refurbish and make the building habitable
again. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Aspects
of <i>Oakendale</i>, echo real history. Miss Rainsford, marries Lord
Oakendale, described as;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.3cm;">
<br />
Leading a life, not only of inactivity, but of unlimited debauchery
of every kind. Two years after the death of the late Earl, Robert
found himself so embarrassed and his fortune so little equal to his
expenses, that he was under the necessity of repairing it by a
marriage, in which love formed no part of the contract .... her
fortune was perfectly convenient to him, and having secured that, he
conceived a determined hatred to her. She followed her inclinations
entirely; and, as they entertained a mutual indifference for each
other, contempt and aversion soon followed.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Further
references are; 'Lord Oakendale continued his dissipated life, and,
having no children, he had formed no cement of conjugal felicity. He
had met with Laura in a very obscure part of South Wales, where he
had been bathing the preceding autumn.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
and 'Lady Oakendale, of whom we have said that she was the only
daughter of Lord Westhaven, and that her immense fortune was the only
inducement Lord Oakendale had for making her his wife....they had
conceived an aversion bordering upon hated for each other.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
</span><br />
<br />
The stress given to the marriage by Carlisle suggests John
Symmons substitutes for Lord Oakendale, George Barlow for Lord
Westhaven, and Anne Barlow for Miss Rainsford/Lady Oakendale. That
fits the facts, as Symmons did marry Anne, an heiress, after the
death of his father, and they had no children. The inference from
<i>Oakendale</i> is that John and Anne did not like each other, did not live
together, and her death was the catalyst for the sale of Slebech.
There are no direct references to Symmons as leading a life of
debauchery, but in London he was one of the twenty-five members of
the Nobleman and Gentlemen's Catch Club, other members including Lord
Sandwich and the Earl of March, both publicly regarded as rakes.
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Science
and Botany</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Symmons
was noted as a collector of plants and books. He was elected as FRS
on 10 July 1794, where he was a regular supporter of the Royal
Society Dining Club under the presidency of Sir Joseph Banks.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
Symmons was one of fifteen founding members of the Linnaean Society
and apart from his fellowship of the Linnaean Society, he served on
the Council, gifting to the Society a cabinet of European
lepidopterous insects. He was a member of the Horticultural Society,
the Royal Society of Literature, a manager of the Literary Fund, and
a governor of the British Institution for promoting the Fine Arts, a
member of the Society of Antiquarians, the Society for Philosophical
Experiments and Conversations,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
and the Literary Society. In 1798 he published <i>“Plantarum
Insulis Britannica Indigenarum"</i>.<br />
<br />
He was a founder member in
1799 and a manager, 1803-1809, of the Royal Institution. In 1807
sharing the duties with noted men of the era when the management
comprised; Patron, The King; President, Earl of Winchelsea; Managers;
Earl of Dartmouth, Earl of Egremont, Earl of Chichester, Sir Richard
Joseph Sullivan, John Symmons, Lord Dundas, Sir John Cox Hippesley,
Charles Hatchett, Earl of Aylesford, Benjamin Hobhouse, William
Watson, Marquis of Stafford, Earl of Morton, Earl Spencer, and Thomas
Bernard.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a>
The eleven Earls and titled managers easily outnumbered Symmons and
four mere gentlemen. At the Royal Institution in 1803, Symmons, along
with Earl Spencer, Sir Joseph Banks, J Auriol, T Bernard, H
Cavendish, and C Hatchett, was appointed to the newly formed
Committee of Science. Carlisle was then a member of the RI Committee
for Chemical Investigation and Analysis, so they were well
positioned.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
A research paper of 1789 by anatomist, John Hunter, <i>A Supplementary Letter
on the Identify of the Species of the Dog, Wolf, and Jackal</i>,
shows that in 1788 and 1789 John Hunter and Symmons collaborated in
experimenting with the crossing of a wolf owned by Symmons, with a
dog owned by Hunter. This was probably when Carlisle met Symmons. The
Annual Register for 1789 printed Hunter's letter;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Sir, In the year 1787 I had the
honour of presenting to this learned society, a paper to prove the
wolf, the jackal, and the dog to be of the same species. ... John
Symmons, Esq of Millbank, has had a female wolf in his possession for
some time, who was lined by a dog, and brought forth several puppies
... These puppies, Mr Symmons has reared; only one of them was a
female, and she had much more of the mother, or wolf, in her than any
of the rest of the same litter. I communicated my wish to Mr Symmons,
that either his puppy or mine should prove the fact to our own
knowledge, which he immediately with great readiness, acceded to. On
the 16th, 17th, and 18th of December, 1788, this bitch was lined by a
dog, and on the 18th of February she bought eight puppies, all of
which she now rears. If we reckon from the 16th of December, she went
61 days; but if we reckon from the 17th, the mean time, then it is 63
days, the usual time for a bitch to go with pup. ... I may just
remark here, that the wolf seems to have only one time in the year
for impregnation natural to her, and that is in the month of
December; for every time Mr Gough's wolf has been in heat was in this
month, and it proves to be the same month in which Mr Symmons's wolf
was in heat; for his half-bred wolf is nearly of the same age with
mine, and the time she was in heat was also the same with that of her
own mother, and the present brood corresponds in time with the brood
of Mr Gough's wolf. I am &c. John Hunter.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtUm-Zz0F1oOhn1IozTr_K-TkuvR7Z12F0ogZp-ZY_wzUDef_oPLzGYQnwgCgmw0CIFDXi1urrjE-x88GywhTOeNN07t1ra9Pgh0w5YKJSt1tHAzJ3k09zNUxbtv9sm-_qCkF__IWxBdU/s1600/clief.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtUm-Zz0F1oOhn1IozTr_K-TkuvR7Z12F0ogZp-ZY_wzUDef_oPLzGYQnwgCgmw0CIFDXi1urrjE-x88GywhTOeNN07t1ra9Pgh0w5YKJSt1tHAzJ3k09zNUxbtv9sm-_qCkF__IWxBdU/s1600/clief.jpg" width="282" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The Times reported 'John Symmons, Esq, is not the purchaser of Taplow,
the seat of the Earl of Inchiquin, as stated in the papers, but of
Cliefden, another of his Lordship's seats, which Mr Symmons has
purchased during his Lordship's life, and where he occasionally
resides with 'learned ease' and elegant hospitality every way
becoming so celebrated a mansion.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
</span>Cliefden House and all its contents were destoryed by fire in 1795, after Symmons had moved on. <br />
<br />
At one time, his London home was Grosvenor House, Millbank,
(previously home of the Duke of Westminster), until 1795 when he
moved to Paddington, about a mile from Tyburn. <span style="font-style: normal;">In
1820 Paddington House was: 'the residence of John Symmonds [sic] Esq
FRS. In the front court are four bronzed antique figures very fine.
This gentleman possesses a most ample fortune and is of very great
and approved allowance. His favourite pursuit some years ago was
botany, and he had a choice and rare collection of plants exotic and
indigenous which were arranged according to the Linnaean system'. <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a> </span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><img border="0" height="352" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDRpax5zeGjliUKrSKCIhgcOR_6qNhleAfIvviARn6seRFpFCr3QBr1-JdK3_MsMYejcZIqzM2rP3B3ACXd3UOCFoed64yWqYR0C82Tlea-8qJxjBpa85Bb3_dGgz-qpGzRT7rOOsMLg0/s1600/llan.jpg" width="640" /></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Llangennech Park,
<span style="font-size: x-small;">http://www.llanelli-history.i12.com/houses/llangennech-park-01.jpg</span></i></span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-style: normal;">In 1799 he published <i>Synopsis Plantarum insulis Britannicis Indigenarum</i>
in Latin and English. At Paddington, in his glasshouses, Symmons grew rare tropical plants aided by his
friendship with Sir Joseph Banks. In 1797, <i>Hortus
Paddingtonensis or a Catalogue of Plants cultivated in the gardens
of J Symmons Esq Paddington
House</i> by William Salisbury,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
was published and it lists the 4000 species of plants then in his garden. By
1816, Paddington Green was described as: 'a small area surrounded
by many respectable and commodious dwellings. The largest of these
is termed Paddington House and was built by Mr Dennis Chirac
jeweller to Queen Anne'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"></a>
</span><br /><span style="font-style: normal;">
</span><span style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Llangennech Park,
<span style="font-size: x-small;">http://www.llanelli-history.i12.com/houses/llangennech-park-01.jpg</span></i></span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">After selling Slebech, Symmons acquired Buwchllaethwen estate, near
Llanelli, sixty miles east of Milford Haven. His aim being to develop
coal mines at Llangennech and he built a new house, Llangennech Park,
which he owned until the estate was advertised for sale in 1820:
</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.39cm; margin-right: 0.3cm;">
<br />
[T]o be sold by private contract, in
Carmarthenshire, eleven miles from Swansea, four from Llanelly,
sixteen from Carmarthen and Llandilo, two miles from the mail-coach
road to Milford, and on the banks of the river Burry, which is
navigable for ships of large burden. This Estate consists of a
Mansion, an ancient Deer Park, and, in all, is full 2,500 Acres of
Land, chiefly let to responsible tenants; and the Tithes of the
Parish of Llangennech, with the Presentation to the Perpetual Curacy.
There is a most important Bed of Coal under this Property, and
Collieries are extensively worked, upon which are the necessary
Steam-Engines, Tram-Roads, etc. The Estate abounds with Limestone,
and on it are erected the Spitty Bank Copper Smelting Works.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyFGiml-xOLcFTVZaEzCoKIdFaMOumWOcNCy53UnEf6C_7Nv6nOvK-JH_imsq-72ies6cP_reVC_MKZlo7EG6ZFiGzWPW510n88qKmLQL0wdR1zstAnTlsqEYRAlVsSsyZDDKjZ-icOXE/s1600/rich.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="311" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiyFGiml-xOLcFTVZaEzCoKIdFaMOumWOcNCy53UnEf6C_7Nv6nOvK-JH_imsq-72ies6cP_reVC_MKZlo7EG6ZFiGzWPW510n88qKmLQL0wdR1zstAnTlsqEYRAlVsSsyZDDKjZ-icOXE/s1600/rich.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><i><span style="font-size: x-small;">Richmond
House, detail from Peter Tillemans' Prospect of
Twickenham" c1725</span></i></span><br />
<br />
In 1791, Symmons bought Richmond House, Twickenham and sold it next
year.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
In 1800, the Government purchased land including Grosvenor House to
erect Millbank prison. Symmons purchased Ewhurst Park on the
Hampshire-Surrey border from Sir Robert Mackreth (1727-1819).<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
There was a dispute over this, as an often quoted court case is
Mackreth v Symmons. On 12 September 1820, John Symmons AM, son of
Charles Symmons, wrote to Samuel Parr from Ewhurst Park, saying 'I am
staying here with my uncle'. Symmons sold Ewhurst Park to Sir Peter
Pole in 1824 and it was later purchased by the Duke of Wellington in
1829.<br />
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMKY3vLvdh0KCFT1Ty_mmtV2Mh_HzEZ0eu8PdX28SknfEibQEI4r_qeezbdQPcEL5HqaEGaipUivT4tfwMqbALo4VfQr8Pk13gtvLqOfqqoXoyhDTQe1am9OkB5-rh_IHX4rq4hjL5UbM/s1600/east.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="438" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMKY3vLvdh0KCFT1Ty_mmtV2Mh_HzEZ0eu8PdX28SknfEibQEI4r_qeezbdQPcEL5HqaEGaipUivT4tfwMqbALo4VfQr8Pk13gtvLqOfqqoXoyhDTQe1am9OkB5-rh_IHX4rq4hjL5UbM/s1600/east.jpg" width="640" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>East
Cliff Lodge, Ramsgate</i></span></div>
<br />
Images of Ewhurst Park are unlocated, but East Cliff Lodge, at Ramsgate,
was a summer retreat of Symmons and in 1802 was described;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
Delightfully situated at East Cliff, about half a mile to the
northward of Ramsgate, is a beautiful villa in the Gothic taste
erected a few years ago by the late Benjamin Bond Hopkins Esq, ...
and has been since disposed of to John Symmons Esq who made many
improvements and sold it to James Strange Esq the present owner.
Among the many beauties which solicit the notice of the stranger in
this charming marine villa, is a dining room in the Gothic taste, so
beautiful and of such exquisite workmanship, as to leave all other
rooms in this part of the country far behind: it is twenty-nine feet
long, sixteen and half wide, and thirteen high: at the lower end is
an elegant screen of Gothic columns, through which a pair of folding
doors of curious workmanship lead into a vestibule; the screen of
columns columns serving as a recess for sideboards and other useful
apparatus of the dining table.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
The chief wonder of East Cliff is
the subterraneous caverns, two of which have been cut from the top of
the cliff to the shore, one branching towards Ramsgate, the other
towards Broadstairs, so the occupiers of the mansion can get on the
sands without going round by the town. The excavations open at a
distance of thirty feet from the edge of the cliff, and descend by a
gradual inclination to the shore. These passages are singular in
their construction. They receive their light from arches so large in
dimension as to resemble rooms, cut at right angles through the chalk
to the sea. The bottoms of these arches are in the summer carpeted
with grass and shrubs, and flowers, which give them a very
picturesque and beautiful appearance.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3UdPMgqCjooERd1vzA7_KTibGJyYhr9VAqHIyPLzJrphY2_xD5DWcTZljjuGIEhyphenhyphencpnKyStop0V4MZHBkidcjBcR_KpSqWNmdzkDWvhv12f10hYJvV8OyGHjgWDWbiMFG4mbQMdL_87o/s1600/chest.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="366" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3UdPMgqCjooERd1vzA7_KTibGJyYhr9VAqHIyPLzJrphY2_xD5DWcTZljjuGIEhyphenhyphencpnKyStop0V4MZHBkidcjBcR_KpSqWNmdzkDWvhv12f10hYJvV8OyGHjgWDWbiMFG4mbQMdL_87o/s1600/chest.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Chesterfield
House (now Ranger's House) Since 2002 home of the Wernher art
collection</i></span><br />
<br />
Symmons was involved with Chesterfield House (now Ranger's House), linked to
the Lord Chesterfield who featured in the case leading to the
execution of Rev William Dodd for forgery.
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.33cm; margin-right: 0.27cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Philip, Earl of Chesterfield, well
known by his letters to his son purchased in 1753, the lease of that
part of the premises. ... The lease which had been renewed for 17
years to take place from 1804, was purchased ... by John Symmons and
in 1807, assigned to the Duchess of Brunswick.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br />
The involvement of Symmons inspired a poem by John Taylor; <i>"On
hearing that John Symmons Esq occupied the house at Blackheath which
belonged to the late Earl of Chesterfield".</i></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5O_Krek79bQP4tNIHGC-v84veXfWHBeSW6VXYv0N8XuRgPIHJBjr7KYQOvcecu-4G5Se75K3ao7lemRnfyA88TInOgA630PTTfZqgPLs_8-rhZ9kICJ6iJe81KF5ZgCIY86D9CjNE0-A/s1600/Grosvenor.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="478" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5O_Krek79bQP4tNIHGC-v84veXfWHBeSW6VXYv0N8XuRgPIHJBjr7KYQOvcecu-4G5Se75K3ao7lemRnfyA88TInOgA630PTTfZqgPLs_8-rhZ9kICJ6iJe81KF5ZgCIY86D9CjNE0-A/s1600/Grosvenor.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Grosvenor House</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="414*"></col>
<col width="414*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="49%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.32cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">'Tis said that spirits when
from earth remov'd, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.32cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Still hold communion with
this nether sphere; </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.32cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And hov'ring o'er the place
they once have lov'd, </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.32cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">In form of kindred natures
oft appear.-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="51%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.05cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Hence, knowledge, humour,
taste, and well-bred ease, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.05cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Still haunt the shades of
Stanhope's domain; </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.05cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And gifted with each social
pow'r to please, </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.05cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Behold, in Symmons,
Chesterfield again. <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a></span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
In 1813 The Times reported; 'The will of the late Duchess of Brunswick
was proved on Thursday. Her Royal Highness's property in Great
Britain was sworn under £45,000. She has left to the Princess of
Wales, her house at Blackheath, purchased of John Symmons Esq., for
the life of the Princess, and after her death as she will appoint
.... All the pictures, mirrors, statues, marbles, &c. purchased
of Mr Symmons, she has also left to the Princess.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Living close to Symmons at Paddington was a member of the Royal Society, Charles Greville FRS (1749–1809), a younger son of the 1st Earl of Warwick.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a> Greville was an antiquarian and collector and, though he lived on a stringent income of £500 a year, he managed to acquire antiquities from Gavin Hamilton in Rome. When Greville's father died in 1773, his brother became Earl of Warwick and Greville inherited his parliamentary seat of Warwick. Greville was for years a close friend of Sir Joseph Banks; both being, as with Symmons, Dilettanti members. Greville, between 1782 and 1786, had for a mistress Emma Hart, later Sir William's second wife, Lady Hamilton, and eventually Lord Nelson's lover. Charles Greville lived at Paddington Green near his friend Symmons, where they indulged in a passion for gardening. Sir William Hamilton (1730-1803) is buried at Slebech church, with his first wife, Catherine Barlow, (1738-1782) daughter of John (Hugh?) and Anne Barlow.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
References to Milford Haven in <i>Oakendale Abbey</i> and <i>Old Woman</i> have already been
noted. The construction of the seaport of Milford Haven in the late
18C, was said due to Greville, but likely at the urging of
Symmons. His father, John Symmons MP, had an investment in the
Susquehannah Company of Connecticut, USA, organised in 1753 to settle
some five million acres of Pennsylvania wilderness and Symmons hoped
Milford Haven would become a large trans-Atlantic port to rival
Bristol or Liverpool. Milford Haven being the most westerly port in
Britain, 120 miles closer to America than Bristol, and 150 miles
closer than Liverpool. Milford Haven was owned by Sir William
Hamilton and in 1790 Greville applied for an act of Parliament to
enable Sir William to make docks, construct quays, establish markets,
with roads and avenues to the port, to regulate the police, and make
the place a station for conveying the mails. Although Liverpool
maintained and enhanced its role as a major port, much later Greville
and Symmons were proved correct, when in the 20C Milford Haven became
a major international terminal for oil tankers.</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Noblemen and
Gentlemen's Catch Club</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Symmons
was a member of the Dilettanti from around 1786, a Society formed in<span style="font-style: normal;">
1734</span><i>.</i> The Dilettanti sponsored the study of ancient
Greek and Roman art and the creation of new work in that style. At
one stage they met in the British Museum store rooms, which were more
like a cluttered clubroom than a storeroom. There Dilettanti members
read, talked, dined, and enjoyed the ambiance of the great
antiquities. Lord Elgin, was made a member of the Dilettanti, after
much opposition to him joining, connected with the marbles removed
from the Parthenon. So much so that despite the status of his
proposers, he was rejected twice. For his second attempt Elgin was
proposed by Sir Henry Englefield and seconded by Symmons. However, it
was not until the third time Elgin was proposed for membership in
1811, that he was elected. In 1819 Symmons seconded a motion to limit
the members of the Society to seventy, showing his prominence within
the Dilettanti.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The 2nd
Earl of Warwick was elected a member of the Catch Club in 1774, as
was John Symmons in 1783; one of the most exclusive clubs in London.
The Nobleman's and Gentleman's Catch Club was founded in 1761 to
encourage the composition and performance of singing and part-singing
of glees, catches, and canons. There Symmons mixed with the cream of
London society, including the royal princes. One of the founders
being the 4th Earl of Sandwich, whose mistress Martha Ray was
murdered by Rev James Hackman outside Covent Garden Theatre in 1779.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
The Earl of Sandwich remained a member until his death in 1791.
Another founding member of the Catch Club was William Douglas, 3rd
Earl of March and 4th Duke of Queensberry, who was described <span style="font-style: normal;">as
'a little sharp-looking man, very irritable, and swore like
ten-thousand troopers'.</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a>
A direct descendant of 1st Duke of Queensberry who had acquired the
lands and titles of Lord Carlyle in the 17C.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The rules
of the Catch Club were based upon Parliamentary procedures. Although
membership was limited to twenty-five members. Women were not
accepted as members, although on the motion of George Greville as 2nd
Earl of Warwick, there was an annual ladies night instituted from
1774. Meetings were held weekly on a Tuesday from 1768, at 4.00pm at
The Thatched House in St James Street. From 1762 it was provided tha<span style="font-style: normal;">t
'A Premium of a Gold Medal of Ten Guineas value be given for the best
Catch, Canon, or Glee, words and music new, and a premium of half the
value for the second best of each'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a></span>
A tradition of the Club was that a toast should be drunk to a living
professional lady singer. This enabled the Earl of Sandwich to
propose a socially acceptable toast to his mistress, Martha Ray;
until she was murdered. As with many clubs, discussion on politics or
religion was forbidden, so apart from singing, scientific
discoveries, gossip, and business were common subjects. Vast
quantities of wine were laid down, it was agreed to lay down six
hogsheads of the best claret for the years 1773 and 1774, with six
hogsheads being equivalent to 378 gallons. A rule of the Club
foreshadowing the continuing practice in some clubs and hotels, where
coffee is not brought to the dining table, but instead made available
in a separate lounge was;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
No coffee, tea, or such heterogeneous beverage is to be brought upon,
or drank near the table where the Club is seated upon any account;
but if a member either for himself or any other submits to call for
such unnatural mixtures, they must be carried to a distant table and
the parties concerned must take them at that place with a due sense
of the Society's indulgence.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The Club managed its
finances by a remarkable rule;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
Every member who acquires any increase of income, by inheritance,
marriage, legacy or preferment, shall pay to the society half of one
percent, of the first year's revenue of said income, according to
fair value of it.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
However,
members were instead entitled to opt to pay ten guineas instead of
the half of one percent. The Earl of Sandwich paid nine shillings on
receiving an annuity of £90 and later paid £10 on being appointed
Secretary of State. Lord Salisbury paid ten guineas on appointment as
Lord Chamberlain.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
With only
twenty-five members, there was a waiting list for membership. Symmons
was elected in 1783, the Prince of Wales (later George IV) in 1786,
with the royal dukes as follows; Cumberland in 1786, York in 1787,
Gloucester in 1788, Clarence (later William IV) in 1789, Cambridge in
1807, and Sussex in 1813.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
Although not necessarily still members when Symmons was elected in
1783, other dukes elected as members included; Manchester in 1764,
Kingston in 1762, Bedford in 1768, Dorset in 1769, Buccleuch in 1770,
Argyll in 1772, Hamilton in 1777, Atholl in 1783, St Albans in 1786,
and Ancaster in 1789. Symmons was part of a select group and his
contact with the Prince of Wales and Duke of Gloucester, aided
Carlisle's appointment as Surgeon to the Duke of Gloucester (known as
Silly Billy 1776-1834), and later Surgeon-Extraordinary (5 Apr
1820-26 June 1830) to George IV, by whom he was knighted as Sir
Anthony Carlisle on 24 July 1821.</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>High Sheriff of
Carmarthenshire</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1797
Symmons was recorded as a benefactor to the Philanthropic Society for
the Reform of Criminal Poor Children. Thus Symmons recognised
potential good in people. This sets the scene for a moral dilemma
faced by Symmons as High Sheriff of Carmarthenshire.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>
The position of High Sheriff was only held for one year, and during
that year the sheriff was responsible for supervising any executions.
This responsibility did not sit well with Symmons when he was High
Sheriff, and he was the key advocate in seeking the pardon of a
convicted felon.<br />
<br />
The records state that on 25 March 1804, Judges John
Lloyd and Samuel Cox heard three individual petitions (two from the
prisoner, John Morris, and one from Symmons as High Sheriff of
Carmarthen) and two petitions; one from Hereford, including the local
MPs and the sheriff, and the other from forty local people of
Hereford.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
All on behalf of John Morris, who had been convicted for the theft of
a horse. The Court file of 1804 contains the initial respite from
execution from the Home Secretary, but time passed and the respite
expired. As the judge's report was unfavourable, Morris should have
been executed, but there was a change of administration, and Symmons,
now the Sheriff, did not action the execution, claiming he needed to
be ordered to execute the prisoner. Symmons penned, at great length,
his reasons for not executing the prisoner and listing why clemency
should be granted:</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
- the age of Morris being 66 years, - his previous good character, -
he had been a farmer in Hereford where he brought up his family of
five children, "with credit" but fell on bad times, - he
had to sell his lands to pay off his debts, - it was a first offence,
- clemency had the support of his neighbours in his application, - a
reduction of sentence to transportation would not damage 'Public
Justice', - he stole from want, - his wish to be transported, - his
family was in distress, but were willing to be bound to support him
for the rest of his life, - there was a great deal of rancour in
court from the prosecutor (Morris's attorney had refused to proceed
as a result), - the prisoner was not an 'old and hardened Offender.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Despite
the plea, the sentence was upheld, and on 16 June 1804, Morris was
executed at Pensarn.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Symmons was a great book collector and an early member of the Royal Literary
Fund, still in existence in the 21C. Near the end of his life, John
Symmons' extensive book collection of 40,000 volumes was auctioned by
Phillips of Bond Street, with sales recorded as occurring over 12
days in 1828, including on 15 February, 20 February, 3 March, 19
March, 2 May, and a final one after his death, on 16 August 1831.
Symmons
progressed through several book plates. The earliest example was in 18C style with a
garland around his coat of arms. The second, in similar style, but
incorporating the Barlow arms, was prepared after his marriage to
Anne Barlow. It was described; 'John Symmons Esqr. Festoon Arm, with
Barlow on an esc. of pre'. He had a third book plate designed to show
his interest in botany; 'Johannes Symmons, Arm. Pict. and Arm.
Signed; "F Sanson del. et .sculp."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
In 1804, Symmons gifted 107 volumes of Carleton Papers [another
instance of the Carleton name linked to Carlisle], to the Royal
British Institution.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
They related to Sir Guy Carleton (1747-1783), later 1st Baron
Dorchester. Symmons had received the papers from Maurice Morgann
(1726-1802), who had been secretary to Sir Guy. The papers were a
collection of original official letters from the Secretary at War and
other Ministers to the Commanders in Chief in America, during the War
of 1775-1783, including letters and papers passed between the
officers of the English and American Armies, about the exchange and
treatment of prisoners and other circumstances. The Carleton papers
were sold to America, but gifted back by President Eisenhower to
Queen Elizabeth II in 1957. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggqBXBCLJsFE2udAYMVmy9X7pxkAHwYhRTbBQDjIPWGydqoHe399LULOSd7KhlnMSWRrPzrLiGiDXBUtgE9rqm7tTRXicx5zEIe54_GCAI7h1L63jOJxJkuA3RBoL0qQ7UE-COfDoX-wQ/s1600/bookplates.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="329" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggqBXBCLJsFE2udAYMVmy9X7pxkAHwYhRTbBQDjIPWGydqoHe399LULOSd7KhlnMSWRrPzrLiGiDXBUtgE9rqm7tTRXicx5zEIe54_GCAI7h1L63jOJxJkuA3RBoL0qQ7UE-COfDoX-wQ/s1600/bookplates.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
Symmons'
circle of friends and interests are demonstrated by a record of a
dinner party in 1821; 'A few days afterwards I had again the pleasure
to meet Mr Roscoe at Fuseli's table; there were also present Sir
Thomas Lawrence, Mr Lock, Mr Howard, RA, Mr J Symmons, and Mr Robert
Roscoe. The conversation was desultory, sometimes upon literature, at
others upon art; and at two more intellectual dinner parties I have
seldom been present. Fuseli was animated and energetic, and shewed
that he then possessed a mind of the greatest vigour, with an
unimpaired memory.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a><br />
<br />
Symmons wrote several political papers under the name of "An
independent gentleman".
They included an 87 page paper, <i>"Thoughts
on the Present Prices of Provisions, Their Causes and Remedies"</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a>
In its <i>Quarterly
Journal of Science and Arts</i>
for 1817, the Royal Institution reported that John Symmons FRS had
donated a 51 page paper titled <i>Remedies proposed for the Relief of our Embarrassment</i>,
(full title <i>Remedies
Proposed as Certain, Speedy, and Effectual, for the Relief of Our
Present Embarrassments</i>).<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
In 1817 Symmons published a paper on political reform, <i>Reform
without Innovation or, Cursory Thoughts on the only Practical Reform
of Parliament, Consistent with the Existing Laws, and the Spirit of
the Constitution</i><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
and in 1822 he wrote, <i>The
Causes of the Present Distressful State of the Country
Investigated</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Symmons
was a supporter of the arts. In 1808 a limited edition biography of
Michelangelo by Richard Duppa was dedicated to Symmons.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
A comedy in five acts, of <i>"Man and Wife, or more secrets than
one"</i>, was performed at the Theatre Royal and dedicated to
him<span style="font-style: normal;">.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a>
Also dedicated to Symmons was </span><i>“Tracts on Political
Economy”</i><span style="font-style: normal;"> written by William
Spence FLS, the political writer and entomologist.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a>
</span>A further dedication to Symmons was in <i>"A Sketch of
Modern History from the Destruction of the Western Empire, AD476 to
the close of the year 1818"</i> by Anthony Picquot who appears
to have lived with Symmons when he wrote a dedication<span style="font-style: normal;">;
'To John Symmons Esq FRS FAS &c &c of Paddington House, this
book is a very inadequate proof of heartfelt gratitude and respectful
attachment, dedicated by his most obedient humble servant, A Picquot,
Paddington House, January 25 1819.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
Picquot</span> remained a friend of Symmons, being with him shortly
before his death. Yet another dedication to Symmons, indicating his
friendship with Sir Joseph Banks, was a poem by Hugh Campbell;<span style="font-weight: normal;">
</span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">“Stanzas on the Death
of Sir Joseph Banks, written between Montpelier and Marseilles in the
gulf of Lyons, inscribed to John Symmons Esq FRS FAS”</span></i><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a>
</span></span></span>
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Thomas
Dibdin (1776-1847) the bibliographer, recalled Symmons as a fellow
member of the Ad Libitum Beef-steak Club.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
William Cooke (?-1824) knew Symmons well. Cooke came from Cork, and
arrived in London in 1766 to follow law. Cooke's first publication
was <i>"The Art of Living in London",</i> containing a
description of the manners of the time, and some thoughts for
avoiding London's dangers. Cooke was acquainted with the chief wits
of the time; and when Samuel Johnson formed his Essex Street club, he
nominated Cooke as the first member. One of Cooke's works was a
didactic poem, written in 1797 and entitled <i>"Conversation"</i>.
The poem was dedicated to Symmons, whose character he introduced
under the name of Florio, named for John Florio (1553-1625), an
accomplished linguist and lexicographer and a close friend of
Shakespeare. Cooke speaks highly of Florio and as a man of letters,
his thoughts on Symmons seem genuine. John Taylor commented;</div>
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<br />
Mr Cooke's last work was a didactic poem entitled <i>"Conversation"</i>,
in which he enumerates the merits and defects of colloquial
intercourse, with critical acumen and knowledge of mankind. This poem
he dedicated to his old friend John Symmons, Esq of Paddington, whose
character he introduced under the name of Florio. I had for many
years the pleasure of being intimate with Mr Symmons; and a more
liberal, elegant, and hospitable character never existed. He is still
alive, at a very advanced age, and with a reverse of fortune, which
all who knew him must deeply regret; as it was chiefly the result of
the generosity, I may say, the magnificence of his mind, his
confidence in false friends, and an incautious disposal of his
property. He found it necessary to leave England, and I fear is
involved in the unhappy events which now overwhelm the Netherlands,
to which country he has retired, and where he intended to pass the
remainder of his life.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a>
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<span style="font-style: normal;">Although
the Netherlands is mentioned, Symmons fled to Tournai, later
part of Belgium, where he died aged
86 in August 1831, with his estate divided between his fourth wife
Charlotte and sons, Charles and George. His daughter, Martha
Carlisle, is unmentioned, presumably he considered her well provided
for. His younger son, George Richard Edward Symmons died in London in
1850 and Charles, his elder son emigrated to Australia. Symmons had
spent his fathers' estate and the Barlow inheritance of Slebech. A
prisoner in the Fleet prison later summarised Symmons financial affairs; </span></div>
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<br />
The Fleet, June 29, 1837. Mr Chambers, the Banker, who is a prisoner
here, told some curious facts about the family of Symmons. His very
particular friend was John Symmons of Paddington. He married a very
rich woman; he remembers that he sold an estate in Wales, which
fetched £120,000. At one time he was worth £200,000. He died about
90 years of age in France, and could not command £100 at the time of
his death. At the period of Mr Chambers's bankruptcy Symmons owed him
£27,000, for which he held security, and the debt was paid off. He
considers that Dr Charles Symmons received £100,000 from his
brother, including interest during a period of 40 years. There was a
regular allowance of £700 a year, which Mr Chambers contracted to
pay to him on behalf of the brother, who nevertheless was always
obtaining further sums from him, and borrowing from Mr Chambers what
the brother was also obliged to pay. John had a library of 40,000
volumes.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a></div>
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John Symmons' brother, Rev Charles Symmons, appears in Carlisle's Gothic novels as
the Dr Dormouse mentioned in Old Woman. From 1787 onwards, he was
preaching and busy publishing books, including; <i>Inez</i> a tragedy in 1796, a tragedy; <i>Constantia</i>
a dramatic poem in 1800; <i>Life
of Milton</i> in 1806;
<i>Poems by Caroline
and Charles Symmons</i>
in 1812; The <i>Aeneis</i>
of Virgil translated in 1817; and the <i>Life
of Shakespeare</i> in
1826. Charles had five children, only two of whom survived him
when he died in 1826, the translator, John Symmons MA, and Fannia,
who married John William Mallet in 1813. Authors, Charles Symmons and Rev Francis Wrangham called on William Godwin on 8 June 1816, probably to discuss their books. In 1816 the
Biographical Dictionary of Living authors described him;</div>
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<br />
Symmons, Charles,
D.D. a native of Wales; formerly of Clare Hall, Cambridge, and
afterwards incorporated at Jesus College, Oxford, B.D. March 24, and
D.D. March 26, 1794. He was, at that time, Rector of Narberth in
Pembrokeshire, and Prebendary of Brecon which preferments he
continues to hold though he constantly resides in London, where he
was at one time editor of the newspaper called the British Press. He
is also one of the writers in the Monthly Review, and distinguished
for his attachment to republican principles, of which he gave a
striking proof in his edition of Milton's prose works.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a>
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Charles'
daughter, the poet Caroline Symmons (1789-1803), was born on 12 April
1789, a year after Lord Byron to whom she was distantly related by
marriage. As daughter of Charles and niece of John Symmons, from
infancy Caroline gave indication of extraordinary powers of
intellect; apparent to Wrangham, when she was only seven. He said she
was endowed with a grace and beauty which could not be preserved,
although reflected in examples of her poetry The poem <i>"Zelida"</i>
by Caroline is later mentioned, with the suggestion Zelida was read
by Mary Shelley at Mary Wollstonecraft's grave. What surprised with
Zelida was not only the beauty of the stanzas themselves, but the
choice of the subject; 'A faded rose-bush!' as a theme for a young
poetess, then full of health and animation! The third verse being
characteristic of her own blossoming, and the fourth mournfully
ominous of her death. Wrangham quoted an unnamed lady; '<span style="font-style: normal;">It
is indeed, little less than miraculous; and so completely unlike any
other compositions I have ever known, that, delightful as I think it,
I should feel almost terrified at such premature excellence
excellence of every kind; for one knows not which most to admire, the
genius which inspires, or the taste which executes!<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a>
</span>
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<span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Wrangham
related stories associated with Caroline. Her uncle, John Symmons,
resident in France<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
at the time of the French Revolution, returned to England and
presented to her, as a very young child, a French national cockade.
This she wore with pleasure, until the king was put to death, when on
hearing of that, she instantly carried the cockade to her father; and
declared, that 'she would never again bear the colours of a people,
who had committed so cruel a deed'. In 1801, Caroline's father,
wishing to show his pride in her poetry, wrote a sonnet to her. He
inscribed it in a copy of his </span></span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">"Sicilian
Captive"</span></i><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
and gave the book to Caroline in the presence of the whole Symmons
family. As soon as his words of praise caught Caroline's eye, she
closed the book; and, with a countenance which 'spoke unutterable
things, returned it to her father, wishing the gift to be withdrawn,
as she feared her brothers' sensibilities might be hurt by the
apparent preference assigned to herself. </span></span>
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<span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Caroline
was passionately attached to English poets, amongst whom Spenser and
Milton were her favourites. So much was she struck with the charms of
L'Allegro and Il Penseroso, that to have been the author of them, she
declared 'there was no personal sacrifice of face or form, which she
would have declined. This comment was echoed by one made on returning
home from an eye operation. When concern was expressed for the
possible danger to which the sight in her eye was exposed, she
replied with a smile that, 'to be a Milton, she would cheerfully
consent to lose both her eyes'. </span></span><br />
<br />
Caroline's illness
caught up with her and, in February 1803, a cough, accompanied with
fever, reduced her to the lowest stage of weakness, without affecting
either her spirits or temper. The nature of her illness was all too
clearly ascertained to have the frequent fluctuations in health, so
fatally characteristic of consumption, which gave rise to alternating
hope and fear in the hearts of her family. Typical symptoms were a
low and languid morning, often following a day of cheerfulness and a
night of repose, a delusive glow of her cheeks, debility and
emaciation, and above all an unrelenting cough. Wrangham recorded
that not less remarkable than her beauty, her ability, and the
goodness of her heart, was her piety. During her illness, when her
extreme weakness and emaciation made kneeling impracticable, she
deeply regretted her inability to offer her devotions in a suitable
manner.<br />
<br />
Even on 1 June, the last morning of her earthly existences,
when she had expressed to her maid a wish to die, she instantly
corrected herself, and<span style="font-style: normal;"> said 'No, it
is sinful to wish for death; I will not wish for it.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a>
Caroline Symmons died at age fourteen on 1 June 1803, and 'her gentle
spirit returned unto God who gave it'. Many of her surviving poems
refer to flowers, perhap</span>s a sign that adult love had not yet
touched her, but poignant given her early death. Wrangham wrote that
the last lines of <i>"On a blighted rose-bud"</i> were to
be inscribed upon her tomb;</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
Death clasps the virgin to his iron breast.</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
She fades, the parent, sister, friend deplore</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
The charms and budding virtues now no more.</div>
<br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiY7tuGlY-QjnPLLuLht-uxkPTZ2Shp2yrtd_kH086nuuTOF9afO4hIgFdY_mzBx13qRvp-5xE3r8itLyJMfa69oFt5QXB1ihMBRNgeDUzNmflWxNfoi_RH_wTDaHc-2Gt2yqKXyGiVgMA/s1600/caroline.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiY7tuGlY-QjnPLLuLht-uxkPTZ2Shp2yrtd_kH086nuuTOF9afO4hIgFdY_mzBx13qRvp-5xE3r8itLyJMfa69oFt5QXB1ihMBRNgeDUzNmflWxNfoi_RH_wTDaHc-2Gt2yqKXyGiVgMA/s1600/caroline.jpg" width="346" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Caroline
Symmons by Nollekens</i></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Caroline, as middle daughter of
Charles Symmons, is the likely candidate as inspiration for Laura in
<i>Oakendale Abbey</i>. Caroline was niece of Symmons, as Laura was niece
of Lord Oakendale. Information about Caroline comes from <i>"A
Memoir"</i> written in 1804 and included in <i>“The Raising
of Jairus's Daughter”</i> by Francis Wrangham, author,
translator, and abolitionist.<i> "A Memoir"</i> is also
included in a later work by Wrangham titled <i>"Scraps"</i>,
along with an image of a bust of Caroline, sculpted by Joseph Nollekens and
exhibited in 1804;<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">'A bust by Nollekens was executed
from a model taken from her face after her decease. It represents
her features with accuracy, and is one of that excellent artist's
best works; but to animate the marble with the full character and
illumination of her countenance, would have exceeded the powers of
the chissel in the hand of a Phidias or a Praxiteles.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66sym" name="sdendnote66anc"><sup>lxvi</sup></a>
</span>The current location of the bust is unknown.<br />
<br />
After her
death, an incident emerged to show Caroline was in regular contact
with Westminster Hospital. A beggar-woman in the area had been the
recipient of Caroline's secret assistance, via a manager at the
Westminster Hospital, (i.e. Carlisle, then surgeon to Westminster
Hospital and husband of Caroline's cousin, Martha). The beggar-woman
revealed Caroline had provided support and medical assistance for one
of the woman's children, injured in an accident. This emerged when
the poor woman, in consequence of not seeing Caroline for some time,
inquired of the servants of her whereabouts and, on being told of her
death, burst into a violent fit of crying, betraying frantic grief.
These bounties, it appeared, Caroline had furnished from a small fund
of her own and, when her own purse failed had, with her own hands,
supplied the deficiency from her father's kitchen.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Wrangham
noted a poem of more than 500 lines by Caroline, entitled <i>"Laura"</i>,
which he feared was lost, but over 350 lines have survived in <i>Poems</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67sym" name="sdendnote67anc"><sup>lxvii</sup></a>
In contemplating the poems, Zelida and Laura, coupled with the
knowledge Caroline was in contact with Carlisle via Westminster
Hospital, infers Caroline had read <i>Oakendale Abbey</i>, where the heroine
is named Laura, and knew Carlisle was the author. Caroline's choice
of Laura shows the influence of Petrarch, via Carlisle and Oakendale,
and via Manasseh Dawes, brother of Caroline's aunt, who wrote many
poems about Laura.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68sym" name="sdendnote68anc"><sup>lxviii</sup></a> <i> </i><br />
<br />
<i>The Cottage of the Var</i> published by Tipper in 1809
is attributed by Francis Wrangham to Caroline, but appeared after her
death.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69sym" name="sdendnote69anc"><sup>lxix</sup></a>
If so, it is puzzling that Charles Symmons does not refer to it in
<i>Poems</i>. However, some connection is suggested, as Caroline's long poem<i>
"Laura"</i> makes two references to the Var; 'O'erhung by
woods, survey'd the Var below' and 'to the clear waters of the
long-lost Var'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70sym" name="sdendnote70anc"><sup>lxx</sup></a>
Another interesting possibility is that Cottage of the Var was
written by Carlisle.
</div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Carver, Mrs,</span><i> The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London,
Minerva, 1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 73-74</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Walpole, Horace, <i>Anecdotes of Painting In England; </i>Vol I, ed
by R Warnum, London, Henry Bohn, 1849, p 115 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
<i>British History Online,</i>
http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=47884 accessed
May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Urban, Sylvanus, (Edward Cave), <i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>,
London, Nichols, 1784, p 577 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Morgan, Mary, <i>A Tour to Milford Haven</i>, London, John
Stockdale, 1791, p 292-296</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, 1734, p 52</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
<i>Cambrian quarterly magazine and Celtic repertory</i>, Vol III,
London, H Hughes, 1831, p 56</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
<i>Cambrian quarterly magazine and Celtic repertory</i>, Vol III,
London, H Hughes, 1831, p 57 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
<i>Notes and Queries,</i> London, Saturday, July 5, 1862,
http://www.archive.org/stream/s3notesqueries02londuoft/s3notesqueries02londuoft_djvu.txt
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
<i>Notes and Queries,</i> London, Saturday, July 5, 1862,
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
Jones, Francis, <i>Portraits and Pictures in Old Carmarthenshire
Houses,</i>
http://carmarthenshirehistorian.org/cgi-bin/twiki/view/Historian/PortraitsAndPicturesInOldCarmarthenshireHouses
accessed May 2009
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Namier, Lewis and Brooke, John, <i>The House of Commons 1754-1790,</i>
p 515</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Internet, http://www.coflein.gov.uk/pdf/CPG162/ accessed June 2010</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
<i>The European magazine, and London review,</i> Philological
Society, Vol 63, London, James Asperne, 1813, p 545
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
<i>Ceredigion</i> : Journal of the Cardiganshire Antiquarian
Society, Vol. 7, nos. 1-4 - 1972-1975</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Carver, Mrs,</span><i>
The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London,
Minerva, 1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 38</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Carver, Mrs,</span><i>
The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London,
Minerva, 1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 39</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Carver, Mrs,</span><i>
The Horrors of Oakendale Abbey</i>, London,
Minerva, 1797, Zittaw Press, 2006, p 115</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
Geikie, Archibald, <i>Annals of the Royal Society Club the Record of
a London Dining-Club</i>, London
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
<i>Society for Philosophical Experiments and Conversations, Minutes</i>,
London, Cadell, 1795, p 8 and p 350 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Taylor, Charles, <i>The Literary Panorama</i>, London, C Taylor,
1807, p 1408</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
<i>Annual Register for the year 1789</i>, London, W Otridge and
Son, 1802, p 41</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
<i>The Times,</i> London, 18 September, 1789</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Bew, John, <i>The Ambulator</i>, London, Scratcherd and Letterman,
1820, p 252
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Salisbury, William, and Symmons, John, <i>Hortus Paddingtonensis</i>,
London, Stephen Couchman, 1797
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
Wright, Thomas, <i>The History and Antiquities of London, </i>Vol V,
London, George Virtue, 1837, p 399
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
Llaneli History,
http://www.llanelli-history.i12.com/houses_llangennech_park.htm
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
British History Online,
http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=45451 accessed
May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
Internet,
http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/ENG-HAMPSHIRE-KINGSCLERE/2007-03/1173194646
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="ctl00_ContentMain1_lblResult1"></a>
<a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Hunter, Robert Edward, <i>A Short Description of the Isle of Thanet</i>,
London, Joseph Hall, 1802, p 70
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="ctl00_ContentMain1_lblResult"></a>
<a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Visitor, The, <i>The visitor's guide to the watering places,</i>
London, W Strange, 1841, p 182
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="ctl00_ContentMain1_lblResult2"></a>
<a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
Lysons, Daniel, <i>Environs of London,</i> London, T Cadell, 1831, p
525
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Taylor, John, <i>Poems on Various Subjects,</i> London, Payne and
Foss, 1827, p 99-100
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
<i>The Times,</i> London, 17 May, 1813</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Francis_Greville
accessed May 2009
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
Cust, Lionel, <i>"History of the Society of Dilettanti"</i>
London, Macmillan, 1914, p 133
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
Gladstone, Boas, Christopherson, <i>Noblemen's and Gentleman's
Catch Club</i>, London, Cypher, 1996</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Wikiepedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Douglas,_4th_Duke_of_Queensberry
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
Gladstone, Boas, Christopherson, <i>Noblemen's
and Gentleman's Catch Club</i>, London, Cypher,
1996, p 14</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
Gladstone, Boas, Christopherson, <i>Noblemen's and Gentleman's Catch
Club</i>, London, Cypher, 1996, p 28</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
Gladstone, Boas, Christopherson, <i>Noblemen's and Gentleman's Catch
Club</i>, London, Cypher, 1996, p 109-111</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
<i>The Annual Register</i>, 1804, p 521</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
National Archives,
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATLN=7&CATID=-4758122&FullDetails=True&j=1&Gsm=2008-08-08
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
National Archives,
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATLN=7&CATID=-4758122&FullDetails=True&j=1&Gsm=2008-08-08
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
Spurrell, William, <i>Carmarthen and Its Neighbourhood,</i>
Carmarthen, William Spurrell, 1840, p 98
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
Jones, Evan Davies, Sir, Vaughan, Herbert M, <i>Welsh book-plates,
Fishguard</i>; London, Humphreys, 1920.
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
<i>National Archives,
</i>http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=10787&CATLN=3&Highlight=&FullDetails=True
accessed May 2009
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
Knowles, John, <i>The Life and Writings of Henry Fuseli,</i> London,
Colburn, 1831, p 328</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
Symmons, John, <i>Thoughts on the Present Prices of Provisions</i>,
London, Reynolds, 1800
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
Symmons, John, <i>Remedies proposed as certain, speedy, and
effectual for the relief</i>, London, J Hatchard, 1816
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
Symmons, John, <i>Reform without innovation, </i>London, William
Savage, 1810
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a>
Symmons, John, <i>The causes of the present distressful state of the
country investigated, </i>London, R Wilks, 1822</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
Duppa, Richard, <i>The Life and Literary Works of Michel Anglelo
Buonarroti</i>, London, John Murray, 1806</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
Arnold, Samuel James, <i>"Man and Wife, or or more secrets than
one"</i>, London, Richard Phillips, 1809, dedication
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
Spence, William, <i>Tracts on Political Economy</i>, London,
Longmans, 1822</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a>
Picquot, A, <i>A Sketch of Modern History</i>, London, G and W B
Whittaker, 1819, dedication
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
Campbell, Hugh, <i>The Fruits of Faith, or, Musing Sinner</i>,
London, Longmans, 1825, p 64-66
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
Dibdin, Thomas, <i>The Reminiscences of Thomas Dibdin</i>, London,
Colburn, 1827, p 353</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
Taylor, John, <i>Records of My Life, </i>Vol II, London, Edward
Bull, 1832, p 367
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
Barker, Edmund Henry, <i>Literary Anecdotes and Contemporary
Reminiscences</i>, London, Smith, 1852, p 116</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a>
<i>Biographical Dictionary of Living Authors</i>, London, Coulburn,
1816, p 338</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a>
Wrangham, Francis, <i>A Memoir,</i> attached to <i>Scraps,</i>
London, C. Baldwin, 1816, p 4</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a>
De Bracy, Charles E G, <i>Mémoires véridiques et ingenus de la vie
privée, morale</i>, Paris, Guiraudet, 1834, p 345</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
Wrangham, Francis, <i>A Memoir,</i> attached to <i>Scraps,</i>
London, C. Baldwin, 1816, p 6-15</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
Smith, John Thomas, <i>Nollekens and His Times</i>, Vol II,
London, Henry Colburn, London, 1828, p 82 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote66">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66anc" name="sdendnote66sym">lxvi</a>
Wrangham, Francis, <i>A Memoir,</i> attached to <i>Scraps,</i>
London, C. Baldwin, 1816, p 2-13</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote67">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67anc" name="sdendnote67sym">lxvii</a>
<i>Monthly Review</i>, London, Beckett, 1813, p 183 & Symmons,
Caroline and Charles, <i>Poems,</i> London, Johnson, 1812</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote68">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68anc" name="sdendnote68sym">lxviii</a>
Dawes, M (Manasseh), <i>Miscellanies in Prose and Verse on Various
Occasions</i>, London, 1776</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote69">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69anc" name="sdendnote69sym">lxix</a>
Wrangham, Francis, <i>The Library of the Ven Francis Wrangham,</i>
Malton, 1826 (only seventy copies) p 611</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote70">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70anc" name="sdendnote70sym">lxx</a>
Symmons, Caroline and Symmons, Charles, <i>Poems,
</i>London, Johnson and Co, 1812, p 61 and p 70</span></div>
</div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-37088992924733596022015-04-10T12:51:00.001-07:002021-11-26T09:25:58.461-08:004 - The Age of Enlightenment ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Social Influences</b><br />
Later, we will discuss Carlisle's influence of 1797 on the writings of
Thomas Holcroft and Robert Southey and on Mary Shelley's
<i>Frankenstein</i>. But, having set the scene for Carlisle, it is time to consider other
social influences on him and, through him, on Mary Shelley, arising
from medical research and natural philosophy among 18C and 19C
society. In contemplating Carlisle, it becomes clear he was part of a
wide literary and scientific circle at a time of rapid changes in
society. <br /></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
It is worth pausing to get inside the
minds and beliefs of the times, and consider scientific thinking
around 1768, the year Carlisle was born. A time with limited news
media, few books, a dominance of Church teachings, and many people
unable to read.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
A study of the years 1839-1843 showed that 40% of women in England and Wales
signed the marriage register with only a mark, with the same study
showing illegitimate births were 67 per 1000.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
In most 18C villages and towns, the local church had been the focal
point of the community for hundreds of years. Communities were small
and few people travelled more than a score of miles from their
birthplace. Nearly everyone in a community knew all others and
strangers were obvious. There was no nationwide time scheduling. Town
and village life was adjusted by the rising sun and daylight hours.
There were few clocks and those in public places showed local time,
often set from a sun-dial, as the means of determining the hour of
day. Those wealthy enough to have clocks set them by the sound of the
church bells. There was no need for more accurate measurement, and
life tended to follow the four seasons, infancy, childhood, maturity,
and old age. It was not until 1840, when the Great Western Railway
timetable needed to be coordinated, that accuracy of time on land
became gradually synchronised across the whole country as the
railways spread out.</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1768,
somewhat counter intuitively, accurate time was vastly more important
at sea. Latitude was determined by the angle of the sun, moon, and
stars, but accurate time was necessary for longitude. Hence many
ships were lost on reefs, when not where they thought they should be.
In 1766, the Royal Society hired Captain James Cook (1728-1779), to
travel to the Pacific Ocean to observe and record the transit of
Venus across the sun. As a boy, Cook lived on a farm owned by the
Scottowe family of Carlisle's stepmother. Cook sailed in 1768, and
arrived at Tahiti on 13 April 1769, where the observations of Venus
were to be made. Cook later mapped the complete New Zealand
coastline, then sailed west, reaching the Australian continent. He
returned to England, where his journals were published and he became
a hero among the scientific community. Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820),
a botanist and later President of the Royal Society, went on the
first voyage, collecting and bringing back thousands of plant
species. Banks being both a friend of John Symmons and Carlisle.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The first
use of hot air balloons to carry humans was fifteen years in the
future in 1768. The first clearly recorded instance of a balloon
carrying passengers, with hot air used to generate buoyancy, was a
balloon built by the Montgolfier brothers. Their first tethered
balloon flight with humans on board took place on 19 October 1783.
Carlisle read of this and decided to experiment. The exact date of
his experiment is uncertain, but it was reported in the early 19C
Carlisle had been the first person to replicate a hot air balloon
flight in County Durham, possibly in late 1783. Other things now
taken for granted were far distant when Carlisle was born, but his
connection to them will be shown later: the daguerreotype invented in
1839, powered flight in 1903, and the first patent relating to radar
in 1904.<br />
<br />
In 1768 King George III was into the eighth year of his
sixty year reign which lasted until 1820. The American War of
Independence of 1776 was still eight years away, and the French
Revolution of 1789 over twenty years in the future. Nevertheless,
there were signs of change. In 1767 the term 'fine art' was used for
the first time, foreshadowing a more formal study of art. In 1768,
Philip Astley staged the first modern circus in London with acrobats
on galloping horses, and the first weekly numbers of Encyclopaedia
Britannica were published. Few people born in 1768 are remembered
today, but the following year 1769, saw the birth of several military
figures to dominate world affairs; Michel Ney (1769-1815) French
marshal under Napoleon, Arthur Wellesley (1769-1852) Duke of
Wellington and Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) Emperor of France.</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
At age
seventeen, Carlisle arrived in London where the intellectual
atmosphere was focussed on the Royal Society, formed in 1660. The
Society rose from a private association in Oxford about the year
1652, to be incorporated by royal charter after the Restoration. It
rapidly acquired a library and became a repository for specimens of
scientific interest. From the beginning, Fellows were elected,
although the criteria were vague and the majority were not
professional scientists. In 1780 the Society moved to Somerset House
under Sir Joseph Banks who had become President in 1778 and was to
remain so until his death. Banks was in favour of maintaining a
mixture among the Fellowship of working scientists and wealthy
amateurs who might become their patrons and the Society retained this
mix until the mid 19C, with Symmons elected as a wealthy amateur.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Although
the Society was a pioneer in holding weekly meetings to discuss
scientific advances, it was not the only place where that happened.
John Hunter led a discussion group which met between meetings of the
Society for boisterous discussions while they dined on oysters and
other delicacies. Members included Sir Joseph Banks, Captain Cook,
and James Watt. The group met at the fashionable coffee houses,
initially at Jack's in Dean Street and later at Young Slaughterer's
in St Martin's Lane. It is likely the name Young Slaughterer's, if
not carefully chosen as a name to encompass surgeons and medical
students, was at least regarded as appropriate for the gatherings.
News of discoveries was eagerly debated and possibilities for
research canvassed. It is more likely Carlisle joined in discussion
with the next generation, as a member of group with a literary
emphasis, as his friends included; Grosvenor Bedford, Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, William Godwin, Thomas Holcroft, Charles Lamb, William
Nicholson, Robert Southey, and Thomas Wedgwood.
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In the
early 18C most of the population accepted religion and God's Will as
explanation for unusual phenomena, in preference to science. At the
opening of the century, the Church had a strong hold over the minds
of the bulk of the population, and its hold was only a little less a
hundred years later. While 1768 marked an increasing tempo in great
scientific change, some beliefs continued to be accepted for many
years more. The year was only 112 years after the death of Archbishop
Ussher (1581-1656). In 1650, in his <i>“Annals of the World”</i>,
Archbishop Ussher calculated from Biblical genealogies, that the
Creation of the Earth took place in the evening prior to the day of
23 October 4004BC. His teaching was still accepted by many in the
year 1768, but its acceptance was gradually challenged over time. By
1850 even the general public was questioning.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1700
resurrection was essentially a religious teaching believed by most
human beings. Since time immemorial men have contemplated earthly
mortality and afterlife immortality. The most common example being
that of Egypt, where the deceased were embalmed as mummies and
interred with grave goods to assist them in their afterlife. However,
similar beliefs were, and are, common to many other civilizations. In
the early 18C there was a strong belief in the afterlife and a
consequent need to carefully bury deceased persons, so that on the
eventual Day of Judgement, their souls could ascend to heaven. Few
people questioned where the souls of the deceased were during that
period of waiting, but if asked, most would have replied to the
effect that their souls were waiting in the graveyards for Judgement
Day. Graveyards were thus revered as solemn waiting rooms, until
their occupants were eventually called to Judgement.<br />
<br />
The expectation
of resurrection on Judgement Day was a major factor in dictating how
British people lived their lives. It was reinforced by clerics whose
preaching revolved around living a Christian life to ensure people
were saved. Along with food, shelter, and procreation, resurrection
was one of the four main pillars of human life. Children were warned
to behave, or they would not go to heaven. Eventual resurrection,
along with their deceased ancestors who had been waiting patiently,
was part of a continuing mental comfort to the general population,
and a backdrop to the slowly changing seasons. One did not need to
look to the far distant future, the Lord would take care of that,
provided a Christian life was lived in the interim.</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
During
the 18C the traditional mental cocoon of religion came under subtle
attack, partly from natural philosophers finding their knowledge
varyied from biblical teaching. Conflict between science and religion
began to arise, with the Royal Society giving impetus. The Society
published their Transactions and give a new and more rational
character to the pursuits of philosophy, at a time when the term
natural philosophy meant general scientific knowledge. Others
followed, with those in the medical profession seeking to expand
knowledge. Which is not to suggest all medical men were in favour.
William Hunter referred to 17C anatomy classes taught by Malpighi
and other Italians, where senior professors endeavoured,
unsuccessfully, to pass a law whereby every graduate would be obliged
to take the following additional clause to the solemn oath on taking
his degree;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
You shall likewise swear that you will preserve and defend the
doctrine taught in the University of Bononia, viz. that of
Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen which has now been approved of for
so many ages, and that you will not permit their principles and
conclusions to be overturned by any person.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The
proposed change was defeated as the Italian medical profession
increasingly found the teachings of Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen
needed revision to reflect new discoveries.
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
But the
Church did itself a disservice by allowing the undermining of its
teaching. A catalyst for this was anatomists and their students
seeking bodies for dissection. Local anatomists and their medical
students were educated men, often the brothers, or sons, of the local
vicar, or of the local squire, in a time when there was an increasing
number of men choosing medicine and surgery as a career path. As part
of their medical training, students needed to understand human
anatomy from bodies they could carefully dissect. Live patients were
obviously unwilling to be practised on and only a limited amount
could be learned by dissecting animals.<br />
<br />
Anatomy teachers needed a
supply of cadavers for new research, and to teach students how to
treat injuries and undertake operations. In the absence of
established sources, graves were the logical source of supply. The
actions of anatomists were not intended as an attack on religion,
more an undeclared conflict between religious and secular needs. Body
snatching for anatomists was not new. The evidence of early snatching
gave rise to a religious belief of the very earth ejecting an
excommunicated body, a convenient explanation for clerics, if a grave
under their care was found disturbed and empty, with the body
missing;
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
I have heard that there are places, by the abode</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
Of holy men so holily possess'd
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
That should a corpse be laid irreverently
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
Within their influence, the insulted ground,
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
Impatient of pollution, heaves, and casts
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
The abomination out.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
Britain, there was a statutory right to obtain a limited number
executed criminals for dissection. The public paid little attention
to this, apart from attending the relatively rare dissections to
which the public was invited. Bodies of executed criminals were
however, insufficient to meet demand, so anatomists turned to
recently interred bodies. During the 18C there were increasing
rumours of body snatching. The rumours led to a second definition of
a 'resurrectionist' or 'resurrection man', one who exhumed bodies.
Later, a third definition focused on those who attempted to revive
life.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
1- a believer in resurrection in a religious sense.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
2 - a person who exhumes and steals dead bodies for dissection; also
called resurrection man, inhumanist, body snatcher, body stealer,
grave robber, body-bootlegger, sack-em-up man.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
3 - a person who brings something to life or view again, who revives
a body to life.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Early in
the 18C the public were largely unaware of resurrectionists. On a
local scale, if their action became public knowledge, it caused an
outcry. If a body was removed from a grave, how could the soul ascend
to heaven on Judgement Day? This caused consternation among the
population. The local people felt their fabric of life was in danger of
collapsing and feared the same would happen to them on their own
death. But away from the local community affected, such ripples were
minimal.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Anatomists
were educated men who discussed their findings with friends within
the community, squires, magistrates, lawyers, other physicians, and
even the clergy. The need for bodies grew throughout the 18C. The
source was generally known to educated men, but the sourcing of
cadavers was not a subject friends pursued in conversation. As such,
there was increasing recognition of, and acquiescence to,
body-snatching activities, by the authorities provided it was done
secretly.<br />
<br />
Implicit in this acquiescence, was an acknowledgement by
the Church that bodies would not rise on Judgement Day. The spreading
acceptance among educated men of the need to exhume bodies, therefore
caused the scientific and secular needs of 'Dissection Day', to
diverge from the 'Judgement Day' religious beliefs of their forbears.
This was largely along a class divide, where the educated classes
accepted a need to exhume, but the uneducated classes were largely
unaware of it. During this process, the groups mingled in attending
church on Sunday and continued to be exhorted from the pulpit to live
proper Christian lives, so they could all arise on the eventual
Judgement Day.<br />
<br />
The Church was aware of the actions of the anatomists,
at least in general terms, with evidence of exhumations in their own
churchyards. But, instead of strongly denouncing the practice from
the pulpit, as their beliefs should have dictated, the clergy largely
ignored body-snatching, apart from covering up any evidence left
behind, effectively condoning the actions of resurrectionists when,
ostensibly, Judgement Day was the major reason for the Church to
exist.
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
rationale for the clerical approach of 'Hear no evil, see no evil,
speak no evil' was a subconscious choice in ranking a desire for
social acceptance, ahead of their religious teachings. If the clergy
were to criticise from the pulpit, body-snatchers active in their
churchyards, they ran a risk. The poor would feel the clergy had not
protected their loved ones, whereas the local surgeon would hear it
as a personal attack. In both instances leading to reduced church
congregations, lower monetary collections at church services, and
reduced social acceptance.<br />
<br />
Occasionally there was a stand, as with a
chaplain at London Hospital who refused to read the service over
coffins of stones any longer, where the bodies had been removed by
resurrectionists, because he saw it as a farce. The motive of money
is seen with reference to Rev Valentin<span style="font-style: normal;">e; 'he is a
strenuous advocate for the rights of the Church, and the strict
observance of decency, seldom permitting a deceased patient to be
dissected before burial, as such a practice would obviously tend to
diminish the fees for interment'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
hindsight, it is surprising how long the two conflicting views of
bodily resurrection, 'Judgement Day' and 'Dissection Day' survived in
uneasy parallel, well over one hundred years. Usually the most highly
educated man in a village, with overall responsibility for the church
and churchyard, the local cleric was aware of evidence left behind by
resurrectionists. In many instances, the clerics were related to the
anatomists, as fathers, brothers, uncles, cousins, sons, or nephews,
or by marriage. If they held to professed beliefs, the Church and
clerics could not avoid condemning anatomists, but in some instances
the Age of Enlightenment had also reached the church, with clerics
questioning their own beliefs and teachings. If they did, clerics
were in an invidious position, as they had chosen the church as their
career.<br />
<br />
The only other career they were suited for was teaching, but
that meant giving up a comfortable living within the church
establishment, to accept a lower paying and less socially acceptable
position as a school teacher. Even clergy with more deeply held inner
convictions, quailed from telling their wives they could no longer
preach due to the apparent hypocrisy. The disinterest of the Church
conveys an impression of; 'Do as I say, not as I do', perhaps more
aptly restated as; 'Believe as I say, not as I believe'. To protect
their income and social status, many clerics perpetuated the public
tenets of the Church, while in private enthusiastically following
reports of scientific discoveries. There being such a major
conceptual conflict, the Church must have internally contemplated and
debated the issue.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
If
instead, the Churches had expressed concern and promoted a law change
to secure a legal supply of unclaimed bodies for dissection, as
happened in Europe, that change could have been achieved one hundred years
earlier, avoiding distress to tens of thousands of families. Such
action would have retained for the Church a position of major
influence in society which was, instead, eroded away by inaction.
Although sermons continued to preach fire and brimstone in hell,
there was less public acceptance of religious teachings, also less
and less public acceptance of severe punishments, including;
branding, burning at the stake, hanging, and the display of felons'
bodies on the gibbet. These punishments had evolved from early
religious edicts and teachings, as a continuation of punishments
adopted by institutions such as the Inquisition.<br />
<br />
In most societies,
law changes tend to follow human behaviour, rather than lead it and
as Britain became increasingly secular, there was a gradual change to
more humane treatment of convicted felons, although burning at the
stake was used as a punishment in Britain until the end of the 18C.
After 1800, disquiet about the resurrectionists grew in intensity and
awareness, ultimately forcing politicians to intervene and pass the
Anatomy Act of 1832. Even at that critical time, the Church remained
strangely quiet. In fact in 1829, William Howley, Archbishop of
Canterbury even argued against the proposed law change.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Manasseh
Dawes, uncle of Martha Carlisle, challenged 18C established religion.
A satirical piece written by Dawes, <i>"On Methodism"</i>
ostensibly a criticism of the Methodist Church is, under the
Methodist veneer, a lengthy and clear assault on the Churches of
England and of Rome.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<br />
Let us take a review of Methodism at large abstracted from all other
forms of religion, which sooner or later strikes an awful impulse on
our minds, and convinces us of a being we invoke by that venerable
name, God.... Ignorance is said to be the mother of devotion, and
herein it is evidenced; for when the general of that noble army of
martyrs, called Methodists, by converting tomb-stones into rostrums,
and preaching rhapsodical nonsense, became wonderful to his hearers,
because they knew no better than to admire what they had not sense to
despise. He played sufficiently upon their weak passions to make them
open their ears to his wants, and contribute to enrich his coffers by
which means the church yard soon lost an episodical preacher, who
then gloried in spreading his doctrine under the bare canopy of
heaven, in all weathers and who afterwards built a superb Tabernacle
in Tottenham Court Road, to accommodate the polite people of Broad St
Giles's, where he continued to bellow his only pure doctrine to a
still increasing congregation of simple, unrefined, and uneducated
people till by frequent Charity Sermons, and Love-feasts, as he
termed them, he felt the sanctity of their souls by their making
continual sacrifices at the altar of his pocket. … This pastor
lived thirty years in a religious character, at home and abroad where
he died, having amassed, as 'tis said a very considerable fortune
from nothing; whereas had he continued in the church, and preach'd
wholesome doctrine, he might have died a curate of £30 a year ...<br />
<br />
No profession is more pestered with impostors than religion; 'tis the
asylum of fraud and iniquity and every villain pretends to it as a
prelude to his horrid manoeuvres. True religion, like deep waters is
silent. 'Tis our actions that are our advocates, and not our words.
But Methodists tell us we have no religion, because we do not follow
their example; as if they were the only chosen people with God. Can
any thing be more impudently rude than this is? They also tell us our
sermons are soporiferous and inanimate. What are theirs? Why a
tautology of incoherences, distorted and convulsed from holy writ;
which they rather insult than explain; and this too (like Medusa's
head) to frighten and benumb their hearers, under profane and impious
pretensions of their being moved by the Spirit of Righteousness! …
In fine, hypocrisy is the root of methodistical pride, tinctured with
vain glory; and such are our modern Christians possessed of. They
play upon the senses of their fellow creatures, by imposing their
outward sanctity upon them, as a proof of their inward purity. Let
then all those who can, as Hudibras says;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<br />
Swallow nonsense and a lye,</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
With eagerness and gluttony.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<br />
And who delight in Methodism with more glee than a hound will devour
carrion, pass their time by themselves; nor suffer them, ye wiser
beings, to approach your mansions; since the majority of them are a
mere burlesque on religion, and worship their God in masquerade. If
other people shew less religion, they profess less but Methodists
profess all, and practise little.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
established Churches were relieved to leave it as an overt attack on
Methodism, not drawing attention to the covert attack on their own
churches. Perhaps as a result of Dawes' views, Carlisle was an
atheist, as evidenced in letters written by Robert Southey to
Grosvenor Bedford. In the first letter Southey does not realise
Carlisle is an atheist; thinking Carlisle believes in religion from
the nature of the question he suggests Carlisle ask of Godwin. But as
the correspondence continues, Southey expresses surprise and then
acceptance. The extracts are an interesting example of 19C
censorship. The letters by Southey endorsing religion are included in
the <i>"Life and Correspondence of Robert Southey"</i>,
compiled by his son Rev Charles Cuthbert Southey in 1851, but the
portions discussing atheism were excluded. It has required 20C
historians to recover the vital excisions. The letters also reveal
how much the Bible dominated 18C thinking.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
2<span style="font-style: normal;">6 June 1796 - What of Godwin's
sermons, what of his nonsense bringing Allen to town? I know nothing
of either. do not despise Godwin too much. he is despicable — but
his book is not. he will do good by defending Atheism in print —
because when the arguments are known they may [be] easily &
satisfactorily answered. tell Carlisle to ask him this question. if
man were made by the carnal meeting of atoms — how could he have
possibly supported himself without superior assistance? the use of
the muscles is only attained by practise. how could he have fed
himself? how know from what cause hunger proceeded? how know by what
means to remedy the pain? — the question appears to me decisive.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">26 July 1796 - Allen is the same as
when I left him, except that he is now a confirmed Atheist, & to
my great surprise tells me Carlisle is so. I am sorry for this, not
that I think any error in judgment criminal, nor do I think the
Atheist necessarily a fool & necessarily unhappy. I am a very
tolerant man, even to indifference. but certainly he loses the
highest source of happiness. tell me Grosvenor the state of your mind
upon religion. but tell me the state of your body first. Allen agrees
with me that Man is a Beast. he verges towards misanthropy & says
that a years crusade to benefit mankind will cure any man of his
prejudices in their favour. so say I — for I have been a Crusader.
& so say you who have the benefit of my experience. but of
Carlisle. you have given me a very good opinion of him, for your
applause is a ticket of admission to mine. NOW I do not like him a
whit the less for his Atheism, but I have forsworn all metaphysics,
from my soul abhorring so barren a study. now if the majority of your
club are necessarians, materialists, & atheists (as I believe
they are) I, who am neither the one or the other, have no inclination
to be in a state of continual argumentation.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">31 July 1796 - now to your letter.
first of Carlisle's part. In the second chapter of the Wisdom of
Solomon & at the 23</span><sup><span style="font-style: normal;">rd</span></sup><span style="font-style: normal;">
verse are these words. For God created man to be immortal, & made
him to be </span><i><span style="font-style: normal;">an image of his
own eternity</span></i><span style="font-style: normal;">. Now if
Carlisle's </span><i><span style="font-style: normal;">only</span></i><span style="font-style: normal;">
Deity be Nature this will be nonsense to him. if he be — a Theist
[cf a later discussion about 'a tomy'] this text will sufficiently
explain the scripture phrase I used. As for Man's fore-paws I am glad
they were made for so good a purpose & wish they were never
applied to a worse. & as for 'universal benevolence'! — I have
been in the crowd & have had my corns trod upon, & therefore
I chuse to take a snug bye path for the future. & when Carlisle
has his house in the country & his mastiff to keep off the Beasts
— I beg he will let me be familiar with the four-legged brute.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
29 August 1796 - Grosvenor that half letter which Carlisle wrote to
me, appeared atheistical. I care not whether he be atheist or not,
for a man's principles are the last things I shall ever trouble my
head about, no doubt Beelzebub professes very excellent principles.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
17 November, 1796 - Thursday. I have met with a Mr Losh, he carries
with him one of the most open manly democratic faces I ever saw: he
mentioned Carlisle. I enquired what were Carlisle's opinions upon
religious subjects: he told me atheistical. Now Grosvenor who am I to
believe? That his sentiments as given in conversation if not avowedly
atheistical, lead immediately to atheism from the testimony of Allen
and Losh appears certain; they are both accustomed to metaphysical
reasonings & could hardly both be deceived. moreover, the part
which Carlisle wrote in one of your letters to me, appeared most
clearly to be the production of an Atheist. mark you — his
speculative tenets will neither make him rise or fall in the
barometer of my opinion: but as you have so positively assured me
that he thinks otherwise & as he is by others who know him,
Christians as well as Atheists, considered as a disbeliever of Deity
— you will do well. if you are right, in telling him how his
opinions are mistaken, & warning him, if he be indeed atheist,
not to give his sanction to principles, which, to say the best of
them, can produce no good. you may, if you like it, show him what I
have written.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Scrofula was a disease, tuberculosis of the lymphatic glands,
sometimes referred to as the 'King's evil”. In discussing a case
where Mr Lynn opined that the patient's scrofula affliction would
necessitate the amputation of a middle finger, Carlisle signalled a
disbelief in religious miracles.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.54cm;">
<br />
Sir Anthony, after an examination, said, “I think the finger is
lost, nothing but a miracle can save it, and we do not commonly have
recourse to miracles in our profession. Johanna Southcott too is
dead, Prince Hohenlohe [supposed miracle curer of Princess Matilda of
Schwartzenberg and others in 1821<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>]
is not to be found, and the King's touch has lost its virtue in these
radical days; consequently I see no remedy but amputation of the
finger.”
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.54cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.54cm;">
The same source noted Carlisle had a poor opinion of physicians;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.54cm;">
<br />
Sir Anthony observed to the pupils around him, “It is much to be
lamented that physicians are so entirely empirical in their practice.
Dang it, I never for the life of me could discover any rational
principle in a physician's treatment of a case and whenever I see one
of them feeling a pulse, I cannot help calling to mind the well-known
epitaph, to be seen in every graveyard;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.54cm;">
<br />
Afflictions sore long time I bore,</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.54cm;">
<i> Physicians once</i> I tried,</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.54cm;">
Of peace or ease I had no more,</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.54cm;">
They left me when I died.”<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.54cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
was not unique in his atheism. Most anatomists favoured atheism,
otherwise they had severe inner conflict if believing a dissected
body could not rise to heaven. Godwin was increasingly attracted to
atheism under the influence of Thomas Holcroft. Religion and science
have battled for many years, with science and new ideas often on the
back foot, initially at least.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
A new truth has to encounter three normal stages of opposition. In
the first it is denounced as an imposture. In the second, that is
when it is beginning to force itself into notice, it is cursorily
examined and plausibly explained away. In the third, or 'cui bono'
stage, it is decried as useless, and hostile to religion. And when it
is finally admitted, it passes only under a protest that it has been
perfectly known for ages, a proceeding intended to make the new truth
ashamed of itself, and wish it had never been born.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a></div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Mayhew, Henry, cited in Cody, Lisa Forman, <i>Birthing the Nation</i>,
New York, OUP, 2005, p 296-297</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Hunter, William, in Montagu, Basil, <i>Thoughts on the punishment of
death for forgery,</i> London, Pickering, 1830 p 25
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a><i>
The Quarterly Review</i>, Vol XXI, London, John Murray, 1819, p 371</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances</i>, London, Ann
Millard, 1825, p 27
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Dawes, M (Manasseh), <i>Miscellanies in Prose and Verse on Various
Occasions</i>, London, 1776, p 106</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Southey, Robert, <i>The Letters of Robert Southey,</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
letter 162</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Southey, Robert, <i>The Letters of Robert Southey,</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
letter 167</span><i> </i></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Southey, Robert, <i>The Letters of Robert Southey,</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
letter 168</span><i> </i></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
Southey, Robert, <i>The Letters of Robert Southey,</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
letter 170</span><i> </i></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
Southey, Robert, <i>The Letters of Robert Southey,</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
letter 187</span><i> </i></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
<i>Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,</i> Edinburgh, Constable,
1826, p 63-72 and 270-278</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a><i>
The Lancet,</i> Vol II, London, Wakley, 1833, p 543</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Mayo, Herbert, <i>Letters on the Truths contained in Popular
Superstitions, </i>Edinburgh, 1849, p 21 </span>
</div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-29389259480692629652015-04-09T20:03:00.004-07:002021-11-26T09:28:24.599-08:005 - Barber-Surgeon to Anatomist, and the Death Penalty ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Surgeons and Surgery</b> <br />
Those who operate on humans are commonly called surgeons and their profession,
surgery. The word surgical is a modern form of chirurgical, as used
in the title of a book by Richard Wiseman, published in 1676 and
titled <i>"Several Chirurgical Treatises"</i>. Another term
used is anatomist, a teacher of human anatomy. The distinction relating
mainly, as to whether the subject operated upon was a cadaver in the
respect of an anatomist, or a live patient in the case of a surgeon.
When patients died from surgery, the distinction between an anatomist
and a surgeon could become blurred. Surgeons were distinct from
physicians, who generally did not perform operations, but prescribed medicines and recommended treatment. <br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Medicine was a key area of scientific advance in the 18C. <span style="font-weight: normal;">Whilst
medical ethics was not formalised in the 18C, it is evident from 18C
commentary that there were varying opinions on the subject. </span>For
a good coverage of medical experimentation on charity patients in the
late 18C and early 19C see Lawrence.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
A revised and shocking view of medical experimentation and ethics in
the mid 18C, that is in the period prior to Lawrence's coverage, is a
major theme of this book. From the 21C it is easy to say “Things
were different in the 18C”, but most 18C surgeons, anatomists, and
man-midwives understood the Hippocratic Oath, as do surgeons in the current century, including: "<b>I will
prescribe regimens for the good of my patients according to my
ability and my judgement and never do harm to anyone". </b>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;">To look at 18C ethics from a 21C
view, this list has been prepared to help a 21C reader apply ethical
concepts to experiments associated with</span> mid 18C anatomists,
surgeons, and man-midwives.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm;">
<br />
1 Was the subject experimented upon animal or human?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm;">
2 If human, was the experiment upon a dead subject, or was it an
experiment on a live patient?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm;">
3 If a dead human subject was to be dissected, had it been procured
legally or illegally?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm;">
4 If the patient was alive, was it a private patient or a charity
patient?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm;">
5 If a patient was alive, did their condition warrant the proposed
experimental treatment?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm;">
6 If a patient's condition warranted the experiment, had they consented, and
made aware of the risks?
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm;">
7 If a patient's condition did not warrant the experiment, was there
risk of injury?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm;">
8 If a patient's condition did not warrant the experiment, was death
likely?<br />
9 Was survival so remote, that experiments on healthy patients amounted to "murder-for-dissection" </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
In following chapters, we will address step 3 as applied to all human
subjects; men, women, and children, before exploring steps 4 to 9 as
applied to mid 18C man-midwifery. That is to determine whether
man-midwives acted to experiment on pregnant patients whose condition
did not warrant the nature of experiments conducted, or who were not
fully cognisant of the effects of the treatment, or who may have been
injured, or even died as a result of the experiments. In addition
consideration will be given to the public stance of Sir Anthony
Carlisle, and as to whether or not, the displacement of midwifery by
man-midwifery between 1730 and 1930 was a process beneficial to
female health.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The casual attitude to death of some in 18C society, was recounted in
1750;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">But the highest frolick that can
possibly be put in execution is a genteel murder; such as running a
waiter thro' the body, knocking an old feeble watchman's brains out
with his own staff, or taking away the life of some regular
scoundrel, who has not spirit enough to whore and drink like a
gentleman. The noblest frolick I ever remember happened a few years
ago at a country town. While a party of Bucks were making a riot at
an inn and tossing the chairs and tables, and looking glasses into
the street, the landlady was indiscreet enough to come upstairs, and
interrupt their merriment with her impertinent remonstrances; upon
which they immediately threw her out of the window after her own
furniture. News was soon brought of the poor woman's death, and the
whole company looked upon it as a very droll accident, and gave order
that she should be charged in the bill.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
From
Egyptian and Greek times, physicians could draw blood, and generally
did so, by blood-letting. This was a universal cure for hundreds of
years and was intended to restore the balance of the four humours of
the body; yellow bile, black bile, blood, and phlegm. Modern thinking
was far off and at the end of the 14C, physicians were still legally
required to calculate the position of the moon before embarking on an
operation. One of the greatest milestones of medical anatomical
understanding, and of artistic rendering of the dissected human form,
was Andreas Vesalius's book <i>“De Humani Corporus Fabrica”</i>
written in 1543 and the book featured in the portrait of Carlisle.
Vesalius described how he went looking for bones in the country,
where '<span style="font-style: normal;">to the great convenience of
students, all those who have been executed are customarily placed'.
He found a dried cadaver, which he removed from the stake, taking the
limbs home in secret. He was, he relates, 'burning with so great a
desire... that I was not afraid to snatch in the middle of the night
what I so longed for'</span>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Until
dedicated surgeons began to emerge in the mid 18C, surgery was
practised by barber-surgeons. Their main source of income was from
shaving, or cutting hair, but to a lesser extent from drawing teeth
or treating venereal disease. Barber-surgeons were trained as
on-the-job apprentices, rather than as medical students. The reason
for barbers being associated with surgery and blood letting, going
back to a Papal Bull of 1215, which forbade priests and monks from
spilling blood. That Papal Bull in turn, was the major reason priests
and others resorted to drowning or burning, convicted witches and
heretics, to avoid spilling blood. As barbers attended at monasteries
to cut hair and beards, it became acceptable for them to wield knives
on ulcers, minor accidents, for blood-letting, to set broken bones
and, rarely, to undertake amputations.<br />
<br />
However, barbers were looked
down on by the clergy, with surgery regarded as just another manual
trade, sometimes called 'the cutter's art'. Due to this hierarchical
view, barber-surgeons were referred to as Mister, not as Doctor, a
practice which continues with surgeons to the present day. Being more
craftsmen than men of medicine, barber-surgeons established their own
guild and, over time, competed for respectability with apothecaries
and physicians. Early barber-surgeons advertised with a symbol that
still endures, a red and white striped pole, originally representing
the stick patients needed to grasp while undergoing blood-letting,
with the white stripes representing the bandages and the red stripes,
the blood. Much later, a third blue stripe was added to amend the
appearance to a patriotic symbol.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
A
divergence between the skills of barbers and surgeons arose during
the 18C, as anatomical knowledge became more specialised and as
hospitals gradually became more common, especially in London,
although initially hospitals were very basic and often more for
dealing with accidents, or as dispensaries. In 1700 there were only
two major hospitals in London serving about 600,000 people; St
Bartholomew's founded in 1123 and St Thomas's founded around 1215.
Additional hospitals founded during the 18C included; Westminster in
1720, Guy's in 1724, St George's in 1733, London in 1740, and
Middlesex in 1745. Early hospitals were charitable in nature, the
early history of Guy's Hospital reveals it was founded for <span style="font-style: normal;">four
hundred poor patients, labouring under any distemper, infirmities or
disorders, thought capable of relief by physick or surgery. Salaries
for nurses and other servants were fixed at considerably higher rates
than any other hospital, the better to prevent them from extorting
money from patients. A</span>round 13% of patients died while in
Guy's hospital.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Apart
from general hospitals, specialist hospitals were established; St
Luke's as a lunatic asylum in 1751 and several maternity or laying-in
hospitals; British in 1749, City in 1750, General in 1752, and
Westminster in 1765. For middle income and wealthy patients, medical
treatment was at their home, where family members or servants could
care for them. As the nation became more wealthy and mortality rates
gradually declined, there were larger surviving families. The
population grew, but with a move of people to the cities, there
remained a relatively fixed, if not reducing, number of rural parish
churches. This, coupled with increasing life spans for clerics, meant
less clerical vacancies, and it became harder for younger sons
studying religion to obtain a position.<br />
<br />
Hence there was a trend for
younger sons of the
rural middle class to seek medicine as an alternative career. This
led to an increasing thirst for medical knowledge. Some discoveries
having drastic social side-effects. The forceps originally belonged
to the Chamberlen family and women, not being admitted to the Company
of Surgeons, were precluded from using the instrument. This allowed
the rise of man-midwifery, and midwives gradually lost their
traditional employment. Despite an apparent benefit for women, the
forceps represented a step backwards in terms of women's right to
employment. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Changes
in England were paralleled in Scotland and Ireland. In 1695, the
Incorporation of Barber Surgeons in Edinburgh was
granted a new charter by King William III and Queen Mary which
confirmed the jurisdiction of the Surgeon Apothecaries over the
practice of surgery in Edinburgh and south-east Scotland. The
increasing specialisation of surgical skills in England led to a
professional split between the barbers and surgeons. William
Cheselden, a skilled barber-surgeon who could remove a bladder-stone
in less than one minute, led a drive for the professional recognition
of surgery. As a result, London surgeons left the Barber-Surgeons in
1745 to form their own company which, 55 years later, evolved into
the RCS, with Carlisle as one of 300 founder members.
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
For
illness, as opposed to injuries, the most common surgical treatment
was blood-letting. In the early 19C century adults with good health
from the country districts of England were sometimes bled, by cupping
or using leeches, whenever they went to market, this being regarded
as a preventive medicine to protect them from future illness. At the
peak of their use, in 1825-1840, leeches were imported in bulk from
Russia where they were farmed for sale. In normal use, the tail of a
leech would be cut off, so it could continue sucking for a long time
without getting full of b<span style="font-style: normal;">lood. In
1818 Carlisle wrote; 'Many fatal diseases of the head or lungs in
very old people originate from plethora or local congestion, and free
bleeding with the lancet, by cupping, or leeches, are the only
effective remedies'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a></span>
And in 1828 Carlisle wrote to <i>The Medical Gazette</i>;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
I lately had occasion to direct the application of sixteen leeches to
the surface of the abdomen; and at the same time one of the modern
portable baths was preparing in patient's chamber. The bath being
ready and heated to 102.5 degrees of Fahrenheit's scale, it was
deemed inexpedient to wait for the falling off of the leeches; and
the patient, together with the adhering leeches, was placed in the
bath; when, contrary to expectation, the creatures continued to suck,
apparently undisturbed by the heat, and the greater number of them so
remained during twenty minutes, when the temperature of the bath was
still above 100 degrees. The detached leeches moved with so much
agility in the heated water, that it was difficult to catch them, and
the whole number eventually recovered. ... These facts may serve to
caution practitioners against allowing leeches to pass into the
tubercular cavities of the human body, under a false notion that the
presumed temperature of 100 degrees will speedily kill them.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
As late
as 1861, Isabella Beeton in her <i>"Book of Household
Management"</i> included instructions for doing one's own
bleeding in cases of great emergency!
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Surgeons
needed to understand the human body, and their knowledge was acquired
in several ways. Originally as an apprentice accompanying a local
surgeon at his practice and on house calls. The problem with this was
that there was no way for new skills to be promulgated across the
country. An apprentice could only learn from someone who might have
qualified thirty years earlier and learned nothing new since. Hence,
local anatomy schools grew up where a local practitioner had a
particular interest in surgery and saw a market opportunity. The more
knowledge he could offer, the more popular his courses and the better
his income.<br />
<br />
Initially anatomy lecturers dissected a body while
students observed, and demand for cadavers was low. Learning came
from clinical observation at anatomical theatres and reference to
medical texts illustrated with detailed engravings. Even these
teaching aides were not as beneficial as hands on experience, where
an apprentice could participate in dissections. As the number of
students rose, teachers required an increasing supply of bodies.
Anatomy students
often saw a dissection with difficulty in a crowded room, with the
body steadily decaying, and dissections continuing over a period of
days. </div>
<br />
Countries on continental Europe met this
challenge by passing anatomy laws regulating how bodies could be
acquired. In Great Britain and Ireland such laws did not exist until
the 19C and the authorized annual supply was limited to a handful of
executed criminals. There
was some body-snatching in 1745, but with few anatomists and no
formal schools, the snatching was mainly done by anatomists and their
students.
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
England, legal acquisition of bodies for dissection, dated back as
far as 1540 when Henry VIII granted the Company of Barber-Surgeons
the<span style="font-style: normal;"> right 'to have and take without
contradiction four persons condemned, adjudged, and put to death for
felonies'. T</span>he Barber Surgeons jealously guarded their rights,
but anatomists still more bodies. <span style="font-style: normal;">In
1</span>663 Charles II raised the annual quota of executed bodies
available to the English Barber-Surgeons from four to six. <span style="font-style: normal;">As
medical science evolved, private teachers of anatomy sprang up. They
were potentially a lucrative business, but with the limited legal
allowance, were rarely able to get executed felons for dissection. In
the case of Ireland's College of Surgeons it was four bodies. Apart
from the Surgeons company, the Company of Physicians also had an
annual allowance of four corpses. As a result, unofficial arrangement
were made to source bodies of executed criminals and later, as in
Edinburgh, arrangements were made with magistrates so that unclaimed
bodies found in the street would pass to the anatomical schools.</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">For
religious reasons, it was believed important the deceased be buried,
so one day they could literally rise again. Dissection was feared, as
there was a lingering dread on Judgement Day bodies would be
wandering around looking for their missing body parts. Anatomists
were worse than an executioner, as by dissection they prevented the
ascendency of the soul to heaven, even of an executed criminal.
Dissection of executed criminals served to exacerbate negative
feelings by equating dissection with crime and capital punishment.
Hangings were attended both by the curious public seeking
entertainment and by friends of the condemned, who would seek to
avoid dissection of their friends by claiming the body. </span>Tyburn
near Paddington was used for London executions from as early as the
year 1177. In 1741 Samuel Richardson described riding to the gallows
at Tyburn;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
All the way up to Holborn the crowd was so great as at every twenty
or thirty yards, to obstruct the passage; and wine, notwithstanding a
late good order against this practice, was brought to the factors,
who drank greedily of it, which I thought did not suit well with
their deplorable circumstances. After this the three thoughtless
young men, who at first seemed not enough concerned, grew most
shamefully wanton and daring, behaving, themselves in a manner that
would have been ridiculous in men in any circumstances whatever. They
swore, laughed, and talked obscenely, and wished their wicked
companions good luck with as much assurance as if their employment
had been the most lawful. At the place of execution the scene grew
still more shocking, and the clergyman who attended was more the
subject of ridicule than of their serious attention. The Psalm was
sung amidst the curses and quarrelling of hundreds of the most
abandoned and profligate of mankind ...<br />
<br />
And as soon as the poor
creatures were half dead, I was much surprised to see the populace
fall to hauling and pulling the carcasses with so much earnestness as
to occasion several warm encounters and broken heads. These, I was
told, were the friends of the persons executed, or such as, for the
sake of to-night, chose to appear so; as well as some persons sent by
private surgeons to obtain bodies for dissection. The contests
between these were fierce and bloody, and frightful to look at; so I
made the best of my way out of the crowd, and with some difficulty
rode back among the large number of people who had been upon the same
errand as myself. The face of every one spoke a kind of mirth, as if
the spectacle they had beheld had afforded pleasure instead of pain,
which I am wholly unable to account for. One of the bodies was
carried to the lodging of his wife, who not being in the way to
receive it, they immediately hawked it about to every surgeon they
could think of; and when none would buy it they rubbed tar all over
it, and left it in a field scarcely covered with earth.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Due to
rising public concern, the 1752 Murder Act was passed, with James
<span style="font-style: normal;">Boswell summarising it; </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
Whereas the horrid crime of murder has of late been more frequently
perpetrated than formerly, ... all persons found guilty of wilful
murder shall be executed on the day next but one after sentence
passed, unless it happen to be the Lord's day, in which case the
execution shall be on the Monday following. That immediately after
such execution, the body shall be delivered by the sheriff to the
surgeons company, who shall give a receipt for it, and cause it to be
dissected and and anatomized... Provided, That it shall be in the
power of the judge to appoint the body to be hung in chains; but that
in no case shall the body of any murderer be suffered to be buried
unless it shall have been so dissected and anatomized .... Enacted
that after sentence till execution, the convict shall be fed with
bread and water only.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Hanging
in chains avoided dissection, as the corpse was taken down from the
gallows and placed in an iron cage suspended from a gibbet, until it
fell to pieces from the effects of decay. But despite this
humiliation some criminals preferred hanging in chains to dissection
by surgeons. The 1752 Act, in effect, made the surgeon or student, as
dissectors, executors of the sentence and so linked dissection firmly
with criminal justice. The Act then remained unaltered for eighty
years, until the Anatomy Act of 1832. Hangings were usually on Monday
mornings at eight o'clock, with the cut-down at nine and the body
placed on a cart. The city marshal was required to attend and stay
long enough to see a superficial incision in the chest of the body,
before reporting that the procedure was properly discharged. Henry
Fielding was an early proponent for reform. In 1752 he described
Tyburn;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.61cm;">
<br />
[T]he Crowd was more numerous than hath been usually been seen on
such an Occasion. The Criminals themselves behaved with the wonted
Affectation of Mock Heroism; and instead of endeavouring to give any
Marks of true Contrition and Repentance, seemed to vie with each
other in displaying a Contempt of their shameful Death, and a total
Indifference as to what might befall them after it. The
Fool-hardiness of these miserable Wretches received perhaps no little
Support from their Friends and Successors in Shame, who are destined
to be the Heroes of a future Holiday. These Fellows seemed to have
exerted their utmost Skill by all Manner of Sports and Pastime, to
keep up the Spirits of the present Sufferers. For this Purpose great
Numbers of Cats and Dogs were sacrificed, and converted into missile
Weapons, with which together with Dirt, Brickbats, and such like
Ammunition, a sham Fight was maintained, the whole Way from Newgate
to Tyburn: I could, I think, paint this Scene in a more ludicrous
Light if I chose it, but I do not. It is not my Intention to raise my
good Reader's Mirth, but his Indignation, and by that Means to
prevail with those in whole Power. It is to prevent for the future
the exhibiting of these horrid Farces, which do really reflect so
great a Scandal to the Nation, and so much Disgrace to Humanity. ...
The real Fact at present is that instead of making the Gallows an
Object of Terror, our Executions contribute to make it an Object of
Contempt in the Eye of a Malefactor and we sacrifice the Lives of
Men, not for the Reformation, but for the Diversion of the Populace.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<b>Justice in the 18C</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Despite
what one might expect, records show a high proportion of death
sentences were commuted. Over the 69 years from 1715 to 1783, when
Tyburn ceased to be used as the principal place of execution, some
4241 people were condemned in London, but nearly half of them were
reprieved. At Tyburn, there was so much tumult between competing
anatomists, and family members of the deceased wanting to give them a
decent burial, it was decided to relocate executions to Newgate.
Sometimes relatives used their influence to have the corpse handed
over to them, and carried it away in a coach for decent burial, or to
try resuscitation of the body. Once the Barber-Surgeons had obtained
a body from the gallows, the actual dissection was often a public
spectacle.<br />
<br />
The following is from 1742; <span style="font-style: normal;">'Notice
is hereby given that there being a publick body at Barbers and
Surgeons Hall, the Demonstrations of Anatomy and the Operations of
Surgery will be at the Hall this evening and to-morrow at six o'clock
precisely in the Amphitheatre'. </span>The name of the criminal
dissected on that day is not known, but on that same day 15 January
1742, seven convicted criminals were sentenced to death. They were;
Eleanor Brown, Thomas Pinks, Stephen Jenkins, Margaret Lumley, Joseph
Pig, Jesse Walden, and Christopher Jordan. On the same day, three
women and two men were sentenced to be whipped, seven women and
twenty-one men were sentenced to be transported for seven years and
one man was sentenced to be transported for fourteen years. In this
1742 instance, three of those sentenced to death, Pig, Brown, and
Lumley, received reprieves.
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm;">
The case of Margaret Lumley is interesting, as she confessed to a
major theft, with the items stolen from the house of a John Simmonds,
most likely the John Symmons MP, who was father of John Symmons FRS;
as 18C spellings of names varied a great deal. Her trial was in 1742
<span style="font-style: normal;">and it is evident from the record,
the Court heard multiple cases on one day. The charge was; on 23
December 1741, Margaret Lumley, of St George, Bloomsbury, had stolen:
a Silver Mug, a Silver Tankard, a Silver Salver, a Silver Cup, 2
Silver Pepper-Castors, a Silver Punch Ladle, a Silver Saucepan, a
Silver Salt, 6 Silver Tea Spoons, a pair of Silver Tea Tongs, a pair
of Silk Shoes, a pair of Clogs. 4 Cloth Coats, 2 Cloth Waistcoats, a
pair of Cloth Breeches, a Gold Ring set with 6 Diamonds, a Silk Gown,
a Silk Petticoat, 2 Shirts, 3 Sheets, a Gold Ring, a Gold Ring set
with a Garnet and 4 Diamonds, being the the goods of John Simmonds,
and also a Gold Ring with a Cypher, and a pair of Gold Ear Rings set
with Garnets, being the goods of his daughter, Catherine Simmonds.
Simmonds stated; 'On the 23 December, I was spending the Evening at a
public House, and my Daughter came to me, and informed me I had been
robbed. … The next Day I went to Goldsmith's-Hall, and advertised
my Goods, and the Day following one of the Gold Rings was brought to
my House'.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Catherine
Simmonds knew the defendant, her evidence including a statement she
had dined with Lumley, a cousin of Catherine. After dining, Lumley
and Richard Burgess (Lumley's husband) went with Catherine to the
Simmonds' house, where Catherine put on a clean apron and the three
went out again, accompanied by Catherine's sister. After a short
distance, Burgess made Lumley part company with the two Simmonds
sisters, who then went on alone. When Catherine and her sister
arrived home, they found the street door and parlour window open and
items missing. John Simmonds promptly went to the Goldsmith's Hall
and advertised the items that had been stolen. A goldsmith came to
the Simmond's house with one of the stolen rings and it was realised
from a description, Lumley and Burgess were the culprits. On going to
Lumley's lodging, the rest of the items were recovered and Lumley
admitted the theft. Before the trial, Lumley said Burgess had
'baited her' to steal the goods.<br />
<br />
A key element of evidence was that
the stolen goods were locked away and Burgess had the key in his
pocket. In her evidence, Lumley tried to say Burgess was innocent.
She said she was solely responsible. It was evident the jury were
sympathetic to Lumley, as although they found her guilty of theft,
they "earnestly desired that Lumley might be recommended to his
Majesty as an Object of Mercy". Despite this she was sentenced
to death that same day. John Simmonds then interceded on behalf of
Lumley, as she was a cousin of Catherine. Certainly, one can imagine
him seeking to save a niece from hanging and she was indeed
reprieved.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle's
father-in-law, John Symmons, was indirectly linked with a criminal
case ending with an execution, when he acquired Paddington House, a
handsome brick edifice at Paddington Green, built by Denis Chirac
with proceeds from his court appointment as Court Jeweller to Queen
Anne. In 1755 Chirac was proceeding to his house, when he was robbed
of a watch valued at £18 and several other items. By tracing the
watch when it was pawned, it was found the robber was Rowley Hanson,
a soldier. Hanson's defence was he found a gold watch by the side of
a ditch in Marylebone Fields, but he was found guilty.<br />
<br />
Hanson's was a
sad story worth repeating, as it casts light on the social climate of
the mid 18C. He had been born at Windsor and on his father's death
hoped to inherit much money. However, there was little money and
Hanson joined the army as a drummer at age seventeen. He was soon
made a common soldier in the first regiment of foot guards. But what
wrought his ruin was, the army company he fell into when still a
<span style="font-style: normal;">drummer, as he was seduced by the
'the most abandoned, and unnatural crew of wretches, that ever the
world knew, called Sodomites'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a>
He said 'he became as common as the night, and was acquainted with
numbers of practicers in that unnatural, and devilish deed of
darkness'. After being seduced by them, Hanson said he lost</span>
all thoughts of God, and his standards of right and wrong became so
compromised, he felt he could rob Chirac with impunity. Hanson and
three others were taken by cart to Tyburn and executed.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
Hanson case took place after the 1752 Act, which gave increased
statutory rights to obtain executed murderers for dissection. The
condemned were often reprieved, but executions such as those of Rev
William Dodd and Rev James Hackman attracted huge crowds. Some were
anatomised and others hung in chains, as with the trials for murder
held on 21 July 1753. John Stockdale and Christopher Johnson were
tried for the murder of Zachary Gardiner, a postman and John Pearse
for the murder of his wife. The jury found the prisoners guilty;
sentence of death was immediately passed, that they should be hanged
and anatomized. Two days later, the pair, together with Pearse, who
was judged guilty of murdering his wife, were executed. After they
were cut down from the gallows, their bodies were carried to
Surgeons-hall in the Old Bailey, where Pearse was anatomised; but the
bodies of Stockdale and Johnson upon application of the
Postmaster-general, were ordered to be hung in chains on
Winchmore-hill.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
The hanging in chains meant yet two more of the limited executions in
London in 1753 were unavailable for dissection. From a 21C
perspective, there is an impression of lower class 18C criminals
being hanged more or less indiscriminately, and on flimsy evidence.
While this was true in some instances, it was not the rule. The
nearly 50% of condemned criminals subsequently reprieved, for crimes
other than murder, shows widespread clemency.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
As conviction prima facie meant execution, victims became reluctant to
pursue prosecution, and juries to convict, in cases involving theft
and forgery. This avoided feeling personal responsibility for an
execution. Apart
from those reprieved through due process, many defendants were saved
from the gallows by a legal 'device' adopted by juries. The penalty
for stealing more than forty shillings in money from within a
dwelling was death and for stealing from a shop the death penalty
applied at above five shillings. Recognising this, many juries
recorded verdicts based upon values below that proscribing death as a
penalty.<br />
<br />
There are recorded incidents where a defendant had even
admitted stealing more than forty shillings, such as £10 in one case
and £80 in another, but the jury in each case found the defendant
guilty of stealing only thirty-nine shillings, so they could not be
executed. As early
as 1732, there were instances of this. Elizabeth Hobbs was tried
(under a statute less than twenty years old) for stealing, in a
dwelling-house, one broad piece, two guineas, two half-guineas, and
forty-four shillings. She confessed, was found guilty, but the jury
found the money was worth only thirty-nine shillings. Mary Bradley,
in the same year, was indicted for stealing lace which she offered
for sale for twelve guineas, and for which she had refused eight
guineas; but she was found guilty of stealing to the value of
thirty-nine shillings.<br />
<br />
Also in 1732, William Sherrington was found
guilty of stealing from a shop, goods which he sold for twenty-five
shillings, but the jury found they were worth four shillings and
tenpence; five shillings being the division between a capital and a
minor offence. A remarkable case was that of George Dawson and Joseph
Hitch, who were indicted and convicted of together stealing the same
goods, which were found to be, in the case of the one, in the value
of five shillings and upward, and in the case of the other, only four
shillings and tenpence, the difference being caused by one being a
first, and the other an old, offender.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Henry
Fielding set out to reduce crime in London during a post-1748 crime
wave, associated with large numbers of demobbed soldiers after the
crushing of the Jacobite rebellion and peace in Europe. In 1749
Fielding established the first quasi-official detective policemen,
known as the Bow Street runners and was succeeded in 1754 by his
brother, blind half-John Fielding, who created a magistrates' office
unlike anything before, by recruiting clerical staff who gathered and
filed information. In 1755 Fielding published, <i>A plan for
preventing robberies within twenty miles of London.</i><span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a></span>
Fielding used the London press in new ways; to broadcast reports of
crimes, descriptions of suspects, and offers of rewards. This enabled
the distribution and exchange of criminal intelligence across the
country. It was said the blind John Fielding could recognise 3000
criminals just by their voices. Evidence from the Fieldings was
introduced into court hearings, as in the following Old Bailey cases
spread over eight years, which help illustrate 18C justice.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
There
were five trials of William Griffiths, for five different offences.
He was twice found not guilty, twice reprieved from a death sentence,
but finally hung when adjudged guilty of the fifth offence. His
series of cases show juries and judges were lenient and prepared to
allow felons a second chance. <span style="font-style: normal;">The
first trial was in 1766 when; 'William Griffiths was indicted that
he, on 15 October, about the hour of three in the night, the
dwelling-house of John Gibson did break and enter, stealing one
silver table-spoon, value 10s. three silver tea-spoons, value 6s. a
pair of silver shoe buckles, value 10s. and one silver knee buckle,
the property of the said John; and one hat, the property of Frederic
Laber, Esq'. Griffiths was sentenced to death, but was granted a
conditional pardon. Then, in 1772, Griffiths and Timothy Johnson were
indicted 'for that they on the king's highway, on Mary, the wife of
John Constable, did make an assault, putting her in corporal fear and
danger of her life, and stealing from her person a silk purse, value
2d. and 14s. in money'. </span>At the trial;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Mary Constable - <span style="font-style: normal;">I am wife of John
Constable, a surgeon and apothecary, at Highgate. On 30 of September,
between seven and eight o'clock in the evening, my maid servant and I
were attacked in Tottenham-court-road, as we were going to Highgate
in a single horse chaise; I was first shot at, and then heard the
word, stop! The pistol was quite close to the chaise; it was on my
side; immediately I saw three men; two came on the side I was
driving, and one on the side my maid was on; they got upon the step
or into the chaise, I cannot say which; they demanded my money; I
gave them my purse, containing some silver, and one of them put his
hand into my pocket, and took out some loose silver, and I believe
some halfpence; a Queen Anne's half crown was in my pocket. A
carriage came up, and they all made off; it was very dark.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
Question - Could you see whether there were any more pistols?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
Reply - I only saw the one that was fired; I was slightly wounded in
my breast. The evidence said at Sir John Fielding's, that it was
loaded with a stone button; I found a button in my apron pocket; how
it came there, I cannot tell. This is the button (producing it.)
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
Elizabeth Bridgeford - I was with Mrs Constable; we had two children
with us. I received by the same pistol a wound under my right eye;
there was one on my side; he stood on the step of the chaise close to
me; he did not speak to me, nor take any thing from me; there were, I
thought, two on my mistress's side of the chaise. He that stood on
the step by me, was a youngish man, dressed in brownish clothes; I
did not see any pistols; I only heard the report and saw the flash of
the pistol.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Griffiths and Johnson were acquitted, but Griffiths was less innocent
than the verdict might suggest as six weeks later, on 9 December
1772, Rev William Dodd and his wife were victims, and key witnesses,
at a third trial of Griffiths, this time; 'that he on the king's
highway, on the Rev William Dodd, LLD did make an assault, putting
him in corporal fear and danger of his life, and stealing from his
person a silk purse, value 2d. two guineas in money, the property of
the said Dr Dodd, on 5 November 1772', soon after the previous
offence. In evidence Dodd stated;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
I came near Tottenham court turnpike, three men came up from the
brick kilns; one went up immediately to the boy that drove the post
chaise and presented a pistol to him, ordering him to stand, or he
would blow his brains out; I heard the words distinctly from the man;
the post chaise boy stopped instantly; yet the moment the words were
delivered, a pistol was fired into the chaise, which broke the side
glass of the chaise, and went through the fore glass. Almost
instantly after the pistol was fired a man opened the door, and
demanded our money; I desired them to be civil as a lady in the
chaise was much intimidated, as indeed all of us were, and we would
give him what we had; we gave him what little we had made up in our
purses.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Although
Dodd could not positively identify Griffiths, Mrs Dodd did so.
Griffiths was sentenced to death on 9 December 1772, but on 20
January 1773 at the Court sessions, he was reprieved. A year later,
in 1774, John Cox and William Griffiths were indicted for; 'breaking
and entering the dwelling house of Ann the wife of Nicholas Clarke,
on 26 March, about the hour of eleven in the night, and stealing a
silver coffee pot, value 7l, five silver tea spoons, value 7s, and a
gold watch, value 7l, the property of Priscilla Payne, spinster; and
two silver pint mugs, value 8l, four silver table spoons, value 20s,
a pair of silver tea tongs, value 3s, the property of the said Ann
Clarke in her dwelling house'. At this fourth trial both Cox and
Griffiths were acquitted. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">By
now, Griffiths must have believed he was invincible, as six months
later he was again in court, this time indicted for; 'breaking and
entering the dwelling house of Joseph Palmer, on 26 July, about the
hour of twelve in the night, and stealing a silver watch, value 30s,
a silver cream pot, value 7s, two silver salts, value 10s, a silver
pepper box, value 5s, a stone stock buckle set in silver, value 20s,
a silver table spoon, value 10s, a silver pap spoon, value 5s, five
silver tea spoons, value 5s, and a pair of silver tea tongs, value
3s, the property of the said Joseph Palmer, in his dwelling house'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
</span>In evidence, Joseph Palmer state<span style="font-style: normal;">d;
'I applied at Justice Welch's office to advertise the things I had
lost, but I saw my things advertised by Sir John Fielding'. The
evidence showed Griffiths was accosted when ready to commit yet
another robbery, and f</span>ound in possession of silver items which
appeared to be stolen. The jury found Griffiths guilty and he was
sentenced to death, which was carried out at Tyburn on 7 November
1774. From the five accounts it is seen it was only after four prior
trials, with one conditional pardon, two acquittals, and one
reprieve, that Griffiths was finally executed.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Dawes
as an influence on Carlisle</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The five
trials of Griffiths contrast with two Old Bailey cases involving
prominent clerics, both convicted and executed after their first
appearance. The comparison inverts the expectation of one (lenient)
law for the rich and another (tough) law for the poor. The life of
Matthew Dawes (c1745-1829), an author and opponent of hanging,
parallels his brother-in-law, John Symmons, also born in 1745. Dawes
was prominent in two sensational trials. He was a barrister, later
known as Manasseh Dawes, adopting that name to distinguish himself
from his father, also Matthew. Dawes was uncle to Martha Carlisle and
aspects of his literature were stylistic inspiration for the Mrs
Carver novels.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The first
case involved Rev William Dodd, a Freemason and an educated and
popular man, who was found guilty of forgery, and executed. As noted,
at the third trial of Griffiths, by coincidence the victims were Dodd
and his wife. While in the Old Bailey on that day, Dodd cannot have
imagined that a little more than four years later in the same court,
he would himself be sentenced to death and then be executed on 27
June 1777, the last person to be executed at Tyburn for forgery.<br />
<br />
A
little ironically in the light of subsequent events, a few years
previously Dodd published a sermon; <i>"The Frequency of Capital
Punishment Inconsistent with Justice, Sound Policy and Religion."</i>
Dodd was born in Lincolnshire in 1729, son of the local vicar. He
moved to London, but his spendthrift habits soon left him in debt. In
1751, he married Mary Perkins, the daughter of a domestic servant and
his finances were soon even more precarious, so at the urging of his
father, he took holy orders. Dodd became such a popular and
fashionable preacher, he was appointed as Chaplain in Ordinary to
King George III in 1763. He also became tutor to Philip Stanhope,
later 4th Earl of Chesterfield. As Chaplain to the King and, and
having earned a Doctor of Laws at Cambridge University, he believed
his luck had turned, which was reinforced when he won £1,000 in a
lottery. Despite this, he continued an extravagant lifestyle and
incurred large debts.<br />
<br />
In 1774, in an attempt to rectify his depleted
finances, Dodd attempted to obtain the lucrative position of rector
of St George Hanover Square. He naively wrote to Lady Apsley, wife of
the Lord Chancellor, offering her £3,000 if she would secure the
position for him. The letter was traced back to Dodd, he was
dismissed from his existing posts and became an object of public
ridicule. Dodd spent two years abroad while the scandal subsided,
before returning to England. While abroad, he was a well-known figure
at French racetracks, being nicknamed the Macaroni Parson because of
his dandyish dress. A satirical commentary on men's clothes,
published anonymously, but later attributed to Dawes, <i>“</i><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">Instructions
for a Gentleman of Modern Taste”</span></i><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
</span></span>seems addressed to the Macaroni Parson.<span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Dodd promoted many public charities, such as the Society for the Relief of
the Poor Debtors, and the Humane Society for the Recovery of Persons
Apparently Drowned. He was patronised by the King and by Lord
Chesterfield, and his church preferments were lucrative. However his
expenses once again outran his income. Without thinking of the
consequences, Dodd forged a bond for £4,200 in the name of his
former pupil, Lord Chesterfield. Dodd pretended Lord Chesterfield had
urgent occasion to borrow £4000, but did not want to appear in
person. He employed Lewis Robertson, a broker, to find a party
willing to advance the requisite sum. After applying to several
bankers who refused the business, Robertson applied to Messrs
Fletcher and Peach who agreed to lend the money. Robertson returned
the bond to Dodd for execution and the next day Dodd produced it as
executed, and witnessed by himself. Robertson received the money
which he paid to Dodd, and gave the bond to Lord Chesterfield, who
expressed surprise and disowned it.<br />
<br />
Robertson was taken into custody
and the Lord Mayor's officers went to Dodd's house. Dodd was told if
he returned the money, it would be the means of saving him. He
instantly returned six bank notes of £500 each and made arrangements
for the balance. However, not withstanding the restitution, he was
charged. Dodd declared he had no intention to defraud, claiming he
was pressed for £300 to pay some tradesmen's bills and would have
repaid it. He pleaded; 'My Lord Chesterfield cannot but have some
tenderness for me as my pupil, I love him and he knows it. There is
nobody wishes to prosecute. I am sure my Lord Chesterfield does not
want my life. I hope that he will show clemency to me. Mercy should
triumph over justice'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
When Dodd appeared in court, he was convicted, and sentenced to be
publicly hanged at Tyburn. While awaiting execution Dodd wrote
copiously and his words were published in a 150 page book titled:<i> Thoughts in Prison</i><span style="font-style: normal;">.
One sermon, </span><i>The Convict's Address to his unhappy
Brethren,</i><span style="font-style: normal;"> was largely
written by Samuel Johnson, to be used as Dodd's own, and it was when
Dodd's authorship was doubted, that Johnson made his famous remark,
'Depend upon it Sir, when a man knows he is to be hanged in a
fortnight, it concentrates his mind wonderfully'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Great exertions were made to save Dodd, newspapers were filled with letters
in his favour, and parish officers went from house to house to
procure subscriptions to a petition. A petition of 23,000 names was
actually presented to the king. Even the Lord Mayor and common
council went in a body to St James' to solicit mercy. It is difficult
to determine why a reprieve was not granted. Perhaps because Dodd had
affronted nobility with his fraud, and embarrassed King George III
via his appointment as Chaplain Ordinary. The efforts to save Dodd
brought Dawes into the spotlight. As a final effort to save Dodd,
George Kearsley published<i> A Letter to Messrs Fletcher
and Peach</i><span style="font-style: normal;">, an anonymous
pamphlet addressed to the moneylenders, and written by Dawes, whose
name was mentioned in the <i>Public Advertiser</i> for 24 June 1777. In a
heavily ironic manner, Dawes propounded the view Dodd was a dupe of
cruel and vengeful moneylenders, the pamphlet's aggressive tone
reflecting the fact that all else had failed. Mrs Dodd even offered
the Keeper at Newgate, Ackerman, £1,000 to permit Dodd to escape. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">When it became clear he could not avoid the gallows, Dodd's activity
did not cease. His last days were divided between churchmen of
various denominations and his associates from the Society for
Recovering Persons Drowned, who had a scheme for John Hunter to
revive Dodd after the hanging. Dodd composed a Last Prayer on the
night prior to his execution, including passages which can be
interpreted as knowledge of the planned attempt to revive him;</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
By his cross and passion, I implore, to spare and to
deliver me, O Lord! ... during this dark day of my sorrows, enable me
to be thankful; and, in the sincerity of heartfelt gratitude, to
implore thine special blessing on all my beloved fellow-creatures,
who have by any means interested themselves in my preservation! May
the prayers they have offered for me, return in mercies on their own
heads! May the sympathy they have shown, refresh and comfort their
own hearts! And may all their good endeavours and kindnesses be
repaid by a full supply of thy grace and abundant assistance to them
in their day of distress; - in their most anxious hour of need!”<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">It
was believed a judicious positioning of the hangman's knot might
allow Dodd to survive long enough to be revived, following the
instructions included in Hunter's 1776 paper, </span><i>Proposals
for the Recovery of People Apparently Drowned</i><span style="font-style: normal;">.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a>
Hunter knew from his own dissections of bodies from Tyburn, most
felons died from asphyxiation, rather than a broken neck. Dodd
was hung, but it was a full forty minutes before he was put into a
hearse for the journey from Tyburn to Hunter's rooms and so many
attended the hanging, 40,000 according to the Public Advertiser, they
blocked the road and an eight-minute journey took over two hours. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">When the body finally reached Hunter, who had prepared hot and cold
baths in order to attempt to resuscitate Dodd, he had all but given
up hope. There is a clue to Hunter's thinking in a conversation of
June 1777, the very month Dodd was hanged, when Hunter spoke to
Hester Thrale, a friend of Dr Johnson. She recorded in her diary;
'The heart of a frog will not cease to beat, says John Hunter, for
four hours after it has been torn from the body of the animal'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
In a separate paper Hunter suggested that, if all else failed in
attempts to reanimate, electricity should be attempted, so it seems
he tried all the means in his power to achieve reanimation, including
electric shocks from a Leyden jar, but Dodd remained lifeless.
</span></div>
<br />
Nevertheless, some believed Dodd had been revived.
Speculation continued for many years, compounded by the fact of a
memorial to Dodd's burial at St Laurence's churchyard, but no record
of interment in the parish register. The explanation was recorded in
1790;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Your correspondent enquires after
the place of interment of the late unfortunate Dr Dodd, and if his
wife is living. Mrs Dodd died at Ilford in Essex on 14 July 1784, as
appears by Gent Mat vol LlV p 557. I happened by chance lately to
take up a pamphlet entitled; </span><i>"An Account of the Life
and Writings of William Dodd LLD"</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
which contains what I hope will be satisfactory answer to your
correspondent. Dr Dodd's body was carried from Tyburn to the house of
Mr Davies undertaker in Goodge Street, where a hot bath was ready
prepared, and many efforts were used by his medical friend to revive
him, but all without effect; though it is imagined from many
circumstances, that if the excessive curiosity of the crowd had not
occasioned great delay, the attempt would have been successful. It
was, on the Monday following, carried to Cowley, in Buckinghamshire,
attended by some friends and buried in the church there.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Two years
later in 1779 Manasseh Dawes defended a second clergyman. Rev James
Hackman, born in 1752, was apprenticed to a mercer, but his parents
bought him an ensign's commission. In 1776 he was promoted to
lieutenant, but resigned his commission later that year to enter the
church. He was ordained deacon on 24 February 1779 and appointed to
Wiverton in Norfolk, although it is unlikely he ever set foot there.
The reason for his sudden change in career related back
to a visit which Hackman, as a member of an army recruiting party,
had paid to the home of John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. Here
Hackman became entranced by Martha Ray (1742-1779), long time
mistress of the Earl. Hackman first met Martha, the Earl's mistress
since 1760 and mother of his five children, at the Earl's home in
1775. The Earl was at the time, First Lord of the Admiralty and noted
for the long hours he spent in his Westminster office. After his
first wife, Dorothy Fane, went insane, he took Martha as a mistress
and lived with her for many years. The humble bread and meat sandwich
is named for the 4th Earl, with folklore suggesting it was invented
while he was at the gaming table, but the more plausible explanation
is he that used it to sustain himself while working at his desk.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Although
the nature of the relationship between Martha and Hackman is debated,
it is obvious that Hackman became infatuated. Martha felt neglected
by the Earl, with his long office hours, and she was flattered to be
attractive to Hackman. There would be few women aged 33, with five
children, who would not sparkle a little when they had the attention
of a young army officer. Hackman was said to have proposed, but
Martha flippantly responded by saying she could not marry a soldier
who would be away at war. Then continued to flirt with him, without
registering he was so smitten he would give up the army and join the
church.<br />
<br />
When Martha became aware of his change of career, concerned
about the risk of a second proposal, she refused to see him. As his
career change had not achieved his objective, Hackman reacted like a
rejected lover and took to following Martha around London. On 7 April
1779 he followed her to Covent Garden Theatre where, together with
her friend the Italian singer Caterina Galli, Martha had gone to see
a performance of <i>"Love in a Village"</i>. Hackman was in
the audience but at some point he left the theatre, went home,
collected two pistols, and returned. It has been suggested he took
two pistols in order to commit suicide and die at her feet. Two
pistols do not negate this view, as pistols frequently misfired and
hence suicides often had a brace of pistols at hand. As Martha and
Caterina Galli exited, an Irish lawyer, John Macnamara offered to
escort them to their carriage. Martha had one foot on the carriage
step when Hackman appeared. According to Horace Walpole, Hackman;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Came round behind, pulled her by the gown, and on her
turning round, clapped the pistol to her forehead and shot her
through the head. With another pistol he then attempted to shoot
himself, but the ball grazing his brow, he tried to dash out his own
brains with the pistol, and is more wounded by those blows than by
the ball. James threw himself to the ground and began beating himself
about the head with the butts of his pistols whilst crying, "Oo!
kill me!...for God's sake kill me!<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
Hackman was arrested by a passing constable and taken into custody.
In his pocket was an unsent letter to his brother-in-law, the wording
of which supports the concept of suicide;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
My Dear Frederic, When this reaches you I shall be no more; but do
not let my unhappy fate distress you too much: I have strove against
it as long as possible, but it now overpowers me. You well know where
my affections were placed: my having by some means or other lost hers
(an idea which I could not support) has driven me to madness. The
world will condemn me, but your good heart will pity me. God bless
you, my dear Frederic! ... May Heaven protect my beloved woman, and
forgive this act, which alone could relieve me from a world of misery
I have long endured! Oh, if it should ever be in your power to do her
an act of friendship, remember your faithful friend.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The
subsequent trial at the Old Bailey on 16 April 1779 drew a large
crowd and a fee of one guinea was charged for admission to the public
gallery. James Boswell described the affair as 'one of the most
remarkable that has ever occurred in the history of human nature'.
</span>Dawes was defending counsel for Hackman. On his suggestion,
Hackman pleaded not guilty, his defence being one of temporary
insanity and a claim he had only intended to commit suicide. Mr
Justice Blackstone was not impressed and in his summing up ruled that
murder did not require a long form of deliberation as the letter
addressed to his brother<span style="font-style: normal;">-in-law
showed, 'a coolness and deliberation which no ways accorded with the
ideas of insanity'. </span><br />
<br />
Despite Dawes efforts, the jury took the
hint and Hackman was found guilty of murder. He was hanged at Tyburn
on 19 April 1779, only twelve days after the murder, an instance
where judgement and execution was far quicker for the rich, than the
poor. The body was taken to Surgeons' Hall for public dissection in
accordance with the Murder Act 1752. One Henry Angelo who attended<span style="font-style: normal;">,
later said 'the experience had put him off pork chops for life'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
Dawe</span>s then published his own account of the case where Dawes
blamed Martha for leading his client on, and the account went through
eight editions within weeks of the crime.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://draft.blogger.com/null" name="Resignation"></a>
Apart from going into print on both the Dodd and Hackman murders, in
1776 Dawes wrote anonymously; <i>"Miscellanies in Prose and
Verse on Various Occasions".</i> Miscellanies features several
satirical items including three poems, supposedly about the death of
his three pet dogs, but actually political satire referring to real
people under pseudonyms. In Oakendale Abbey and Old Woman, Carlisle
adapted the technique, with Miscellanies as his inspiration. Dawes'
first poem refers to Henry Fox, later Lord Holland (1705–1774) a
leading British politician of the 18C and father of Charles
James Fox. He notably held the posts of Secretary for War and
Paymaster of the Forces, from which he enriched himself, but while
widely tipped as a future Prime Minister he never held that office.
He was by some estimates calculated to have amassed £400,000 in his
eight years in the office, an average of £50,000 a year.<br />
<br />
In 1762 he
accepted the leadership of the House, with a seat in the Cabinet
under Lord Bute, and managed to induce the House of Commons to
approve of the Treaty of Paris; as a reward, he was raised to the
peerage as Baron Holland. In 1765 Fox was forced to resign the
Paymaster Generalship, and four years later a petition of the Livery
of the City of London referred to him as the public defaulter of
unaccounted millions. Court proceedings brought against him were
delayed by a Royal Warrant; and he proved that he had not broken the
law, but from the interest on the outstanding balances he had
nonetheless amassed a fortune. Dawes use of the word death refers to
the political 'death' of Henry Fox.</div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="264*"></col>
<col width="269*"></col>
<col width="263*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="37%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>On a favourite Dog called
Fox</b></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">How shall I mourn poor Fox's
dreaded death!</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">How shall I paint the
sweetness of his breath!</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">A life more sage, more pure,
there could not be;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">My Fox was faithful diligent
and free.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">In life no animal we meet so
true,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Tho' having reason in
preference to you.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">But what is reason since we
daily find</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">She first instructs and then
destroys mankind?</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Fox was wise and wiser far
than man,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Whose life's a load, whose
reason's but a span,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Think then, O reader ere you
depart to dust,</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Tho' wrong this thought, the
inference is just.</span></div>
</td>
<td width="31%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.05cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Another on Perto</b></span></div>
<div align="LEFT" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.05cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Happy creature, how
secure<br />From all the troubles we endure<br />In this corrupted
age!<br />A sordid prudence drew thee hence,<br />From fraud and fell
impertinence,<br />So rife among the sage<br />An animal so wise as
you,<br />So fond, so pert, so just, so true,<br />Demands a pleasing
thought:<br />And tho' a dog affords the theme,<br />If man would
deign to live the same,</span></div>
<div align="LEFT" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.05cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">He'd act as nature taught.<br />Not
as a monster or an elf<br />He'd vainly boast his wretched self<br />On
birth on sense on taste:<br />But follow that true golden rule,<br />That
honesty is not a fool,<br />Tho' copied from a beast. </span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="32%"><div align="LEFT" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.19cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Another on Mopsey</b><br />What,
alas, avails this world,<br />Or what therein have we to
crave?<br />Since all must be like Mopsey hurl'd,<br />Without
distinction to the grave!<br />Could we in life our vices
spurn,<br />Repair our deeds without delay,<br />And rest like thee
within our urn,<br />We should not fear our Judgement Day<br />But O
how different is our tax<br />From that of brutal dog or
bear!<br />Accounting for our worldly acts<br />A talk, alas! not
wanted here<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In the guise of a dog named Perto, the second poem refers to William Pitt the Elder,
1st Earl of Chatham (1708–1778) who achieved fame as Secretary of
State during the Seven Year's War. He was later Prime Minister and
father of William Pitt, the Younger. He was also known as The Great
Commoner, due to his long-standing refusal to accept a title. Dawes
verse alludes to him resisting fraud.<br />
<br />
The third poem alludes to
Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford (1732–1792), more often known
by his courtesy title, Lord North, which he used from 1752 until
1790. He was Prime Minister from 1770 to 1782, leading Britain
through most of the American War of Independence. Lord North was
Prime Minister, with Mopsey a reference to a Lord's wig, rather than
Whig, and Judgement Day to the expected result of the general
election. Although Carlisle wrote in prose, his Mrs Carver novels
followed the lead of Dawes, in basing characters on real people and
alluding to any scandalous behaviour.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Increasing abhorrence</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Apart
from murder, a hanging offence was coining, as with Patrick in
Oakendale Abbey. This included clipping coins, filing the edges to
obtain tiny clippings of the precious metal, or even colouring lower
denomination coins to make them appear to be higher denominations. It
was a form of High Treason punishable by burning in the case of
women, but by ordinary hanging for men. Another crime which carried a
mandatory sentence of burning at the stake was Petty Treason, the
murder by a woman of her husband or mistress (i.e. her superiors in
law). Men could be guilty of Petty Treason if they murdered their
master, although as with coining, conviction of men usually resulted
in a sentence of hanging.<br />
<br />
There were instances of burning women at
the stake at fairly regular intervals, including that of Catherine
Murphy in 1789. She was led from the Debtor's Door of Newgate past
the gallows from which four men, including her husband, were already
hanging, to the stake. Here she mounted a small platform in front of
it and an iron band was put round her body. The noose, dangling from
an iron bracket projecting from the top of the stake, was tightened
around her neck. When the preparations were complete, William
Brunskill, the hangman, removed the platform leaving her suspended
and after thirty minutes faggots were placed around her and lit.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
This was
the last burning at the stake, although another was intended. That
was Sophia Girton, aged 25, tried in 1790 for counterfeiting
sixpences and shillings. This was the second time she and William
Parker had been indicted for such a crime, the first being in 1785,
when both were found not guilty. For the second offence they were
convicted and Sophia was sentenced to be burnt at the stake, and
William Parker to be hung. However, two weeks after the trial and
before her execution, Sir Benjamin Hammett raised the issue of
burning women in the House of Commons. He had been Sheriff of London
and told parliament it had been his painful duty in the previous year
to attend the burning of a female, that of Catherine Murphy, and he
moved a Bill to alter the law. He pointed out that a sheriff who
refused to execute a sentence of burning alive was liable to
prosecution, but thanked Heaven that there was not a man in England
who would carry such a sentence literally into execution.<br />
<br />
Based on
his plea, The Treason Act of 1790 was passed imposing ordinary
hanging as the penalty for coining offences, instead of burning.
Sophia Girton was thus saved from the fire and, in fact, pardoned on
12 June 1790 on condition of transportation for life to New South
Wales. She travelled on the <i>"Mary Anne"</i> in 1791, and
later received an Absolute Pardon in 1799. In Australia she married a
William Bond in 1792, using the name Sophia Parker, and in 1814 was
recorded as still living with him.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Apart
from Carlisle himself, we have seen how John Symmons and Manasseh
Dawes came into contact with executions. This influenced Carlisle's
attitude to the death penalty, and his stance of avoiding dissection
of resurrected, or executed corpses. Especially when he realised his
own innocent action had, indirectly, resulted in the wrongful
execution of a Catholic priest. During the Irish Rebellion of 17<span style="color: black;">98,
in the space of a few short summer months about 30,000 people were
killed, many dead being peasants who faced cannons armed with farm
implements or crude pikes, and a significant number were women. The
rebellion was put down with much violence. A resultant treason trial
</span>came at a point in Carlisle's life when he was busy with
writing. An ex-servant of Carlisle, Frederick Dutton, dismissed by
him for theft, then became an informer, with his evidence leading to
the conviction and execution of a Catholic priest, Rev James Quigley
(aka James O'Coigley or James Coigly) (1762-1798). Quigley was hanged
at Penenden Heath, Maidstone, Kent, the last Roman Catholic priest to
be executed in England. As reported of the time;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
[Frederick Dutton]
had been a servant to a Mr Carlisle, and discharged on an accusation
of theft. He then became an informer ... in the years 1795 or 1796.
When O'Connor and his companions were arrested at Margate, a
treasonable paper purporting to be addressed by a secret political
society in England to the directory in France, inviting the French to
invade England, was said to be found in the pocket of Quigley. It was
produced on the trial, and sworn to by Dutton (who was specially sent
from Dublin), as being in the handwriting of Quigley. ... The
circumstance of a treasonable paper of this kind having been left in
the pocket of a great-coat hung up in a public coffee room, was an
evidence of folly, that the man's character repudiated, and to the
last moment of his life, he persisted in declaring that paper had
never been in his possession. The fact is, the coat was mistaken for
O'Connor's, it being the fashion at that period for persons of rank
to wear powder, and the collar of the coat found, shewing the
appearance of hair-powder, it was supposed to be O'Connor's. Quigley
unfortunately for him, did wear powder, and the circumstance proved
fatal to him.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The evidence linking Dutton with Carlisle was disclosed during the court examination of
Dutton.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
How many people did you serve? A - I lived with captain Bartom of the 63d regiment four
years at first; I afterwards went to doctor Levingston, and from that
to Mr Lee, and from that to Mr Carlisle, and from that to Mr
Carpenter; I think that is the extent of my servitude; I attended Mr
Coleman too, I forgot him.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
That is five persons you have been servant to. Upon what occasion were you dismissed the
service of Mr Carlisle? A - I dare say you will think it sufficient
when I tell you on my oath, that Mr Carlisle over-paid me my wages,
and I have never met him since without his speaking to me on the most
friendly terms.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
Mr Justice Buller.
Answer the question, on what occasion did you leave him? A - In
consequence of an infamous woman having told a lie about me, which I
believe Mr Carlisle at this moment believes to be so. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
Mr Plumer - What was
that lie? A - Things she laid to my charge that I was not guilty of.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
What things? A - A
number of things.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
Theft among the
rest? A - Y- es. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
And upon that you
were dismissed? A - Upon her information I was dismissed; and I am
sure that Mr Carlisle at this day, from the countenance he always
gives me, is well convinced I was not guilty.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Dutton's evidence that a document was in Quigley's handwriting, was the key that found Quigley guilty. If Carlisle had not dismissed him, Dutton could not have provided evidence against Quigley. Arthur O'Connor, one of the accused, claimed the paper was put in Quigley's pocket by the police. Common belief was that, however the document got there, it was not in the hand-writing of Quigley. Before his execution, the last words of Quigley were; 'I declare most solemnly, in the face of my country and my God (the statement of the paper being found in the pocket of his great coat) was false, unless one of them, or some other person unknown to me, put it there.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a> Many people at the time, and later, believed Quigley had been wrongly convicted and executed. 'The latter, soon after his arrest, was hung on such slight evidence that even the Lord Chancellor, Thurlow, declared him to have been murdered.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
Many years later, this belief was supported in a 1839 letter from a Mr Scott; </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
Before many of you were born, I was council at the state trials at Maidstone, in 1798, for a young man, charged with high treason .... The poor priest, Quigley, had no Whig party, or any other party, at his back to swear in his favour. He sat unmoved during the whole trial, and, after the disgraceful scene that took place in the court at midnight, the moment after Mr. Justice Buller had finished passing the then horrible sentence of high treason, Quigley sat like a stock through all the confusion, while O'Connor was trying to run out of Court, till he was knocked down at the door by Judge Buller's coachman. Now, Gentlemen, the whole conduct of this Rev Gentleman had so occupied my attention, that though he was not my client, I was beginning, in my address to the jury, to defend him, when I was stopped by his own counsel and by the court.... Now time has proved what was unknown to anybody but himself, and which this noble-minded man kept secret till after his conviction. This paper was all a hoax of a Dr Crossfield, who had himself been tried for high treason. He was the author of the song, 'Plant, plant the tree,' &c. He and Quigley had met at a tavern the night before he set off for France, and there Crossfield wrote this invitation to the French to invade England, and desired Quigley to get it put into the 'Moniteur,' and said, 'it would make William Pitt * * *.' Thus time has shown that a treasonably guilty man was saved, and an innocent man hanged; for except this hoax, there has been no evidence that I ever heard of, of the treasonably guilty mind of Quigley to this hour.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Awareness of Dutton's evidence, and the doubt of Quigley's guilt, caused Carlisle to be more cautious about dissections, as even an executed man might be innocent. In 1782 Dawes observed the ritual of the execution, had become just that, a common and regular event, which had lost its power to influence human behaviour.</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
An execution was only little different to other public celebrations as an influence on public behaviour, being more like a Guy Fawkes night. To slay is tyranny; to repair and correct is a duty. ... The great misfortune of punishment is that it attempts to alter, and not refine human nature, to convert, but not to work upon its plastic nature .... The many cart loads of our fellow creatures that are dragged away to the gallows, and there put to death, like dogs, for crimes of human institution, before a surrounding multitude, who make the useful spectacle a holiday, rather than a scene of solemnity and sorrow, is too piercing a reflection for the tender hearted or the intelligent to dispense without a sigh; or to pass over unheeded and indifferently without looking a little into human infirmity, and examining the nature of man. ... The great misfortune of punishment was that it attempts to alter, and not refine human nature; to convert, but not to work upon its plastic nature.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Along with reformers such as Capel Lofft and Basil Montagu, Dawes endorsed the view of Henry Dagge who wrote; 'Now, should we not condemn a physician who should order his patient to be put to death, because he conceived it to be beyond his power of medicine to restore him?'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a> They were all members of the Society for the Diffusion of Knowledge on the Punishment of Death and the Improvement of Prison Discipline, to which Carlisle also subscribed.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The reformers effectively said that amputation (of a head) was too drastic a treatment, before first attempting a cure, such as a surgeon would attempt. A writer of 1772 asked, 'How shall we reconcile the striking contrast between such a number of humane institutions for the relief of almost every species of distress which can afflict either the mind or the body of our unfortunate fellow creatures, and that scene of cruelty at Tyburn?'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a> Resulting from such pressures, increasing numbers of those convicted were reprieved, as reported in 1819; 'With regard to executions it appears, on consulting various returns, that on an average of many years, not above one in fifteen or twenty, condemned to die, suffers death'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a> Despite his mother's murder by Hackman, Montagu published an essay against the death penalty, one that Mary Shelley recorded as reading in 1816;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
For example what a
lamentable case is it to see so many Christian men and
women strangled on that cursed tree of the gallows, insomuch, as if
in a large field a man might see together all the Christians that,
but in one year, throughout England, come to that untimely and
ignominious death, if there were any spark of grace, or charity in
him, it would make his heart to bleed for pity and compassion.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
increasing reluctance of juries to convict, led to
questioning of the suitability of the death sentence, although
resultant legal changes were slight and over a long period. <span style="font-style: normal;">An
example </span>was outlined in 1818 by Basil Montagu in; <i>"Inquiries
Respecting Punishment of Crimes Without Violence”</i>, which he
dedicated to Carl<span style="font-style: normal;">isle. 'This Attempt
to Assist in the Advancement of Kind Feeling is Affectionately
Inscribed to his Friend, Anthony Carlisle'. </span>The case was that
of Bridget M'Allister, aged 30, indicted for stealing, in the
dwelling house of Edward Conway, a wooden box value one shilling, and
a £10 bank note. The sum being over forty shillings, the penalty on
conviction was death. The evidence makes it clear she took the money,
but the jury found M'Allister guilty of larceny only<span style="font-style: normal;">.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
</span> As a result she was sentenced to six months in prison and
fined one shilling. Montagu evidenced another case, where the jury
determined £100 was only worth thirty-nine shillings, with John
Meakings imprisoned for one year and fined one shilling.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The jury found that two bills of
exchange, value £10 each, and eight bank notes, value £10 each,
were ... worth just thirty nine shillings. It was the case of an
apprentice to a lapidary who lived in St Giles's I cannot recollect
the name of the prisoner [John Meakings<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>],
but he was tried before Mr Justice Lawrence and his trial is in the
sessions papers for the year 1807. The indictment was for stealing a
pocket book estimated at sixpence, and eight bank notes, value £10
each. The lad was undoubtedly guilty: but, until this first offence,
he had been a faithful servant, and partly by the master's
inattention to his own property, the boy had yielded to the
temptation. The jury found him guilty of stealing to the value of 39
shillings.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
Montagu opined;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Indignation against crime, which
seems to be of such importance in penal legislation, is preserved by
the joint action of three powers: By the fear of the disapprobation
of the community, or the moral sanction; and by the fear of future
punishment the dread of the disapprobation of the Almighty, or the
religious sanction; and by the fear of the punishment awarded by the
law, or the legal sanction.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
.... The legal the moral and the religious sanctions unite in
inflicting death for murder.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">He
added to this with his </span><i>Thoughts on the Punishment of
Death for Forgery</i><span style="font-style: normal;">. This</span>
was fifty years too late to be of any benefit to William Dodd after
his 1777 execution for forgery, but was part of Montagu's campaign
against the death penalty. Among the points he made, was that there
had been hundreds of incidents where those who suffered loss by
forgery, were loathe to seek redress, because of the severity of the
penalty. In some instances prosecution witnesses committed perjury,
solely because they were aware a truthful answer would mean a death
sentence for the forger. <span style="font-style: normal;">Montagu
revealed there were acquittals; 'where the verdict has excited the
astonishment of every one in court, because the guilt appeared
unequivocal, and the acquittal could only be attributed to a strong
feeling of sympathy and humanity in the jury, to save a fellow
creature from certain death'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In the
book Montagu recounted his epiphany in his attempts to repeal capital
punishment. In spring 1801 after the assizes, a meeting was requested
with Montagu by Sir Robert Burton, who had just arrived from the
country upon important business. He advised there were two men at
Huntingdon, sixty miles from London, who were to be executed early
the next morning for sheep stealing. Burton beseeched Montagu to
wait upon the Judge with new information, on which he believed the
Judge would pardon the two men. After deliberating upon his words
Montagu agreed an effort ought to be made on the men's behalf and
immediately went to the Judge's house. The Judge had not returned
from Norwich, but was expected later. Thus Montagu instead went to
the Secretary of State's Office where he was informed the Secretary
could not interfere without a favourable report made by the Judge. It
was now 3pm and the execution was to take place early the next
morning. At 8pm the Judge had not arrived, but at 9pm, almost in
despair, Montagu called again at his house. The Judge had now
arrived, and granted Montagu an audience, then said;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
There is much weight in what you say, but I do not sufficiently
recollect the circumstances of the trial to enable me to make any
report ... Something however ought to be done but I am fearful of
exciting expectations [with the accused], which may not be realized.
<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
As
Montagu was well known to the Judge, he sought a delay for one week,
promising he would act discreetly and personally deliver any order to
Huntingdon. The order was signed and Montagu went instantly to the
Secretary of State, who was in the House of Lords. He wrote a note to
the Duke of Portland, who immediately rose from his seat and came to
Montagu where he read the Judge's letter and said,<span style="font-style: normal;">
'The poor men are much indebted to you and happy am I to be able to
assist such kindness. I will sign the order. Take it to the office
and you will receive the mandate'. </span>The Horse Guards clock
struck eleven as Montagu entered the Whitehall office. By midnight
Montagu was in a post chaise and at dawn, between five and six in the
morning, his chaise was within fourteen miles of Huntingdon. The
clock had not struck eight when he heard the wheels of the carriage
passing over the stones of Huntingdon. Upon his arrival at the gaol
he requested that he meet privately with the gaoler and the two
prisoners, John Taylor and Thomas Burton.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
They were
immediately called and Montagu heard them loaded with irons coming
towards him. When they entered, he<span style="font-style: normal;">
said, 'It will be better that you should have another week to make
your peace with the Almighty!' O</span>ne of the men, who Montagu,
was later told, had eight children, instantly fell to the floor as if
dead. Montagu involuntarily ran to him, when the man clung to him and
looking up, cried in voice Montagu said he would never forge<span style="font-style: normal;">t,
'Oh God! A week is a long time to live'. After, when going to</span>
his inn, Montagu saw the people flocking in all directions and was
told it was inadvisable to be seen, as the mob, many of whom had come
from distant parts of the country, were very displeased at the stay
of execution. These scenes made such an impression on Montagu, there
was not another execution over the next thirty years when he did not
remember the two men.
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Another
who spoke strongly against the death penalty was Dr Paley who, in
questioning the impact of crimes punishable by execution, spoke of
the particular, and general consequences, of any act;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
The particular consequence of coining, is the loss of a guinea, or of
half a guinea, to the person who receives the counterfeit money: the
general consequence (by which I mean the consequence that would ensue
if the same practice were generally permitted) is to abolish the use
of money. The particular consequence of forgery is a damage of £20
or £30 to the man who accepts the forged bill: the general
consequence is the stoppage of paper currency. The particular
consequence of sheep stealing or horse stealing, is a loss to the
owner to the amount of the sheep or horse stolen: the general
consequence is that the land could not be occupied, nor the market
supplied with this kind of stock. The particular consequence of
breaking into a house empty of inhabitants, is the loss of a pair of
candlesticks, or a few spoons: the general consequence is that nobody
could leave their house empty. The particular consequence of
smuggling may be a deduction from the national fund too minute for
computation: the general consequence is the destruction of one entire
branch of public revenue; a proportionable increase of the burthen
upon other branches; and the ruin of all fair and open trade in the
article smuggled. The particular consequence of an officer's breaking
his parole, is the loss of a prisoner, who was possibly not worth
keeping: the general consequence is that this mitigation of captivity
would be refused to all others.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Leniency
shown by juries made a mockery of the law. In 1749-1771, 240 persons
were convicted in London of stealing and similar offences, of which
109 were executed, but in the seven years to 1810, the number
committed for trial for those offences totalled 1872 and only one was
executed. The Master of the Rolls observe<span style="font-style: normal;">d,
'It is clear that the law and the practice are at total variance with
each other. The law says that the punishment of death shall be
inflicted for stealing to the amount of 40 shillings in a dwelling
house. The practice says it shall not be inflicted'.</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a>
What he did not add, was that the leniency exacerbated the acute
shortfall of executed felons available for dissection. This put even
more pressure on the demand for resurrected subjects, as on 24 March
1794.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
This evening a set of resurrectionists were apprehended at a house
near the turnpike, Mile End. That morning a coach was observed to
stop at the house, and an ill-looking fellow came out of it with a
sack, containing, as was supposed, a body, which he carried into the
house, and returned immediately with a large hamper; they then drove
off to a neighbouring public-house when, after a short stay they took
up some others, and were traced to the Launch at Deptford. In the
mean tine the parish-officers were informed of the circumstance.
About six in the evening, the coach again returned with a similar
lading, which was deposited in the house. Some constables,
accompanied by a number of people, surrounded the house, and forcing
an entrance they found two men and a woman drinking tea on a bench,
at one end of which lay the bodies of two children. They were
secured; and on entering an adjoining room, the bodies of six adults
were uncovered unmutilated; besides which, the floor was strewed with
limbs in a state too shocking for public description.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Nevertheless
some executions did proceed. The trial and execution of Mary
Wittenback illustrated the requirement for Carlisle to sign, on
behalf of RCS, the certificate releasing her body for dissection. In
1827 when aged 41, Mary was charged with the murder of her husband
Frederick aged 53. The proceedings took place at the Old Bailey with
Mary indicted for the murder of her husband by administering arsenic.
Her motive is not clear, but references to the stomach of a hard
working drinking man, may infer Mary was an abused woman. Mary was
sentenced to be executed by hanging; but if the trial had been prior
to 1790, she would have also been burnt at the stake for petty
treason, for murdering her husband, as "master" at law.<br />
<br />
She
would have been saved had she been pregnant. Women
could claim they were pregnant at the time they were sentenced to
death, by "pleading their belly", as had Helen Torrence.
Such women were examined by a jury of matrons (chosen from local
midwives),<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
and, if found to be "quick with child" (where movement
could be detected, signalling the beginning of life), their
punishment was respited until after the baby was born. In principle,
the punishment could then be carried out, but in practice sympathy
for the newborn child (or concern for the cost of caring for it)
meant the mother was often pardoned.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
While
under sentence of death, Mary was kept shackled and apart from other
prisoners and, being a murderer, fed on bread and water during her
final two to three days. Her only permitted visitors were prison
staff and the Ordinary (prison chaplain). As with other condemned
criminals, confession and repentance was seen as important for her
spiritual well-being in the next world; she could still go to Heaven
if she genuinely repented. There was one macabre exception to a
convicted murder's solitary state. This took place at the chapel
within Newgate where there was the Condemned Pew, a large black
painted enclosure with seats for the prisoners, just in front of the
pulpit. On the Sunday preceding her execution, Mary, together with
other prisoners under sentence of death, had to attend and endure the
'Condemned Sermon' and have the full burial service read to them.
Wealthy visitors did come and attend this service if it involved a
notorious felon.<br />
<br />
Hangings took place on Monday mornings. However, the
gallows, barriers, and platforms, were erected on Sunday, with the
gallows brought out by a team of horses and placed in front of
Newgate. Out of sight, at 7.30 am, Mary is led from her cell into the
Press Yard to meet the Sheriff and the prison chaplain. The hangman
and his assistant bind her wrists in front of her with cord and also
place a cord round her body and arms at the elbows, and the same for
the others condemned. The bell of St Sepulchre’s church tolls the
quarter hour at 7.45 am. With preparations complete, Mary and the
other prisoners are led across the Yard and to the Debtor's Door
where they climb the steps up to the platform.<br />
<br />
As the door opens,
the mob suddenly perceive that the fatal hour is come and there are
loud shouts of "Hats off!" But not out of respect, only so
those behind can see better. The rustling removal of many hats is
followed closely by a sudden silence and all eyes turn to the scene.
Once assembled on the drop, the hangman puts the nooses around the
necks of each of the condemned while they pray with the Ordinary.
When they have finished he places the white hoods over them. He binds
Mary's dress around her legs for the sake of decency, but the men's
legs are left free. Perhaps one of Mary's friends is able to sneak
behind the screen at the base of the scaffold. As the noose and drop
was not infallible as a means of breaking a condemned person's neck,
it was common for their friends to reach up and grab and pull on the
legs so as to relieve the victim of death by slow suffocation. When
the prayers are finished, scattered voices in the crowd call out;
"God Bless You, Mary!"<br />
<br />
The Under Sheriff gives the signal
and John Foxton, the hangman, moves a lever connected to the draw-bar
under the trap, causing it to fall with a loud crash. The death is
quick but the legal process for Mary is not yet complete, the part
Mary feared most is still to come. Mary's final performance, that of
dissection, is spread over several days. A display where she can
retain no dignity, exposed to crude ridicule and close inspection.
For the following actual notice is brought to the gallows, signed by
three officials of the RCS, one of them being Carlisle, who must have
signed many such certificates releasing bodies for dissection.
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
To Mr. Balfour, Secretary, to the College, <br />
Ordered that the body of
Mary Whittenbach executed this day at the Old Bailey for murder be
delivered (after the necessary dissection by the College) to Mr.
Joseph Henry Green. Signed; William Blizard, Wm. Norris, Anthy
Carlisle. RCS - 13th day of Sept. 1827.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a></div>
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The order authorised the body to be placed in a large cart with collapsible
sides, usually only seen in the neighbourhood of the Docks. Preceded
by the City Marshal in his cocked hat and fancy attire, the
procession made its way to 33 Hosier Lane, West Smithfield. On
arrival Mary's body was taken to the drawing-room in which were
assembled the President of the RCS, and any members desirous of being
present. On extraordinary occasions other visitors were admitted. The
body was stripped, with the clothes removed by Foxton and Calcraft as
their valuable perquisites, to be exhibited together with the rope to
the morbidly curious, at so much per head, at some favoured
public-house.<br />
<br />
It being the duty of the Marshal to see the body
'anatomised', a crucial, but small, incision in the chest was enough
to satisfy the Marshal. That brief ritual concluded, the naked body
was stitched up, and removed to the premises of Mr Joseph Henry Green
for formal dissection where Mary's final performance takes place in
Green's anatomy theatre; before an audience of students and the
curious public. Although hangings are a thing of the past, the
festivities associated with them are perpetuated through the modern
term 'Gala Day', derived from the Anglo-Saxon 'gallows day'.
Executions were an extreme punishment, but one where even the order of death of
condemned felons could have legal implications for mourners, as in
the case of a father and son both executed by hanging; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
[T]he father and son
were both hanged in one cart, but the son was supposed to have
survived the father, by appearing to struggle longest; whereby he
became seized of an estate in fee by survivorship, in consequence of
which seisin his widow had a verdict for her dower.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Roy Porter has identified several anatomy teachers in the 18C painting <i>The
Dissecting Room</i> by Rowlandson. They include; William and John Hunter, Cruikshank,
Hewson, Pitcairn, Baillie, Howe, Sheldon, and Camper.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a>
Perhaps the most famous anatomist was Carl von
Rokitansky (1804-1878) of the Vienna General Hospital, a clearing
house for the rest of that city. He is recorded as having performed
59,786 autopsies in his career. Holding an official position meant
cadavers came to him, compared to the British private schools of
William and John Hunter and others, who sourced their own dead
subjects for teaching and research.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
This could be dangerous, as with a case in Scotland;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
A poor woman died lately in the hospital at Aberdeen, and was buried
in a church-yard in the neighbourhood. A company of young surgeons
agreed with the grave-digger to set some mark on the grave as a
direction for them; but some person, in order to disappoint the
grave-digger's employers, moved the signal to another grave, that of
a woman who had been buried about three or four months. The party
came, and, directed by the mark agreed upon, dug up the grave, drew
out the coffin, and carried it home. But upon opening it, a vapour
like flame of brimstone came forth, and suffocated them in an
instant. Two women also going past the room fell down dead. It is
said that eleven persons thus perished.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Similar situations arose in America, as in Philadelphia during the
fever epidemic of 1793;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Sebastian
Ale, an old grave-digger, who had long lost the sense of smelling,
fancied he could not take the disorder, and followed his business
without apprehension. A husband and his wife who lay sick together,
wished to be interred in the same grave. Their deaths happened within
a few days of each other. When the latter of the two was to be
buried, Sebastian was employed to dig open the other's grave. He
struck upon and broke the coffin and, in stooping down, received into
his mouth such an intolerable and deadly stench, that he was taken
sick immediately, and in a day or two died.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
</div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="128*"></col>
<col width="128*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
Law abiding citizens did not need to fear the gallows, although they
did fear being buried alive, which led to various later inventions
such as the coffin bell. However, especially after the opening of
anatomy schools, of which William Hunter's, in 1746, was the first to
guarantee each student a body for dissection, citizens came to fear
anatomists, almost as much as being buried alive. Although
dissections of cadavers became widely used for teaching purposes from
1746, even in 1833 Carlisle believed post mortems were of little use
in determining the cause of death;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">It is however worthy of observation
that Sir Anthony took occasion to deprecate post mortem examinations,
on account, he said, of the little good to medical science generally
gained therefrom, and because they offended against our proper
natural and religious feelings; although he subsequently observed
that the medical man who was not well grounded in anatomy,
physiology, and pathology, was little better than a quack.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
We will
later discuss Carlisle's vehement criticism of both man-midwifery and
phrenology, but he also had little time for quackery, as with a
mermaid offered for sale for £2000 in 1822;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
To use a sporting phrase, the Mermaid has been well <i>backed</i>. In
the first place, she is detained at the Custom House, and a price of
2000L set upon her ape-like head. Then her picture is sent to Carlton
House, and her demi-ladyship is let out of the Custom House: she next
takes a first floor at Tom Watson's Turf Coffee House, and sends
round her cards for a daily “at home”. The great surgeons pay a
shilling for a peep - and she is weighed in the <i>scales</i> and
found wanting. Sir A Carlisle is said to have disputed her womanhood:
Sir Everard Home questioned her haddock moiety. One great surgeon
thought her to be half a baboon and half a gudgeon: another vowed she
was half Johanna Southcote, with a salmon petticoat. Dr Rees Price
thought her a Mermaid clean out: and his opinion was disinterestedly
forwarded to us by the proprietor.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Lawrence, Susan, <i>Charitable Knowledge</i>, Cambridge, CUP, 1996,
p 289-334</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
<i>The London Magazine,</i> London, 1755, p 70</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Sawday, Jonathan, <i>The Body Emblazoned: Dissection and the Human
Body,</i> Routledge 1996, p 195-196</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Ripman, Hujohn A, <i>Guy's Hospital 1725-1948,</i> London, 1951</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Carlisle, Anthony,<i> An Essay on the Disorders of Old Age,</i>
London, Longmans, 1818, p 75</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>London Medical Gazette,</i> Vol II, London,
Longmans, 1828, p 241
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Boswell, James, <i>Life of Johnson,</i> Oxford, Clarendon, 1887, p
189</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Boswell, James, <i>The Scots Magazine,</i> Vol XIV, Edinburgh,
Sands, Murray and Cochran, 1752, p 242-243</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Fielding, Henry</span>, <i>The
Covent-garden Journal</i>, London, Fielding, 1752, p 47</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
<i>Executed Today,</i> http://www.executedtoday.com/?s=rowley+hanson
accessed July 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
<i>The Universal Magazine, </i>London, H D Symonds, 1753, p 46</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
<i>Report in favor of the Abolition of the Punishment of Death by
law, </i>New York, Langley, 1841, p 73</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Fielding, John, <i>A plan for preventing robberies within twenty
miles of London</i>, London, A Millar, 1755
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
<i>The Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 1674-1913,
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/
accessed May 2009</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
<i>The Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 1674-1913,
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/
accessed May 2009</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
<i>The Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 1674-1913,
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/
accessed May 2009</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
Dawes, M (Manasseh), <i>Miscellanies in Prose and Verse on Various
Occasions</i>, London, 1776, p 143 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
<i>The Criminal Recorder</i>, London, Nottingham, Printed and sold
by R. Dowson, 1817-1819, p 610</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
Boswell, James, <i>The Life of Samuel Johnson, LLD</i>, Vol III,
London, G Cowie, 1824, p 162</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
Dodd, William, Thoughts in Prison, with the life of the author,
London, Dean & Munday, 1818, p 131-133</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Hunter, John, <i>Proposals for the Recovery of People Apparently
Drowned</i>, London, Phil Trans, 1776, pp. 412-425
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
Moore, Wendy,<i> The Knife Man</i>,
London, Bantam, 2006, p 325</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine,</i> Vol LX, part II, London, S Urban,
1790, p 1077</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Rodger, N A M, at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Montagu,_4th_Earl_of_Sandwich
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Everthing2, http://everything2.com/title/James%2520Hackman, accessed
May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
Brewer, J, <i>Fatal Triangle</i>,
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Fatal_Triangle.html,
- May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
Everything2, http://everything2.com/title/James%2520Hackman,
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
Dawes, M, <i>The case and memoirs of the late Rev Mr James Hackman,
</i>London, G Kearsley, 1779
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
Dawes, M (Manasseh), <i>Miscellanies in Prose and Verse on Various
Occasions</i>, London, 1776, p 26-27</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Madden R R, <i>The United Irishmen, their Lives and times,</i>
London, J Madden, 1842, p 406
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Howell, T B, and Howell, T J, <i>A complete collection of state
trials,</i> London, Longmans, 1819, p 1288
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
Madden R R, <i>The United Irishmen, their Lives and times,</i>
London, J Madden, 1842, p 406
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Nolan, M A, <i>A History of Ireland for Schools, Academies and
Colleges</i>, Chicago, J S Hyland, 1911, p 268
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Scott, quoted in Madden R R, <i>The United Irishmen, their Lives
and times,</i> London, J Madden, 1842, p 407-408
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Dawes, M, <i>An Essay on Crimes and Punishments, </i>London, C
Dilly, 1782, p 53
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
Dagge, Henry, <i>Consideration on Criminal Law</i>, London, 1772</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
Brown, Ford K, <i>Fathers of the Victorians</i>, London, CUP, 2004,
p 347</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Kimber, Issac, and Kimber, Edward, <i>The London Magazine</i>,
London, R Baldwin, 1772, p 26</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
Leigh's <i>New Picture of London,</i> London, Leigh, 1819,
http://www.londonancestor.com/leighs/pol.htm - May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
Montagu, Basil, <i>The Opinions of Different Authors Upon the
Punishment of Death</i>, London, Longmans, 1809, p vi</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
Montagu, Basil, <i>Inquiries Respecting Punishment of Crimes,</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
in </span><i>The Pampleteer</i><span style="font-style: normal;">,
London, J Valpy, 1818, p 288-297</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
<i>Old Bailey Online</i>,
http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/browse.jsp?id=t18070701-39&div=t18070701-39
- July 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Montagu, Basil, <i>Inquiries Respecting Punishment of Crimes,</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
in </span><i>The Pampleteer</i><span style="font-style: normal;">,
London, J Valpy, 1818, p 298</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
Montagu, Basil, <i>Inquiries Respecting Punishment of Crimes,</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
in </span><i>The Pampleteer</i><span style="font-style: normal;">,
London, J Valpy, 1818, p 311</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
Paley, William,<span style="font-style: normal;"> in </span><i>The
Pampleteer</i><span style="font-style: normal;">, London, J Valpy,
1818, p 316-37</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
Montagu, Basil, <i>Thoughts on the punishment of death for forgery,</i>
London, Pickering, 1830, p 165
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
Montagu, Basil, <i>Thoughts on the punishment of death for forgery,</i>
London, Pickering, 1830
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
Paley, William,<span style="font-style: normal;"> in </span><i>The
Pampleteer</i><span style="font-style: normal;">, London, J Valpy,
1818, p 316-37</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
Montagu, Basil, <i>Inquiries Respecting Punishment of Crimes,</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
in </span><i>The Pampleteer</i><span style="font-style: normal;">,
London, J Valpy, 1818, p 301-302</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
<i>Annual Register for 1794</i>, London, Dodsley, 1806, p 9</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
Donnison, Jean, <i>Midwives and Medical Men</i>, London, Historical
Publications, 1988, p 15
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a><i>
Internet</i>,
http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/static/Punishment.jsp#respited-for-pregnancy
accessed April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
Bailey, James Blake, <i>The Diary of a Resurrectionist,</i> London,
Swan Sonnerschein, 1896, p 26</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
Johnson, Christopher, <i>An Essay on the Signs of Murder in New Born
Children</i>, London, Longmans, 1813, p xx</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
Porter, Roy, <i>Bodies Politic, </i>Ithaca NY, Cornell, 2001, p 102</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a>
Dickey, Colin, <i>Cranioklepty, Grave Robbing and the Search for
Genius</i>, Unbridled, 2009, p 171</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, Vol LIV, part 2, London, Nichols,
1784, p 713</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
Carey, Mathew, <i>A Short Account of the Malignant Fever ...</i>,
Philadelphia, Carey, 1794, p 80</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
<i>The Athenaeum</i>, London, 1833, p 107</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
<i>The London Magazine,</i> Vol VI, London, Taylor, 1822, p 569</span></div>
</div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-42509373712179074572015-04-09T16:04:00.003-07:002021-11-26T09:29:05.031-08:006 - Body Snatching, the Resurrection Men, and Policing ©<b>Body Snatching </b>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Despite the revision upwards of the legal entitlement to executed criminals
from 1752, the legitimate supply of subjects fell far short of the
demand from anatomists; especially when William Hunter opened his
anatomy school in late 1746. Refrigeration was unknown until the mid
19C, and accordingly, dissection took place in the colder months. In
1828 provincial schools of anatomy included; Liverpool two,
Manchester three, Birmingham one, Sheffield one, Leeds one; Oxford,
Cambridge, and various other universities; plus Dublin, Edinburgh,
and Glasgow. There were also individual teachers of anatomy scattered
around the country. London, Dublin, Edinburgh, and Glasgow were at
the heart of international medical research and students required
multiple bodies to complete their studies, although teaching methods
and supply of subjects varied from city to city. An increase in a
legal entitlement to subjects was badly needed by surgeons and
anatomists in the 18C and 19C. But their requests were hampered by
ignorance, fear, and mistrust of medical science. <br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Between
1735 and 1799 there were about 6,500 executions in England and Wales,
with another 3,500 between 1800 and 1899, although the bulk was prior
to 1837. Thus, over a 100 year period to 1837, there were nearly
10,000 executions in England and Wales, an average of under 100 per
year. This in a climate where juries were less and less likely to
reach a verdict requiring the death penalty. Allowing for bodies
claimed by relatives, those required to be gibbeted, and executions
taking place outside London, London anatomists, as a group, were
lucky to obtain as many as 40 executed bodies per year.<br />
<br />
Another
source was unclaimed bodies from hospitals. There was no legal title
to utilise these, but it was an unofficial practice suiting the
hospitals as it avoided the cost of burial. Even so, hospital supply
was limited, in 1828 it was said in a large London hospital with 400
beds, the unclaimed bodies only amounted to twenty to thirty per
year. If the shortfall was to be satisfied, anatomists needed to look
beyond their legal entitlement. A quirk of the British legal system
presented an opportunity. British laws had ruled that, since each man
is the sole master of his body during life, when a man died nobody
'owned' the dead corpse as the owner had ceased to exist. It was
therefore impossible to 'steal' a corpse in the technical sense since
it belonged to no one. Nor could it be kidnapped since it was not a
living being.<br />
<br />
In the case of Rex v Lynn of 1788 it was rul<span style="font-style: normal;">ed,
'The disinterment of dead bodies, though for dissection, is an
indictable offence, being contra bonos mores'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
</span>Behind the 1788 ruling was that the act of disinterment was
not done in public, for persons do not exhume a corpse in public;
with an outrage to public decency only arising if the public heard of
the event. The ruling was followed more in the breach, than in the
observance, with courts ruling a body did not belong to anyone and
hence could not be stolen, although the theft of anything else from a
grave was a crime. If caught with the shroud or other clothing from a
grave, they were subject to transportation for seven years.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In the
absence of authorised supply, anatomists resorted to body snatching
from graves. This commenced well before the mid 18C, as with a
reference of 1678 from Edinburgh;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Four Egyptians [gypsies] of the name of Shaw were this day hanged,
the father and three sons, for a slaughter committed by them of one
of the Faws (another tribe of these vagabonds, worse than the
mendicantes validi mentioned an the code) ... The four being thrown
all into one hole dug for them in the Grayfriars Church Yard, with
their clothes on; the next morning the youngest of the three sons
(who was scarce sixteen) his body was missed, and found to be away.
... others, more probably, thought his body was stolen away by some
chirurgeon, or his servant, to make an anatomical dissection on.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The first
body-snatchers were anatomists themselves, or their apprentices, who
sometimes paid for their tuition in corpses. In 1702 a rule was
passed at Saint Thomas's hospital preventing surgeons or pupils from
dissecting bodies without the permission of the treasurer. There are
scattered references to early body snatching, one being a minute of
May 1711, when it was reported that <span style="font-style: normal;">'of
late there has been a violation of sepulchres in the Grey-Friars
Churchyard by some who most unchristianly have been stealing the
bodies of the dead out of their graves'. But some procured with
official knowledge; </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
But that which affects them most is a scandalous report most
maliciously spread about the town, that some of their number are
accessory which they can not allow themselves to think, considering
that the magistrates of Edinburgh have been always ready and willing
to allow them what dead bodies fell under their gift and thereby
plentifully supplied their theatre for many years past.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Alexander
Monro I commenced with 57 students in 1720, and his peak year was
1746 with 185 students. Edinburgh College was unconcerned about him
procuring subjects from London.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
Though [Monro I] had received his commission, [to lecture] in January
1720, he was not required to deliver any lectures till the subsequent
October. The task he had undertaken was of no ordinary difficulty;
and, well prepared as he doubtless was, he possessed too much
prudence and good sense to run any hazard, being well aware how much
depended upon the first impression which he might make. Independently
of this, he could procure subjects nowhere else than in London.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
nationwide demand for subjects grew steadily. In many instances
supply was the responsibility of students, such as Carlisle and his
contemporaries. Across the country, local anatomy teachers and their
students set out after dark to retrieve recently buried corpses. On
24 October, 1747, a comprehensive letter was published,
proposing instead that physicians and surgeons be dissected.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
The affair which lately happened
to the vaults at St Andrew's, Holbourn, has particularly affected me,
and I never think on the relation of the young lady, of Hatten
Garden, whose body was taken away by the sexton, the very night of
its interment, and sold to a surgeon, without heartily wishing the
vile thief might be rewarded with the gallows, and afterwards
anatomised. I am informed that it is a common practice with these
fellows, and their comrades, to steal dead bodies and sell them …
In conversing with some surgeons about the impiety they are guilty
of, by encouraging the theft of dead bodies for their use, I find
they make very light of it. "What signifies to a dead man, the
cutting and slashing of his flesh, or the scraping: of his bones? His
body suffers no pain, his memory no disgrace by his contributing to
our instruction in anatomy and surgery, frequent dissections being
necessary for that purpose, and the gallows not affording us a
sufficient number of subjects." Since this is really the case,
and that these gentlemen think <i>cutting, slashing </i>and <i>scraping</i>,
a matter of such indifference, I would humbly propose a method
whereby they may be very amply supplied with opportunities of
improving anatomical knowledge.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
<b>First</b>, That Surgeon's Hall
shall be the public academy or school for the whole faculty of this
great metropolis. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<b>Secondly</b>, That all
<i>physicians, men</i> and <i>women midwives</i> (for I would not
exclude old women of the faculty,) <i>surgeons, apothecaries, quacks,
tooth-drawers, </i>their <i>pupils, journeymen, apprentices</i> and
<i>labourers</i>, shall, as soon as they are dead, be carried to the
said hall, and there dissected.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<b>Thirdly</b>, That the bodies of
regular-bred <i>physicians, midwives,</i>and <i>surgeons</i>, shall
be dissected or atomised according to the direction of the will of
the deceased, whose <i>imripimis</i> shall close with "and my
body I commit to Surgeon's Hall to be decently," and so forth.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<b>Fourthly</b>, That the bodies
of <i>apothecaries, barber-surgeons, quacks, tooth-drawers, pupils,
journymen, apprentices </i>and<i> labourers</i>, shall undergo such
operations of such operations of dissection and anatomy, as the
president, vice-president, etc., shall appoint. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<b>Fifthly</b>, That the body of
no rogue or man- killer, who shall be executed by law, shall for the
future, be admitted at the said hall; and that all such who are
already there shall be instantly removed, in order to make room for
those who better deserve their places.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<b>Sixthly,</b> that there shall
be stalls and glass cases erected within the hall for the reception
of the faculty who are of eminence and note, with suitable
inscriptions and labels over them. ...</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<b>Lastly,</b> (That there may be
no want of females) the wives and children of barber-surgeons,
quacks, tooth-drawers, journeymen and labourers, shall when dead, be
brought to the said hall, and dissected according to the orders of
the president etc.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
I hope that the scheme which I
have here sketched out will meet with so much approbation from the
faculty (to whose correction I submit it) as to incline them to apply
to parliament for proper powers to carry it into execution; and as a
compliance with the laws of one's country is undoubtedly a merit, the
being boxed up at Surgeon's Hall will not hereafter be deemed (as it
now is) a mark of disgrace, but on the contrary, a monument of
honour.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
The early and acute shortage of subjects was noted by a New York student on December 24,
1751;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
My dissection of the trunk now finished and to wonder where the next
subject is to come from; can see that we shall perforce have to Raid
that Miserable Graveyard again, unless the Doctor can obtain a copse
(sic) from the authorities. It is Intolerable that the progress of
our Art should depend upon such uncertain foundations. Have heard
that one Professor Rondelet of Montpelier University [in France] did
for want of subjects dissect the body of his own child before his
class; the which I can well believe.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The agony of those affected by body-snatching anatomists is conveyed in a distraught
letter of 19 June 1753 from Chambers Osborn, whose wife's body was
recognised under dissection;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
Sir,
I am the widower of the most good and amiable of her sex. … A youth
whom I provide for, entered my chamber some few days after the last
offices were paid to this dear woman; and with a look of greater
anguish than my own, said there was something that I must be told,
but it was impossible for him to speak it. His eyes proclaimed it was
truth he had to say, but the good youth wanted power to pronounce it.
The profession which he studies is that of surgery; and he had just
then seen that reverenced body mangled to serve a lecture. … I only
stopt the butchery, till I inquired into the sacrilege. The stones
had been removed, the earth was loose, the coffin empty, there could
remain no doubt. … What would have been your indignation had this
offence been done against her person? And who is sure it has not
happened to those they most respected? Or what must be their horror
to conceive, that howsoever they preserve that amiable character,
while their own thoughts dispose them; death may throw them into the
hands of these lewd ruffians, to be exposed and mangled before the
eyes of those, who while they lived, dared not look upon them.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
A follow up report recorded; 'Prosecutions are carrying on against some surgeons, and
officers of a parish, by a gentleman for taking away the body of his
lady, in order to dissect it; which was discovered by a young surgeon
her relation who was present when the body was brought'. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
A strange case in 1754, was that of Hannah Scelley, charged with murder
at the Old Bailey, when apprehended after midnight, carrying a bundle
which, when opened, was found to comprise a man's head, his
testicles, and his arm. Hannah said a John Evans had asked her to
carry the bundle. When the constable went to Evans' abode, he found a
child's hand, but Evans was gone. After evidence was given, the
foreman of the Jury said his brother jurymen were well satisfied the
head was taken from a church-yard, as the trunk was found afterwards.
At this Hannah was acquitted,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
with the case illustrating possession of a body, or body parts, was
not a crime. </div>
<br />
The enormous scale of the British
resurrection industry is conveyed in an account of 1776, involving
over one hundred bodies;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
The driver of a hackney coach was brought before the Lord Mayor at
Guildhall by two Custom-House officers, charged with having two dead
bodies in his coach. The officers account of the matter was as
follows. The day before about four in the morning, as they were going
over London bridge, they observed a coach driving very precipitately,
which gave them a suspicion that some run goods were concealed
therein; and on calling to the coachman to stop, he drove the faster;
on which one of them presenting a pistol, and threatening to fire at
him, two men jumped out and ran away, and the coach stopped; the
officers proceeded to examine it for their supposed prize, but to
their great astonishment, they found the body of an elderly man and
that of a woman, quite naked, with each a rope tied round its neck,
put into two separate sacks; there were three bruises about the body
of the man, and neither of them had been dead a long time. The
coachman said, he took up his fare in Shoreditch, was ordered to
drive to St George's hospital, and he knew nothing more of the
matter. However on his taking the bodies, by the lord mayor's order,
to the officers of Shoreditch parish, they were found to be those of
two paupers who had lately died in their workhouse, and which were
supposed to have been stolen out of the burying ground, for the use
of the surgeons; a thing not very surprising, considering the
careless manner in which such poor people are generally buried in
London. Four days after, the remains of more than one hundred dead
bodies were discovered in a shed in Tottenham Court Road, supposed to
have been deposited there by traders to the surgeons; of whom there
is one it is said, in the Borough, who makes open profession of
dealing in dead bodies, and is well known by the name of the
Resurrectionist.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
In Glasgow, students sought bodies as organised groups, but it could
be dangerous.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.52cm; margin-right: 0.62cm;">
<br />
It is not more than four or five years since [c1800] one of those
necessary assistants to the art of chirurgery, called resurrection
men, being employed in his vocation of stealing a dead body from a
churchyard in the neighbourhood of London, was discovered by a
patrol, and shot in the grave. To prevent his employer being
disappointed of a subject, and to shew her reverence for that art
which her husband had lost his life in endeavouring to improve, and
save the idle expense of a funeral, his afflicted widow, with the
fondness of an Ephesian matron, three days afterwards sold the body
of her murdered lord for sixteen shillings, to the very surgeon in
whose service he had suffered.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.52cm; margin-right: 0.62cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Where anatomists kept a low profile, public concern was
muted. As anatomists like William Hunter became wealthy and
respectable from their teaching, they sought respectability and
became less directly involved. <span style="font-style: normal;">In
London, anatomists and students sub-contracted the harvesting of
bodies to organised gangs of 'resurrection men who</span> indicated a
willingness to supply for suitable payment. Hence, as with any market
based economy, a distribution network developed; comprising hospital
porters and scouts to look for subjects, the diggers, students as
middlemen, and anatomists as end users. A
routine incident, reported without adverse editorial comment,
occurred in 1798; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.52cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br />
The watchman going his round near Whitfield's chapel, Tottenham-court-road, perceived a
hackney coach waiting near the burying-ground, and concluding that
some of the resurrection-men were at work, gave notice to one of the
patrol, who going to the spot, saw three men in convolution with the
coachman, who at his approach made off: he, however, secured the
coachman, and searching the coach discovered the body of a male child
wrapt up in a cloth; he then went to examine the burying-ground; and
finding several graves open, knocked at the door of the sexton's
house, which adjoins the ground, but was a very considerable time
before he obtained any answer, which was at last given by a woman,
who informed him that the sexton was gone to sleep in Westminster. At
day light a further search took place, when eight more bodies (four
women, three children, and one man) were found tied up in sacks in a
ditch not far from the chapel, and which had been interred the
preceding evening ... One man claimed two bodies, his wife and child,
who had been deposited in the same grave the preceding evening: the
child was the same that had been found in the coach.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.52cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
increasing demand for subjects, compared to static total deaths in
London, meant more instances of body-snatching were discovered. There
was more vigilance at burial grounds and it was harder for
resurrectionists to obtain bodies, even though they usually worked on
moonless nights. Daytime reconnaissance informed them of fresh
burials, depth, and whether more than one body might be obtained by
one spate of digging. Their tools were simple wooden shovels to
lessen noise, a rope with hooks or a crowbar to pull up the coffin
lid, and a couple of sacks. A hole would be dug at the head end of a
fresh grave, with the soft soil removed and heaped on sacking. Once
visible, the coffin lid was forced. The weight of earth on the rest
of the coffin served as a counter-weight, so when pressure was
applied the lid would break across, and the body be pulled out.
Shrouds or other clothing on the body were tossed back, and the earth
replaced by tipping up the sacking. It was important to leave the
grave tidy: if suspicions were aroused future attempts upon the same
graveyard could meet with danger.<br />
<br />
At a school in Aberdeen, students
were required to help obtain bodies and this was made explicit in the
institutional rules: 'every person absenting himself from depositing
or taking up a dead body should be fined 10s 5d, unless indisposed.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
Whereas in Dundee the fear of the resurrection men was instanced by
an extreme interment precaution in 1823;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<br />
Curiosity drew together a crowd of people at Dundee, to witness the
funeral of a child, which was consigned to the grave in a novel
manner. The father, in terror of the resurrection-men, had caused a
small box, enclosing some dreadful apparatus communicating by means
of wires with the four corners, to be fastened on the top of the
coffin. Immediately before it was lowered into the earth, a large
quantity of gunpowder was poured into the box, and the hidden
machinery put into a state of readiness for execution. The common
opinion was that if any one attempted to raise the body, he would be
blown up. The sexton seemed to dread an immediate explosion, for he
started hack in alarm after throwing in the first shovelful of
earth.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Many schemes were resorted to for the carriage of bodies from distant
districts to the metropolitan schools. The resurrectionists
personified drysalters, pork-curers, purveyors of animals for
museums, even apple-dealers and blacking-makers. Their countenances
betrayed a sinister expression, and their dress always shabby,
neither resembled the artisan nor the lowest of tradesmen; they were
nondescripts in person, as they were in character. They did their
best to avoid recognition, and always seemed in a hurry to place
their box in the coach 'boot' or to get their casks on board ship.
They lacked the art of packing and the use of antiseptics: hence the
frequent disclosures of their traffic on the quays of Dublin and
Glasgow, and in coach transit from provincial towns … The danger of
discovery was greatest in the towns where the stage coach stayed for
the night. Several inquests were held at Carlisle, on bodies thus
detected and meant for the Edinburgh school. The decisions of the
juries on these occasions, 'Found dead in a box' used to amuse the
Scottish jurists and anatomists, and naturally threw discredit on the
proceedings of all coroner's inquests.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Local
churchyards were inadequate to meet demand and supplies had to be
sought in graveyards further afield. Authorities generally turned a
blind eye, as they could see the need. <span style="font-style: normal;">Bodies
were cheaper in France, but there was a bureaucratic hindrance to
supply; from Customs!</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The claims of the resurrection men
... becoming so considerable as to be a great draw-back upon the
profits of the London lecturers, they first endeavoured to procure
subjects from France, where they may be had at about fifteen
shillings each, delivered in England; but the Custom House opposed
itself to this branch of trade, fearing that the internal part of the
bodies might be made a receptacle for lace and other valuable
articles subject to high duties, or even contraband. This cheapness
of foreign subjects arises from the poor in French and Italian cities
not being buried in separate graves, but, a large pit being dug, the
corpses are deposited in a naked state at the bottom, with a thin
plank between each, until a layer of them is completed, when about a
foot deep of mould is strewed over them, and a fresh layer of corpses
began: hence the bodies are easily subtracted from the burying
ground, and it is also known that of one-third of the deaths in
Paris, no less than eight thousand take place in the hospitals, many
of whom are from the country, with no friends in Paris to care for
the corpse, so that subjects may be had there for a few pence, in
fact, merely for porterage.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
An example of the smuggling from France which the Customs feared was reported in 1751;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
<br />
February 13. Monday morning, between six and seven o'clock, a hearse
and four horses were seized by two riding Officers, about a mile from
Shoreham, in Sussex, assisted by some soldiers, on an information of
some run goods that were concealed in it; but the driver, who had on
a black cloak with a mourning hatband, and a fellow on it dressed
like an undertaker's man, told the Officers they had the body of a
Gentleman, which they were carrying to London to lie in state at an
undertakers: they however insisted on an examination, and to their
great surprise found a large coffin covered with black, in which was
a large quantity of gold and silver <i>French</i> lace and several
pieces of cambricks, and a shell by it, filled with tea, which they
took as a good prize, and conducted it safe to the Custom-house at
Shoreham.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">But
the rising cost of subjects in London was reported in 1829; 'Thirty
years ago the price of a subject was from one to two guineas. The
teacher now pays from eight to ten guineas, and the price has risen
even to sixteen guineas. The teacher delivers subjects to his pupils
at a lower price than that at which he purchased them. He is refunded
by the fees of attendance at his lecture, but he is often subject to
heavy expenses in defending the exhumator against legal prosecutions,
or in maintaining him in prison, and his family also, until the term
of his imprisonment expires.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
One of
the main factors influencing medical study in Paris after 1815, as
opposed to Britain, was the rising cost of obtaining bodies in
London. The lower cost in Paris, at three to twelve francs each, that
is one-third of a guinea each, even encouraged some British surgeons
to move their courses to Paris. The relative situation in London and
Paris was compared in an 1828 article commenting on Dr James Sims.
The actual year referred to is unclear, although likely around 1800.
Apart from the lower cost, the article infers a dozen or more bodies
a day, say 4000 per year, were available at just one Paris school;
'<span style="font-style: normal;">When I was first in Paris, the fee
for students attending the Hôtel Dieu for six months was only a
crown, for which the student had the liberty of dissecting as many as
he chose of the dozen or more who died there every day. How different
this from the management of many English hospitals where 15, 20, 25,
50, or 500 guineas (in cases of apprentices) are required?'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A story
from 1825 indicates how farcical the situation had become;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
A patient was admitted into [St Guy's], labouring under some
complaint which had enlarged the head to an enormous size: the
disease having baffled the skill of the medical attendants, the poor
fellow at length died. If the bodies of patients, which having
nothing remarkable about them cannot escape the dissecting knife, it
will readily be guessed, that such a curiosity as this would be
eagerly sought after. On the death of this person being communicated
to his relatives, his mother and sister came up from the country to
attend his funeral. They of course proceeded to the Hospital, and
begged to he allowed to see the body. The steward to whom they
addressed themselves deeply regretted that the body was in such a
state that it could not be seen: had they come but a day sooner their
request would have been readily complied with; these good
unsuspecting people went away not doubting the steward's veracity;
they afterwards attended the funeral and wept over a coffin filled
with 'brickbats and sawdust' and which was committed to the earth
with all due solemnity, by the Rev Chaplain, as 'the body of our dear
brother here departed, in the sure hope of the resurrection of
eternal life'. It only remains for us to add in conclusion and
confirmation of our story, that the skeleton of our 'dear brother'
now forms one of the greatest curiosities in the museum of Guy's
Hospital, where it may be seen by all who can obtain admission to
that receptacle of physiological phenomena ...<br />
<br />
In order that the
farce which is performed at [St Guy's and St Thomas's] hospitals to
delude the public may be deficient in none of its parts, a man is
paid between £50 and £60 a year to watch the burial ground of the
united Hospitals at night, that no profane hands may disturb the
repose of the dead. This good man may, however, enjoy his repose
nearly as well in his watch box, as he could at home without any
neglect of duty; sleeping or waking, he is assured no bodies will
ever be stolen, for the simple and all satisfactory reason that none
are placed there to steal.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Most
corpses were purchased for use as cadavers, but some were bought for
their fat. Human fat, a remedy for wounds and disease, and a raw
material for the manufacture of candles and soap, commanded a high
price in the18C.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
A saleable body part was teeth, with a resurrectionist named Murphy
earning £60 from one burial vault simply by going around, yanking
out teeth to be used in dentures. Later the problem of tooth decay
was tackled by means of porcelain dentures and the need for
replacement teeth diminished, although resurrectionists still went to
the battlefield of Waterloo to rob teeth from the bodies.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Yet
another by-product of the resurrection trade was hair, sold for use
as hair extensions. This was abhorred in a Montreal, Canada
advertisement of 1827 seeking a wife;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
It will doubtless be expected that something should be said of the
particular points of personal attractions required. If possible, a
tall figure, possessing that voluptuous, rounding contour of form so
much admired by men of taste in these matters, would be preferred.
Eyes of any colour excepting green or red, would be more acceptable,
if their glance should ordinarily, like a mathematical figure,
diverge from a right line; as the gentleman himself is blessed with a
slight, but graceful obliquity of vision, and is anxious for the sake
of family quiet, to leave no room for for reflection either on or
from his own or his spouse's bright orbs. Hair of any colour but
carrotty, (and that he condemns in toto) and which he would prefer as
the natural growth of the head it adorns, as he feels a particular
dislike to these horrid unnatural bunches of cork screw curls, which
tonseurs and the ladies term frizettes, but which <u>the
resurrection-men from whom the raw material is procured</u>,
[my emphasis] emphatically and technically vend under the appellation
of 'dead hair.' - Application to be made to J.H.W. care of the Editor
of this paper.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Resurrectionists preferred to harvest the easy pickings. In 1828, a resurrectionist
giving evidence to the Anatomy Committee stated; 'I like to get those
of poor people buried from the workhouses, because, instead of
working for one subject, you may get three or four; I do not think,
during the time I have been in the habit of working for the schools,
I got half a dozen of wealthier people'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
Near each hospital was a public house where the resurrectionists
would drop off their subjects. One on the north side of the river
was the Fortune of War, at Pie Corner, near Smithfield. In 1864 the
host of the inn, which still bore the same name, would point out the
position of a room, around which ran benches, on which, duly labelled
with the owners names, remained the bodies till the surgeons at St
Bartholomew's could look at them.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<b>The Bountiful Harvest</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Anatomists were not immune from risk. It was at Bully's Acre burial
ground in Dublin, in 1814 when calamity befell Peter Harkan
(1780-1814), a well-known Dublin surgeon, who had an anatomy school
in partnership with Sir Philip Crampton (1777-1858). Hitherto Harkan
had been a very successful resurrectionist and was out one night
seeking fresh subjects. A party of grave watchers sighted him and
rushed towards him; he succeeded in getting his assistants over the
cemetery wall but, when crossing over himself, his legs were seized
by the watchmen on one side, while his pupils pulled against their
opponents with such strength on the other, that he eventually died
from the effects. In Dublin there were many paupers, and hence many
interments at Bully's Acre.<br />
<br />
A Scot, Wilson Rae, a retired half-pay
surgeon, organised the resurrection business, including the exporting
of subjects to Britain. It is said, at the peak, he was harvesting up
to 2,000 bodies a year. Supply from Ireland was as not discouraged by
Customs, compared to supply from France. Other factors which made
exportation of bodies from Dublin attractive, were the introduction of steam navigation, the scarcity
and expense of bodies in England and Scotland, and the abundance and
cheapness. James Macartney, who became Professor of Anatomy at Dublin University in
1826, estimated 600 to 800 cadavers were used in Dublin during
the 1826 season in five local schools, whereas Erinensis calculated
1,500 to 2,000, which probably overshot the mark.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
But if it was a harvest of 2000, that implies over a thousand a year
were exported to Scotland or Liverpool, although it was commented.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
No bodies, for instance exported from Dublin, allowing for the unavoidable delays of
conveyance and procuring them, can possibly reach Edinburgh or London
earlier than a fortnight or three weeks after death, unless, indeed
they are murdered here <i>per contract,</i> and served up “hot and
hot” to the teachers of those two cities, as they were to that
eminent anatomist, physiologist, and pathologist, Dr Knox. Bodies
kept for such a length of time, and submitted to the influence of
high temperature in the hold of a steam-vessel, must surely be fitter
for interment on their arrival in these places, than for the purposes
of anatomy.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
As the
practice of snatching was secretive, it is difficult to determine the
overall numbers of bodies dissected. However, an attempt has been
made to assess the harvest between 1750 and the passing of the
Anatomy Act in 1832. The figures involve estimation, but are
indicative of the scale. It was reported of John Hunter that; 'Prior
to his going abroad [in 1760] he had been present at the dissection
of more than two thousand human bodies', i.e. about 170 per year.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
This equated to about four a week, as dissections mainly took place
in the colder months.<br />
<br />
If one assumes in the later 18C, apart from
Hunter, there were say, ten other teaching surgeons in greater
London, each seeking a more modest average of two bodies a week for
dissection during the nine colder months making, say 25 per week in
total, for forty weeks a year, there was an average annual demand in
London rising from about 200 in 1750, to over 1000 per year after
1800. This a higher number than suggested in some sources, such as
the 1828 Select Committee, but it is likely those numbers were
under-stated to minimise public alarm. In 1783, apart from John
Hunter's school, three other major schools were the Great Windmill
School, Great Marlborough Street, and Great Queen Street. There were
also other smaller schools and some anatomists teaching within their
own homes. The Anatomy Committee recorded on the outbreak of war
with France there were 200 students in London, rising to 300 by 1798,
and 1000 by 1823. It seems in London there was likely a requirement
of about 200 bodies in 1750, rising to 700 by 1800, and a peak of
1500, around 1820. Even this is lower than some estimates, as;
'The need was judged by some to exceed 2000 bodies in London alone'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Sources
of legal supply were minimal by comparison, so the illegal
procurement of bodies for dissection in the late 18C and early 19C in
London had to average close to 1000 per year. Evidence from the
'supply' side tends to support this estimate. The <i>"Diary of a
Resurrectionist"</i> recorded over 400 bodies taken in London in
under than one year, 1811-1812, by just the Crouch gang, comprising
less than ten men. At their trial for murder in November 1831, it was
estimated Bishop and Williams had resurrected at least 500 bodies in
1831 alone. When it is remembered the 'harvest' was mainly conducted
during the colder months, and Bishop and William were inactive for
November and December, they must have expected to exceed 600 bodies
in a full year. Although the prominent gangs of their respective
times, it is unlikely either gang controlled as much as 50% of the
market, as the police stated in 1828 that 200 men were involved in
the resurrection trade, part-time or full-time.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
national shortfall of 'unauthorised' bodies used for dissection can
only be an estimate, but one can assume as above, that the annual
shortfall of 'legal' bodies in London, i.e. beyond those available
from legal sources, averaged around 800-1000 per year between 1780
and 1832. With, say a 300 per year shortfall from 1750-1780. This
amounted to the illegal procurement of say, 50,000 bodies for London
over the period 1745-1832, a figure broadly in line with the total of
57,000 bodies dissected in London in the century following the
passing of the Anatomy Act.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Given the
number of provincial anatomy schools and private teachers, to
quadruple the London shortfall to derive an annual estimate for the
whole of Britain and Ireland, does not seem unreasonable. With the
main era for body-snatching lasting from 1745 to 1832, it suggests
the total number of bodies procured unlawfully by anatomists in
Britain and Ireland over that period was around 200,000. While this
is an astounding figure, other comments support the magnitude. Tim
Marshall observe<span style="font-style: normal;">d, 'By the 1820's
several thousand bodies were required per annum, but no legal
provision existed to supply them on this scale'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
As such, it was a major c</span>ommercial enterprise. With 200,000
subjects taken, even a modest ratio of surviving mourners to total
harvested bodies, meant most of the population was wittingly, or
unwittingly, affected by body snatching. If each deceased had fifteen
mourners attend their funeral, the probability of being a friend or
relation, of a resurrected body during a five year period in the
1820's, was close to 100%.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>London
Policing</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
But what
about policing? As with the Church, police and magistrates were
ambivalent towards resurrectionists. Evidence of official connivance
is seen in a report of 1817.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a>
The burial ground of Lambeth had, for a considerable time, been the
scene of nightly invasions, and surviving relatives were exceedingly
harrowed by the actions of body snatchers. The parish officers were
called upon to adopt some protection and ordered the sexton to
procure some persons to keep a nightly watch. He accordingly hired
two men for that purpose, and instructed them to be vigilant in their
duty. Even so, scarcely a night passed without a body being stolen,
and the offenders were not discovered. In frustration, a Mr Seagar
decided to keep watch with his son, and a friend named John Sharp.
They concealed themselves in the burial ground and about ten o'clock
observed two men passing, who first proceeded to the part of the
ground where there were man-traps set, which they let off. They then
commenced their operations upon a grave wherein a body had been
buried the preceding day. Seagar continued to watch them until their
spades struck a coffin. Seagar then called out to these men and
surrender themselves; then discovered to his astonishment, they were
the very two persons had hired and paid to protect the ground.<br />
<br />
Apart
from the very nature of the incident, the comment implies that maybe
250 bodies a year were taken from this single graveyard. In King v
Coleridge, it was observed; <span style="font-style: normal;">'It is
well known that a practice has prevailed of weeding the church yards
of the metropolis through the instrumentality of persons called
resurrection men of subjects for the skill of the anatomist'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a>
R</span>eferences in print included a poem by Hob Goblin;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<b>The Epitaphs - A Critique on London Burial Grounds:</b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="258*"></col>
<col width="258*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
A resurrection man, named Joe, </div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
Did with a brother through
the Church-yard go, </div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
Which two new marble tombs
set quite a grace on; </div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
"Here
lies," etcetera,</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
The unbelieving
body-snatcher saw,</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
And said, "Here no one
lies, but the stonemason!" </div>
<br />
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
"That's a wrong epitaph
then (quoth his friend), </div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
But is that juster on the
next that's penned,</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
All "Sacred to the
Memory" of the dead!" </div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
"Faith (answered this
vile scoffing rascal Joe), </div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
Our Surgeon's Hall, knows
'tis more apropos; </div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
It left nought sacred else in
this grave-bed."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1819
the general aim of London police was to accomplish the security of
the metropolis for its living citizens. The city had two offices, in
the Mansion house and at Guildhall, where magistrates sat daily to
hear charges of robbery, fraud, and outrage.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a>
Outside the central jurisdiction, twenty-seven stipendiary
magistrates were appointed. Three at Bow Street, under a long
established jurisdiction, and twenty-four by a statute called the
<i>"Police Act"</i> at eight offices, one each in: Bow
Street; Great Marlborough Street; Hatton Garden; Worship Street,
Shoreditch; Lambeth Street, Whitechapel; High Street, Shadwell; Queen
Square; and Union Street, Southwark. Apart from this, there was the
Thames Police Office at Wapping under a separate act of parliament,
which had a dedicated magistrate, almost entirely dealing with
maritime offences.<br />
<br />
The duties of the magistrates extended to various
proceedings, which they were empowered to hear and determine in a
summary way, particularly cases relating to customs and excise,
coaches, carts, pawnbrokers, and other matters. Their duty also
extended to hearing cases for persons under charges of treason,
murder, felony, fraud, and various misdemeanours. The weight of
business meant there were three magistrates at each office. Two
attended every day except Sunday, and one every evening.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Each
office had from eight to twelve constables attached, who were termed
'police officers'. Their pay was only one guinea per week, and for
the rest of their means of existence they depended on fees arising
out of the service of summonses, warrants, and a portion of any
penalties imposed by the magistrates. For the conviction of trifling
offenders the police received nothing, but bare expenses; for the
conviction of an offender guilty of a capital offence, there was a
reward by act of parliament of £40. As a result it the financial
attraction of pursing capital offences, was the reason minor
culprits, such as resurrectionists, could prowl unmolested.<br />
<br />
The £40
reward did raise serious issues, with several conspiracies detected,
aimed at convicting innocent men for the sake of the reward. In 1819
it was felt the powers of the magistrates might be improved by giving
them more discretion over the level of penalties. There being
instances where a ten shillings fine would meet the justice of the
case, but where £10 was the irrevocable penalty. As poorer people
were most likely to appear, an inability to pay a fine of £10
usually exposed those found guilty to six weeks or three months
imprisonment, in prisons where they became even better acquainted
with vice and roguery.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Apart
from the magistrates and police appointed by the Home Secretary,
there were constables and watchmen appointed by parishes for their
own particular districts. The office of parish constable was an
ancient institution, but over time it degenerated in importance, so
by 1819, only poor men resorted to it. Watchmen were even less
commendable, being selected from the humblest classes; porters, Irish
labourers, and such like. Many had worked all the preceding day, but
to support their families, needed to earn an extra shilling at night.
To expect efficient protection from them, was unlikely. If they
should chance to be awake when interrupted by robbers, pickpockets,
night-walkers, or a fire, they tried to be of use by the noise they
made with their rattles. Watchmen were frequently asleep or absent
from their boxes and it became apparent, they were guilty of the sins
of commission, as well as of omission. They not only levied
resurrectionists and prostitutes, to allow them to walk the area, but
received bribes to dismiss complaints against violators of the peace.<br />
<br />
Under a different Act, a nightly watch was appointed for the
prevention of robberies. The number of constables, patrols, and
watchmen on duty every night, across London was upwards of three
thousand men. Besides the constables, there were a hundred foot
patrols walking the greater city, and in winter, also forty horsemen,
who rode every evening and night on principal roads out to the
distance of ten or fifteen miles. This large force, while not
perfect, was a deterrent to the midnight robber and murderer, to the
cultivated swindler and sharper; and to the poorer pickpockets,
rogues, and prostitutes, who daily rose scarcely knowing how they
were to exist in the coming day. Thus the thousands of persons
residing within greater London were normally able to pass along the
streets.</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1819,
when the population of London was 1,200,000, Patrick Colquhoun
(1745-1820) a London magistrate, described the various classes of
undesirables in London. He wrote at length on policing, with editions
of his works published over a number of years.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a>
Colquhoun traced the origin of crime to the prevalence of
public-houses and of prostitution. He estimated no fewer than 30,000
prostitutes lived in London, with 80% of them dying prematurely of
disease and misery.<br />
<br />
A huge prison inmate increase between 1811 and
1817, was occasioned by the end of the war with France. Crime
increased rapidly. In 1811 there were 5,337 males and females in
jails of England and Wales charged with criminal offences and of whom
3,163 were convicted. Thus only 60% of those in prison had been
convicted. Amongst the convictions were 137 for currency offences,
2,503 for larceny, 76 for burglary, and only 8 for murder. By 1817
there were 13,932 committed to jail, of whom 9,056, or 65% were
convicted. Among them; 425 for currency offences, 6,865 for larceny,
374 for burglary, but only 25 for murder, as most victims were
delivered to anatomists, thus leaving no evidence.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
Britain, the mortality rate diminished by half between 1700 and 1850.
Professor Buchanan estimated that in the latter part of the 16C, one
half of all children born died under five years, and the mean
longevity of the population was about eighteen years. By 1845, one
half of the population exceeded forty-three years.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
These statistics parallel an earlier study by Anthony Carlisle, an
early proponent of the importance of collecting medical statistics,
where he published the trend of annual deaths compared to live
residents of London. Carlisle calculated mortality rates as;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="258*"></col>
<col width="258*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-left: 0.48cm;">
1700
- 1 death per 31 residents</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-left: 0.48cm;">
1780
- 1 death per 42 residents</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-left: 0.48cm;">
1790
- 1 death per 45 residents</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-left: 0.48cm;">
1800
- 1 death per 48 residents</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-left: 0.48cm;">
1810
- 1 death per 54 residents</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-left: 0.48cm;">
1820
- 1 death per 60 residents<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
When
these mortality rates are applied to the London population at the
relevant dates, they show annual deaths from natural causes were
averaging around 20,000 per year, despite the population growth. The
relatively static level of dead bodies was due to longer life
expectancies, and in conflict with the growing shortfall of bodies
required for medical dissection. This had risen from say, 50 in 1700,
to around 1200 in 1820. The resultant harvest required therefore rose
from a tiny fraction of one percent of 20,000 deaths in 1700, to six
percent of the 20,000 deaths in London in 1820. In addition London
resurrectionists were sending bodies to Edinburgh. As such, the odd
robbed grave in the mid 18C was of little consequence, but the
incidence tended towards a deluge by 1825. The public perception of
body-snatching varied, sometimes comic, as in a recitation of 1828.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<b>Jerry's Sad Disaster</b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="258*"></col>
<col width="258*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
It happened in a little
village,</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Famed only for its tillage, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Where custom bad made a law </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
At two o'clock to toll a
bell, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
So that its early rumbling
knell </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Might rouse each clownish
boor. </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Lived Jeremiah Screw, a
perfect nigger, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Village clerk, sexton and
grave digger, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Six feet two in height, but
very lean; </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
To toll the bell, was his
job, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
(Right were they to trust his
nob,</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
A proper man, and very keen.)
</div>
<br />
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
At wealth he would be
catching, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
So he took to body snatching,
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
And ne'er once fearing of
detection;</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
The villagers would leave to
sup, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Away, and a body take up, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
And sell it for dissection. </div>
<br />
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
But stop 'ere I further go, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
I had better let yon know, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
In this village lived a
fellow, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
A tinker and a noted sot; </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Ever would he lift the pot, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Till it had made him mellow.<br />
<br />
One night, 'twas at the
Bull, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
He having got his belly full,
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Fell fast asleep, and so poor
Payne </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Was, by some of the setters
by, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Carried out upon the sly, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
And laid out in the lane. </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
There he slept until the
time, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
The bell struck its early
chime, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Which rous'd him, but all was
dark; </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Hollo! why, what was that, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Another, and now another pat,
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Oh! I, I, I know, 'tis the
clerk. </div>
<br />
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Why I know Jerry very well, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
So I'll go and help to toll
the bell, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
And soon I'll be with thee; </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Here goes, but how I reel, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
No, yes, tis the door I feel;
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Which wide he op'd on Jerry. </div>
<br />
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Poor Jerry turn'd round in
affright;</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
At such an hour well he
might; </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
"Ah! 'tis the devil with
fiery eyes!" </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
For Jerry's lamp convenient
stood, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Upon a projecting piece of
wood, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Which fill'd him with
surprise. </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
His yellow, greasy, grimy
face, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Added to which a huge
grimace, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
For his teeth with laughter
did chatter; </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
So loosing the post he
stagger'd in, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
And he to speak did thus
begin </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
With, "what the devil's
the matter!" </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Not a word Jerry stop'd to
hear, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
But quickly did disappear, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
And down the stair case
hurried; </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
For he thought his time was
ending, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
When the tinker he heard
descending; </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Which made him feel terribly
flurried.</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
And off he set upon the run, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Swift as a bullet from a gun,
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Till the path he was suddenly
turning. </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
The parson's cook a knack had
taken </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Of walking out before she bad
waken, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
With a rush-light dimly
burning. </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
It hap'd this morn, as folks
talk, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
She took the church-yard for
her walk, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
In her night clothes fully
array'd:</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Now Jerry drop'd upon her
plump, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
It gave his heart a dreadful
thump, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
To move an inch he felt
afraid.</div>
<br />
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
And here the cook made a
stand, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Towards poor Jerry held her
hand; </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
As 'twere to claim her right:</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<"I sold you once, why
now appear, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
>Ah! the devil too with my
lamp is here, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
So I stand between devil and
sprite!" </div>
<br />
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
"Why, Jerry what have
you to fear, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
'Tis the parson's cook."
"Molly dear!" </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
He bellowed; she woke in a
fright, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
And op'd her eyes, poor Jerry
shook, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
And all in a tremble felt the
cook, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
When down she dropp'd the
light. </div>
<br />
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Behind a tomb she shelter
found, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Waiting the others to leave
the ground, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
No sooner done, and the coast
clear,</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Jerry was off, leaving the
man so sable, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
With legs as fast as he was
able, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
And where he went no one
could hear. </div>
<br />
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
The cook felt it extremely
keen, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
That she in night robes
should be seen, </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
So the same day left her
master:<br />
And the tinker is the only
one </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Left behind, to tell the fun </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Of poor Jerry's sad
disaster.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
The 'need' for body-snatching is illustrated by the reducing availability
of cadavers of executed felons. In 1819 the Select Committee on
Criminal Laws reported and was pleased with the trend in murder
statistics. For the Home Circuit; Herts, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and
Surrey; murder cases were:<br />
<br />
Period Total convictions for murder Total executions for murder<br />
1718-1755 123 87<br />
1755-1784 67 57<br />
1784-1814 54 44
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Statistics for London and Middlesex were stated to be too narrow to draw similar
conclusions, but between 1755-1784, London convictions for murder
totalled 71, and from 1784-1814 were 66. For the years 1812-1817
London convictions were 23 in total. As a result, the Select
Committee wrote;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
In general, however,<u>
it appears that Murders, and other crimes of violence and cruelty,
have either diminished, or not increased</u>; [my emphasis] and that
the deplorable increase of Criminals is not of such a nature as to
indicate any diminution in the <i>humanity</i> of the people. The
practice of immediately publishing the circumstances of every
atrocious crime, and of circulating, in various forms, an account of
every stage of the proceedings which relate to it, is far more
prevalent in England than in any other country, and in our times,
than in any former age. It is, on the whole, of great utility, not
only as a control on courts of judicature, but also as a means of
rendering it extremely difficult for odious criminals to escape. In
this country, <u>no atrocious crimes remain secret</u>; [my emphasis]
with these advantages, however, it cannot be denied that, by
publishing the circumstances of all crimes, our modern practice tends
to make our age and nation <i>appear</i> more criminal than, in
comparison with others, it really<i> is.</i><span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
However, the statistics for the relevant periods are misleading and bear
further analysis, as the decline correlates with the anatomist's
increasing demand for subjects. Murders fell into two broad
categories. First, those largely in the heat of the moment; crimes of
passion, revenge, murders of violent husbands, and rough violence.
These were largely unplanned, often with victims discovered, hence
perpetrators were caught and appear in the statistics. Even so some
victims were delivered to anatomists. But the second category was
planned burking murders, with no remaining evidence, nor witnesses,
so do not appear in any statistics. Thus it was misleading to make
comparison with 'other countries', which had no need for body
snatching.<br />
<br />
The decline in convictions for murder, was due to a
growing awareness that committing a murder need not lead to the
gallows, as anatomists were willing to accept a murdered body, with
no questions asked. It stands to reason many murder victims were
delivered direct to anatomy schools. For a few frightening moments,
assume the situation today parallels 1820 on a relative population
scale; London anatomists seek around 10,000 subjects a year, are
prepared to pay £1000 each for men, women, and children, and with no
questions asked. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
The motivation of the resurrection men was mercenary. By 1831, a skilled
worker in the East End could earn a few shillings for a 72-hour week
of backbreaking work. But a fresh corpse could fetch £8, £9 or even
£10, with the work done in a single night. Men were worth more than
women, as they gave greater scope for examination of the muscles, and
a fresh corpse was more valuable than a putrefying cadaver. It was
easier than working. For
some, the lack of subjects was of great concern, so much so that in
February 1823, John Abernathy, a London anatomist, was taken to task
for seeking lesser punishments for resurrection men. John Wade, as
Humanus, wrote opposing Abernathy to mount a strong emotional case
against resurrections. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
What would be your horror, if a day or two after the funeral of your wife,
you were to enter a dissecting room and behold her body, quartered
and mangled by young men, not the boldest of whom would with impunity
have touched one hair of her head during her life time. ... Behold
those arms which so fondly hung about you at the very hour of death,
and which in their last embrace seemed to claim protection in an
unmolested grave; no longer respected, because no more alive;
dismembered and perhaps the very last drop of blood that so little
time ago gave them strength to cling about your neck, whilst the
faltering tongue bade you a last farewell, shed, and left to run from
those sacred veins down the pipe of the dissecting table into the
common cesspool. Those eyes too, at whose last lingering look you
stood trembling with the agonies of an almost breaking heart; cut out
of their once graceful lids, and fingered with unmoved carelessness.
See, that bosom, once your pride and glory, the life's pride glory
spring of your infant, the guardian of your joys, and woes; now
dissected, and when done with cast away! Those lips of which the
touch would convey the thrill of ecstasy to your very soul, now
disfigured and rejected. Could you bear a sight so dreadful? Could
you stand a patient witness to such unholy carnage? No, Sir, you
would forget your errand, you would in the agony of your heart curse
the authors of such a barbarous scene, you would spring forward and
gather together the remains of the form you once so cherished, and
exclaim in the bitterness of your anguish, 'O spare that body.'
Suppose, again, that instead of wife it should be your child that was
stolen from its grave, would your horror be the less acute? - or,
that the body should be that of a brother or a sister, a relation, or
an intimate friend, would you stand unmoved? - no, Sir, the world
knows you better than to suppose it.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
In 1818, Dublin subjects were readily available;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
The students in practical anatomy have access to the dissecting room
at all hours in the day, and are occasionally superintended by the
professor's assistant, by whom demonstrations are given daily from
three to four o'clock. Each student is provided with a subject for
the dissection of the muscle and viscera, another for the vessels,
and a third for the nerves, or as they are termed, a muscular, a
vascular, and a nervous subject. For the last there is not probably a
subject specially provided in any other Anatomical School. Besides
being superintended in his dissections, the student has it in his
power to make himself master of the art of making anatomical
preparations, and he can procure more subjects at trifling expense,
should he be so industrious as to finish before the conclusion of the
course, those given him by the professor.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
... Dublin offers a fine school of practical anatomy. The graves in
this city are so frequently made to render up their dead for the
dissecting rooms, that subjects are plentiful and comparatively
cheap.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Whereas in Edinburgh, in the same year of 1818, subjects were few and
far between;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br />
[a] short view of the manner in which Anatomy is taught in the school
of Edinburgh. The first defect which strikes us here is the want of
subjects. This is the greatest possible objection to any medical
school, and one from which many others originate. ... The supply of
subjects in Edinburgh is very scanty; and these few which they do
get, being brought from a great distance, are in a bad state for
teaching what the practical student must learn slowly: they cost
much money and afford but little information The price of one subject
in Edinburgh will provide at least six or seven in Dublin.
Application to practical anatomy is a sine qua non in the latter
place; in the former, numbers pass examination without ever handling
a scalpel.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Under Alexander Monro I (1697-1767) and Alexander Monro II (1733-1817),
Edinburgh was conservative in procuring and dissecting corpses, but
their 'zeal, talents, and discoveries, soon rendered Edinburgh a
school for anatomy and although <i>materials</i> for dissection are there less frequently obtained than in London.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
It was not until 1827, under Alexander Monro III (1773-1859), that
Edinburgh, then with 900 students, for the first time made dissection
compulsory.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
It is recorded of just one Edinburgh lecturer, the Robert Knox linked
to the murderers Burke and Hare; 'From 1826 to 1835, over a period of
nine years, his students annually averaged 335, and in the session of
1828-9 he had 504 pupils.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
London also had many teachers including Joshua Brookes (1761-1833),
with a medical school in Blenheim Street from 1785 to 1831, where he
taught 7000 students, an average of 150 per year. Brookes had a
notable museum of specimens, second only to John Hunter, and was
willing to seek out his own subjects, as with one when he was but
seventeen; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
A negro had died of
some disease within the brain, the nature of which was somewhat
obscure. … Mr Brookes was exceedingly interested to obtain some
information on this subject which it appeared impossible to effect.
The old proverb 'Necessitas non habet leges', appeared to actuate him
on this occasion; for the day after the burial, he got up at four
o'clock in the morning, with the greatest secrecy, and, with his
servant, set off in a gig, with the necessary implements, and exhumed
the body of the negro, which he deposited in his study, and appeared
as usual with the family at breakfast as if nothing of the kind had
occurred.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Brookes's success with his museum specimens was as a result of procuring
subjects immediately after death. In an 1822 court case, <i>The
King v Cundick</i>,
Cundick as undertaker to the Horsemonger Lane gaol, was found guilty
of selling a body to Brookes for dissection. A convict, Edward Lee,
who had been found guilty of a highway robbery was publicly executed
at the Gaol, then cut down and delivered to Cundick for interment at
the county expense, for which he was allowed three guineas, but
instead of doing so he sold the body to Brookes.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
It was reported of
Brookes; 'In those days student dissected fresh cadavers, which it
was considered dangerous to dissect in the summer for fear of
infection. but Joshua Brookes had discovered a way of preserving his
'specimens' and kept his school open all the year round'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
After trying many solutions, he settled on nitrate of potassium as
the only one, after many trials, to not only preserve the subject
from putrefaction, but to allow muscles, blood vessels, etc. to
retain their original florid colour, and, in some instances increase
it.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">It
can be easy to forget the prime objective of most anatomists, in
seeking subjects for dissection, was to make money from teaching
medical students. </span>But the study of medicine was hampered by the scarcity of a legal supply
of cadavers. Knowledge of anatomy was insisted upon by the
Corporation of Surgeons, and each student had to produce a
certificate of having attended at least two courses of dissection.
The dissection of executed criminals was one means of conducting
anatomical research, but another was experiments upon patients within
charity hospitals. As noted by Susan Lawrence;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
With the introduction of pupils into the hospitals, the ward patient's
case became quasi-public … when his or her condition could be
observed in ways that a private patient's could not … Some social
anxiety about the misuse of the poor for their betters – and a
likely more deeply felt fear that any patient might be the object of
untried practice - did indeed arise during these decades, hinting
that hospital cases might be treated differently to private ones. In
1737, the Earl of Burlington withdrew his subscription from St
George's because he felt “that this once noble design will soon
change from an hospital for relief into a school for experiments”.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
We will
next see how the actions of anatomists led to murders for dissection
by Burke and Hare in Edinburgh, and Bishop and Williams in London,
but contemporary views claimed more instances of 19C burking than
were reported; At
least two well-placed independent observers - Wakley and Somerville -
independently opined that the detection/conviction rate for burking
was entirely unrepresentative of the incidence of the crime.
Somerville plausibly argued there were many others in addition to
Burke and Bishop, 'whose greater caution in the selection of their
subjects, greater skill in the various arts of destroying life, and
more circumspection in their dealings, have screened from the hand of
justice'. Wakley believed the number of probable victims ran into
three figures.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
The numbers of executed criminals were totally inadequate to meet the
increasing demand for subjects required to train medical students. By
the 1820's it was statistically unlikely a mourner at a grave was not
a witting, or unwitting, relation of a body resurrected during the
previous five years. </div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Hammond, Anthony, <i>The Courts of King's Bench, Common Pleas and
Exchequer </i> London, W Clarke, 1819, p 851</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Macnee, John, <i>Trial of William Burke and Helen M'Dougal</i>,
Edinburgh, Robert Buchanan, 1829, p x
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Bower, Alexander, <i>The History of the University of Edinburgh,</i>
Vol II, Edinburgh, Alex Smellie, 1817, p 162-163
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Bower, Alexander, <i>The History of the University of Edinburgh,</i>
Vol II, Edinburgh, Alex Smellie, 1817, p 176-179</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine,</i> London, October 1747, p 487-488</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
Gray, Ernest, </span><b><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">The
Diary of a Surgeon in the Year 1751-1752</span></i></span></b><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
</span></i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">New
York, D. Appleton-Century, Inc., 1937.</span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
</span></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
<i>The Scots Magazine</i>, Edinburgh, Sands, 1753, p 284 and p 305</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
<i>Old Bailey Online</i>, reference number t17540530-3 accessed May
2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
Burke, Edmund, <i>Dodsley's Annual Register for 1776</i>, London,
Dodsley, 1782, p 128-129</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Hogarth, William, </span><i>Hogarth Illustrated from His Own
Manuscripts, </i>Vol I, London, Boydell & Co, 1812, p 221 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
<i>The Scots Magazine</i>, Edinburgh, James Watson, 1798, p 206</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Burrell, David, <i>Dead Bodies,</i>
http://www.historicalinsights.com/dave/bodyasproperty.html, -
February, 2010</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
<i>The New Annual Register</i>, London, Holdsworth, 1824, p 37</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
Lonsdale, Henry, <i>A Sketch of the Life and Writing of Robert Knox</i>,
London, Macmillan, 1870, p 61</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
<i>The Literary Chronicle</i>, London, Davidson, 1823, p 266</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a><i>
The Universal Magazine</i>, London, John Hinton, 1751, p 90</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
<i>The North American Medical and Surgical Journal</i>,
Philadelphia, J Dobson, 1829, p 178
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
<i>The Medical Gazette</i>, London, Longmans, 1828, p 249</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i> London, Ann
Millard, 1825, p 56-57</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
Quigley, Christine, <i>The Corpse</i>, Jefferson, N.C., McFarland,
1996, p 297</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Internet, <i>The Ship's List</i>,
http://www.theshipslist.com/ships/Arrivals/1827a.htm accessed May
2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
<i>London Quarterly Review</i>, Vol XLII, Boston, Wells and Lilly,
1830, p 4</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
Dallas, Eneas Sweetland, <i>Once a Week</i>, London, Bradbury and
Evans, 1864, p 262</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Lassek, Arthur Marvel, <i>Human Dissection; Its Drama and Struggle</i>,
Springfield, Thomas, 1958, p 130-132</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
T<i>he Lancet</i>, Vol I, London, Wakley, 1829, p777</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
<i>European Magazine and London Review,</i> Vol 2, London, Fielding,
1782, p 248</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
Burrell, David, <i>Dead Bodies,</i>
http://www.historicalinsights.com/dave/bodyasproperty.html, -
February, 2010</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
Richardson, Ruth, <i>Death, Dissection, and the Destitute,</i>
London, CUP, 2000, p 271</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
Marshall, Tim, <i>Murdering to Dissect,</i> Manchester, MUP, 1995, p
21</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Jewitt, Arthur,<i> The Northern star, or, Yorkshire magazine,</i>
Vol I, London, Baldwin, Craddock and Joy, 1817, p 542 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Chitty, Joseph, <i>Reports of cases in the Court of King's bench</i>,
London, Butterworths, 1819, p 591</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
Hob Goblin, <i>The Literary Gazette</i>, London, 1820, p 637</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Leigh's <i>New Picture of London,</i> London, Leigh, 1819,
http://www.londonancestor.com/leighs/pol.htm - May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Colquhoun, Patrick, <i>A treatise on the Police of the Metropolis</i>,
London, Dilly, 1797
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Buchanan, quoted in <i>The Lancet</i>, London, Thomas Wakley, 1859,
p 8</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Carlisle, Anthony, </span><i>Practical Observations on the
Preservation of Health</i>, London, Churchill, London 1838, p 14</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
Wright, W W, <i>The Melodist and Mirthful Olio,</i> Vol II, London,
H Arliss, 1828, p 313-316</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Quoted in <i>Edinburgh Review,</i> Edinburgh, 1821, p 330</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
Humanus, <i>A Letter to John Abernathy on Stealing Dead Bodies</i>,
London, 1823, p 4-7</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
Anon, <i>A Comparative View of the Schools of Physic of Dublin and
Edinburgh</i>, Dublin, Hodges, 1818, p 19-20</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
Blackwood, William, <i>Blackwood's Edinburgh magazine,</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
Vol IV, Edinburgh, William Blackwood, 1818, p 439 </span></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
Anon, <i>A Comparative View of the Schools of Physic of Dublin and
Edinburgh</i>, Dublin, Hodges, 1818, p 22-23
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
<i>The Annual Biography and Obituary for the year 1818,</i> London,
Longmans, 1818, p 393</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
Keen, William, <i>A sketch, early history of practical anatomy,</i>
Philadelphia, J B Lippincott, 1874, p 23
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
Ball, James Moores, <i>The Body Sntachers,</i> United States of
America, Dorset, 1989, p 103</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
<i>The Annual Biography and Obituary for the Year 1834</i>, London,
Longmans, 1834, p 282-296</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
<i>The General Weekly Register</i>, London, 1822, p 45</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
Humble, J G and Hansell, Peter, <i>Westminster Hospital 1716-1974,</i>
London, Pitmans, 1974, p 73
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
<i>The Annual Biography and Obituary for the Year 1834</i>, London,
Longmans, 1834, p 284</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
Lawrence, Susan, <i>Charitable Knowledge</i>, Cambridge, CUP, 1996,
p 241-245</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621&pli=1#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
Richardson, Ruth, <i>Death, Dissection, and the Destitute,</i>
London, CUP, 2000, p 197</span></div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-86319274115743935622015-04-08T18:20:00.002-07:002021-11-26T09:29:45.960-08:007 - From Resurrection to Murder ©<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>The risk of murder</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A major risk of the rising demand amid declining executions, was that
anatomists, in seeking fresh or unusual cadavers, prompted a swing
from harvesting dead bodies, to creating dead bodies, by murder.
After the murders by Burke and Hare in 1828 Edinburgh, this came to
be called 'burking', but evidence of similar murders exists before
then, a case reported in 1815, thirteen years earlier. An inquest was held at
Smithfield, on the body of a man discovered tied up in a hamper; <br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.27cm; margin-right: 0.24cm;">
<br />
Tuesday last week, two despicable looking men came before the wharf was opened in the
morning, with a horse and cart, and inquired if the Leith Smack went
from thence; on being told it did, they went to a public house while
the warehouse was opening, and afterwards came to him with a hamper.
They said the direction was written on a piece of leather, which he
found by the light was 'Mr Wilson, Janitor, College, Edinburgh'.
After they paid the booking and wharfage, he asked their names in
consequence of the unusual hour at which they came, which they said
were Chapman, and then departed. The hamper lay in the warehouse
until last Friday, when the vessel was ready to sail (the Mary Ann of
Leith). It was put on board and the crew, on account of the smell,
turned it round two or three times, when the bottom broke and the
hand of a man came through. They sent to the beadle, to inform the
proper officers, and on opening the hamper the body of a man was
discovered, with his head bent back between his shoulders, and the
body and limbs shockingly mutilated. ... Being asked by a Juryman,
whether he thought the body was taken by any resurrection men for the
purpose of dissection; he said he believed the body was never buried.
After a short consultation the Jury returned a verdict; wilful murder
against some person or persons unknown.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Knowing a name, position, and address at Edinburgh, and the expectation to be
paid, shows it was normal to send murdered bodies to Edinburgh. The
senders were obviously confident from prior shipments, that Edinburgh
would not raise any questions, even if a subject was seen to be
murdered. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
A probable case of burking was reported in a trial at the Quarter
Sessions of October 1812 when a known resurrectionist, Thomas Light,
already charged with stealing three other bodies from the St Giles
poor-house burial ground was arrested. He was stopped in Great James
St, Bedford Square, on his way to an eminent surgeon's, with the dead
body of a man; but it was not proved he had stolen it out of a
churchyard; and though not a shadow of remained of his guilt, he
escaped punishment.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
The case illustrates how easy it was to avoid conviction, even if
carrying a burked body. The scarcity
of subjects increased the temptation for burking, although opinions of the scarcity varied;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
By what the neighbours say of a celebrated anatomist [probably Cooper]
it does not appear adult subjects are quite so scarce. I am told ...
that he has always a good supply, paying at the rate of four guineas
for each adult subject; the bodies are removed to his laboratory,
where he prepares them for dissection, for the trouble of which he
puts a premium of two guineas upon each subject. The hapless body is
then retailed amongst the students, and they again, if they do not
want the whole, subdivide their share, and are paid for as much as
they choose to sell.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
Humanus
inferred burking of children, in drawing attention to a shortage of
adults, but not children. 'If it is not owing to some clandestine
contrivance of the kind, how is it that 'some of the dissecting rooms
are absolutely without an adult subject'. If bodies are stolen from
public burial grounds, adults must be as easily procured as infants,
and if there is a scarcity of the former, there must be some secret
means by which the faculty become possessed so much more readily of
the latter'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Burking did not only happen in
Britain, as is seen in a Russian example quoted in London in 1823;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.61cm;">
<br />
In some foreign countries the bodies of those found dead and not known
in the place are consigned to the surgeons. In Russia, surgeons
wanting a subject for dissection, apply to the police officers, who
never fail to find, the next night, a body of the required sex and
age: how these are so readily procured, the surgeons do not choose to
inquire. There would be danger, in so large a capital as London,
where one end knows scarcely any thing of what is done at the other,
that if this was introduced here, many murders might be committed.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Evidence
of 18C Burking?</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Medical
histories omit reference to 18C burking, but in considering the three
main factors in any murder investigation; means, motive, and
opportunity; it will be realised they were just as present in the
18C. Murder to order was more a probability, than a possibility, with
an invaluable fourth factor; after a few days, the body, the main
evidence, was dissected and gone. Murder was less effort, and less
public than robbing graves. If an anatomist was suspicious of a cause
of death, what was the point in raising questions? The victim was
dead, the anatomist was dealing with a regular supplier of subjects,
and without regular supply of subjects his teaching income would dry
up.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Although the practice must have been common, evidence of 18C burking
is rare. The presence at, or near, a murder scene of a surgeon's
apprentice is a clue, as with a 1734 case in Barbados. Four men
pursued their victim into a building, where he hid under the stairs,
but was murdered. The odd part of the acco<span style="font-style: normal;">unt
is; 'Miller, a surgeon's apprentice, who had been a witness of the
whole transaction, was clandestinely conveyed from the island; but,
as upon enquiry, there still appeared to be sufficient evidence to
convict, the [murderer] thought proper to consult his safety by a
precipitate flight beyond sea'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a></span>
The presence and secret flight of the surgeon's apprentice is
suspicious, suggesting a prior agreement for him to dispose of the
body, but then fleeing to avoid a charge as an accessory to murder. A
documented case of murder for dissection, involving
surgeon-apprentices, took place in Edinburgh in late 1751, with the
trial reported in 1752 by the writer, James Boswell;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.58cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<br />
Helen Torrence, residenter, and Jean Waldie, wife of a stabler's
servant, in Edinburgh, were tried ... for stealing and murdering John
Dallas, a boy of about eight or nine years of age, son of John Dallas
chairman [a sedan-chair porter] in Edinburgh. The indictment bears.
That in November last the pannels ["pannel", Scottish legal
term; "person brought to trial"] frequently promised two or
three surgeon-apprentices to procure them a subject; that they
pretended, that they were to sit up with a dead child, and would, at
coffining, slip something else into the coffin, and secrete the body;
but said afterwards, that they were disappointed in this, the parent
refusing to consent ... that then both or either of the pannels went
to the house of the above mentioned John Dallas chairman, stole away
the poor innocent boy in the absence of its parents, and murdered it;
that Waldie immediately after, went and informed the
surgeon-apprentices, that Torrence and she had now found a subject,
desiring them to carry it instantly away; then on this the
apprentices came to Waldie's house, and found the dead body stretched
on a chest; that having asked what they should give for the subject?
would not two shillings be enough? both pannels declared they had
been at more expenses about it than that sum; that upon their giving
Torrence ten pence to buy a dram, she and Waldie accepted of the two
shillings in part payment that, at the desire of the apprentices,
Torrence carried the body in her apron to one of their rooms, for
which she received five pence more; and that when the pannels were
apprehended, some of the facts were confessed by them ... Among the
witnesses were the boy's parents, and the surgeon-apprentices. Next
day the jurу returned the following verdict; 'Find, That the pannels
are both guilty ... When all defences were over-ruled, Torrence
pleaded her belly. But a jury of matrons being summoned to attend;
and they having, on the 10th after inspection, reported that she was
not with child, both pannels were sentenced to be hanged in the
Grass-market of Edinburgh on the 18th of March. ... They were
executed accordingly.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
One of
the surgeon-apprentices involved was James Flint, then eighteen years
old, and born in 1733; the others were James Arthur and Andrew
Anderson. Also born in 1733, was Alexander Monro II, a fellow
student. When word reached them their subject was missing, with foul
play suspected, the students sewed the body up and dumped it, where
it was found the next day.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
In 1832<span style="font-style: normal;">, Carpe Diem reported the
same case, believing burking had been long practised;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Burking No New Crime - That the
system of 'Burking' is not new, but has been often and long
practised, is a very general belief. The following case ... shows
that it has been practised in Edinburgh about 80 years ago. Few can
doubt that, in the intermediate time between this case and the
detection of Burke and Hare, it has been frequently practised. The
fact of it having been practised and punched, indeed, so long ago as
1752, is a strong additional argument in proof of the necessity of
some legislative enactment for supplying schools of anatomy. There is
something appalling in the cool nature of the defence offered in this
case, that the stealing of a living child only inferred an arbitrary
punishment; but that selling a dead one was no crime at all; the
murdering for the purpose of selling passed over as if they expected
it would not be proved ... The counsel for the prisoners represented:
'That however the actual murder might be relevant to infer the pains
of death, yet the stealing the child could only infer an arbitrary
punishment. And, as to selling the dead body, it was no crime at
all.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.05cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Some thought the pair had killed</span>
more people, it being evident the apprentices had little hesitation
in purchasing the body for a total of three shillings and threepence,
with the body only dumped after the parents began enquiring. Without
that, dissection would have continued, implying murdered subjects
were not rare. A surgeon-apprentice was involved in a similar case in
Edinburgh in 1807;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<br />
The Court proceeded to the trial of Alexander Taylor, apprentice to
James Kerr, surgeon in Paisley, and Matthew Smith, gardener, or
weaver there, accused of the murder of an infant child. The
circumstances of this case are of a very extraordinary nature, and it
is difficult to discover the motives which could have induced Smith
to perpetrate so horrid a crime. The indictment charged Smith with
having taken or received from Agnes Kelly, on the street of Paisley,
a female child, of between two and three months old. That he
immediately carried the child to a garden in the neighbourhood of
Paisley and left it lying on the ground, while he went to the shop of
Mr Kerr, and called on Taylor. That they then went back to the spot,
and found the child alive, when they did, both and each of them, or
one or other of them, murder the said child by squeezing its neck
with their hands or otherwise, and putting its head under water. The
proof was very clear against Smith but it did not appear that Taylor
knew the child was alive when he was called out by Smith, nor that he
had any hand in the actual murder. The Jury found Taylor Not Guilty,
and unanimously found Smith Guilty, Taylor was therefore assoilzied
[freed, or absolved of guilt] and dismissed from the bar after
receiving a very suitable admonition from the Lord Justice Clerk.
Smith was sentenced to be executed at Edinburgh on the 11th of March
next. Taylor is a boy between 16 and 17, and Smith a lad of 26 years
of age. He was much affected and cried bitterly on receiving
sentence.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A further
report of the case, stated the surgeon-apprentice, Taylor, was
present at the actual murder;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
Smith carried away the child, and laid it down in a garden, having
previously used such violence against it, as he thought had deprived
it of life. After this, he calls on the other prisoner Taylor, a
young man of about seventeen years of age, an apprentice to a
surgeon; informs him of having got a child, (whether he added dead or
alive, did not appear) and that he would give him the body for
dissection. ... On coming to the place, the child, to the surprise,
as it appeared, of both, was heard to cry; on which, according to the
account given by Smith in his declaration having asked Taylor the
best way of destroying it, he in consequence of his directions
deprived it of life, by squeezing its throat, and holding its head
under water; while, according to the account given by Taylor, Smith
of himself, and without any directions from him, killed the child. So
it was, however the child was killed, in the presence of Taylor, who,
it appeared, made no objections, or took any means to prevent it, by
giving the alarm, or otherwise; on the contrary, he immediately after
carried away the body to bis master, the surgeon's house ... the
proof, so far as applied to Taylor, amounted to his being present at
the murder, using no means to prevent it, and afterwards being found
in possession of the body, for, as to Smith's account of his having
directed him how to kill the child, that could be no evidence against
Taylor.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The result of the trial was that,
'Smith was convicted; but Taylor was acquitted. </span>It is doubtful
Taylor would have been acquitted, had he been merely a friend of
Smith and present at the murder. Taylor went on to qualify as a
surgeon, but moved from Paisley perhaps because of social stigma, and
died in 181<span style="font-style: normal;">8; 'Dec 1 At his house in
Everton, Liverpool, Alexander Taylor MD, formerly of Paisley, and
late of Manchester'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
Demand in Edinburgh for bodies rose sharply when dissections became a
medical school course requirement. This accentuated a demand and
supply crunch, which encouraged Burke and Hare in their serial
murders perpetrated in Edinburgh in 1827-1828. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Space does not permit full coverage of that case here, but a recent
account of it is in <i>"The Anatomy of Robert Knox"</i> by
Alan Bates.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
These Irish immigrants sold the corpses of their victims to the
Edinburgh Medical College for dissection, with their principal
customer the anatomist Robert Knox. Their trial focussed on the
murders and according to Hare's later testimony, the first body they
sold was that of a dead tenant, an old army pensioner who owed Hare
£4 rent. In November 1827, they stole the body from its coffin and
sold it to the Edinburgh Medical College for £7. Hare claimed it was
their first meeting with Robert Knox the anatomist. As most of the
bodies were long gone, the evidence against the pair was weak. The
Lord Advocate therefore offered Hare immunity from prosecution
provided he confessed and agreed to testify against Burke, with his
testimony leading to Burke's death sentence. He was hanged on 28
January 1829, and publicly dissected at the Edinburgh Medical
College. His skeleton, death mask, and items made from his tanned
skin are displayed at the museum of the RCS of Edinburgh.
Significantly, it was only by chance Burke and Hare were uncovered;
just for one murder and only by Hare's confession were the murders
itemised and Burke convicted. With a little more care, they would not
have been caught. Relevant, is Knox's knowledge of events as an
ex-army surgeon well acquainted with death. Paterson, his servant
stated;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.55cm;">
<br />
I got orders from Dr Knox if they brought any package I was to take
it from them.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.55cm;">
Did they frequently bring subjects that had not been interred? -
Frequently, my Lord, I suppose they had not been interred.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
The same persons? - Yes, my Lord.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
Is it frequent that such subjects are brought to the lecture room of
some anatomist? - Yes, my Lord, it is frequent, both by them and by
other persons.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
Both by them and other people? - Yes, my Lord.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm;">
<br />
That the subjects had not been interred should have been obvious to
Knox. From the references to 'had not been interred' and 'and by
other persons', without distinction, there is inference of other
burked bodies. As was reported, with more instances of burking, after
their trial;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br />
If it be true then, as Burke now states, that in the course of the
last two years, he sold to one individual from thirty to forty
uninterred bodies, the conclusion is inevitable, that he and his
associates must have committed <i>as many murders!</i> Nor are there
wanting other circumstances tending to corroborate this terrific
suspicion, to give it no stronger epithet. It has been remarked that
numbers of the unfortunate females upon the town have lately
disappeared, no one knew how. Natural deaths have become rarer among
that class; and for some time past the interment of one of them has
scarcely been heard of. Abandoned by the relatives and friends whom
they dishonoured, and excluded from all notice or regard by the
virtuous part of society, there was none to care for and none to
inquire what had become of them.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm;">
The actions of Burke and Hare gave rise to a new verb; 'burking', to
murder a person and sell their body to an anatomist for dissection.
Knox was not prosecuted, despite a public uproar. A telling
conversation with Knox, was relayed shortly after the fact by Sir
Robert Christison;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">I observed that the body.....must
have been warm and flexible, and consequently never had been buried.
He made light of this suggestion, and told me that he had ten or
eleven bodies bought the previous winter to his rooms in as recent a
state; and they were got by his providers watching the low lodging
houses.... and, when a death occurred, purchasing the body from the
tenant before anyone could claim it for interment. But Dr Knox could
have scarcely been so little aware of the habits of the low populace
who frequent these dens, as not to know that a death in one of them
brought a constant succession of visitors to look at the corpse, and
keep up a series of orgies till they saw it carried off for burial;
and consequently, that no such arrangement with the lodging house
keeper as he described was practicable.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The reference to the previous winter
implies that purchasing 'burked' bodies was not new to Knox. Much
later, in 1884, Robert Louis Stevenson, wrote a story titled </span><i>"The
Body Snatcher"</i><span style="font-style: normal;"> based on
Knox. Although he describes him only as a certain extramural teacher
of anatomy, called Mr K, Stevenson makes clear his opinion burking
was commonplace. </span>The Edinburgh cases illustrate how far
Scottish courts were prepared to go in order to absolve members of
the medical profession.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>The London Social
Climate</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
London was more than ten times larger than Edinburgh, and crimes of all
natures, including burking, more easily hidden. The early 18C was a
time of great drunkenness in London, of poorly lit streets, and
lawlessness. Gin was introduced from Holland after the accession of
William of Orange in 1689, and soon came to replace beer as a source
of cheap liquor. At one point there were over 7,000 retailers in a
city of 600,000 people, plus thousands more street vendors peddling a
spirit far rougher than today's gin.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
One 1736 estimate even suggested 20,000 outlets within greater
London.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
Many of the poor were used to drinking pints of beer,
quaffing gin as almost as readily as a beer, not a spirit, and it
killed them. Murders were common place, an extreme case was that of
Judith Defor, who strangled her baby and sold its clothes to buy gin.
A parent willing to strangle a baby for the value of its clothes, was
even more tempted to sell the clothes, and then the body to an
anatomist. By 1743, the people of England were drinking over two
gallons of gin annually per head of population, but more than that in
London. An epidemic of extreme drunkenness became so great, it
provoked moral outrage, creating a legislative backlash, with five
major Acts to control consumption passed between 1729 and 1751.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
As an indication of
the open lawlessness within London in 1755, John Fielding wrote that
99 in every 100 highway robberies were carried out with impunity;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
That there are more
highway robberies committed in one year within twenty miles of
London, than in any other part of the kingdom, or perhaps in the
whole kingdom besides, will, I believe, be allowed; and that not one
in a hundred of these robbers are taken in the fact, is no less
astonishing than true; especially when we confider that within this
distance from London there is scarce a mile without a town or
village, and that there are always numbers of people passing and
re-passing on these public roads.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
His statement is worthy of closer examination, as Fielding was famous for
the quality of his policing work. Even allowing for a little
hyperbole, Fielding is saying highway robbers were rarely caught. A
search of Old Bailey records for 1750-1755, shows there were 209
indictments and 116 guilty verdicts for highway robbery, say two to
three per month over the six years. Applying Fielding's statistics of
one in a hundred caught, equates to 200-300 highway robberies per
month. That, for a crime punishable by death, a crime where the
victim survived and could give evidence against the robber. Highway
robbery can be contrasted with burking, where execution as the
punishment was the same, but with no surviving victim to identify the
culprit, with the evidence dissected and gone, and in addition to any
money or valuables carried by the victim, the body and clothes to
sell. Thus, from a purely economic point of view, burking made much
more sense than highway robbery. A similar punishment, but less
chance of prosecution and greater financial benefits. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Drunkenness and prostitution in 1750 London was exacerbated by demobbed soldiers.
After the
end of the 1745 Jacobean Rebellion and the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in
1748, 80,000 newly unemployed soldiers and sailors returned to
Britain. Many were already inured to violent killing and death,
setting off a crime wave and a fresh law-and-order panic. Others
sought employment, William Smellie wrote, 'Soon after the last peace,
in 1748, many gentlemen both of the army and navy attended my
[midwifery] lectures. … We were called at night to a labour …
When I came, the room was crowded with pupils to the number of
twenty-eight.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
Executions were insufficient to provide a supply of subjects to
surgeons, despite the passing of the 1752 Murder Act. On 17 March
1755 eight malefactors were executed at Tyburn pursuant to their
sentence, but the surgeons only managed to obtain four of their
bodies.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a>
The social circumstances were thus conducive to the supply of both
resurrected and murdered subjects to anatomists. As was written in
1829 about Burke and Hare;
'It ought never to be forgotten that the Edinburgh murders commenced
with the sale of a body arising from a natural death: the horrible
wretches were at first appalled with the spectacle of their dreadful
trade; but practice soon familiarized their minds, till at length
they thought no more of the immolation of a fellow-creature than the
strangling of a cat'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
unsavoury social structure of mid 18C London still existed two
generations later in 1818, when an anonymous Gentleman published th<span style="font-style: normal;">e
view; 'there are twenty thousand persons of both sexes who get up in
the morning, without knowing whereabouts they shall sleep at night'.
The same author expressed the view that; 'Of a fine day, not less
than twelve thousand women of the town, of all degrees, except the
lowest, parade the streets in search of whom they may devour'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
For a total London population of 1,200,000 in 1810 and as rough guide
assuming 50% males, and 50</span>% of the females as children, that
implied about one in every twenty-five adult women was a prostitute.
Other estimates were even higher. In 1819, the magistrate Colquhoun<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
estimated that no fewer than 30,000 prostitutes lived in London, that
is, one in every ten adult women. The huge number of ships at Thames
wharves being a factor the high ratio. With even less policing in the
mid 18C, a large and transient population including many lonely
innocents freshly arrived from the countryside, was a tempting ready
target for murder and sale for dissection, by those with criminal
tendencies.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Most burking in 18C
London is concealed amid a polluted stew comprising resurrectionists,
the monetary value of a cadaver, unemployed soldiers, lax policing,
and anatomy school demand. Taken together, a fermenting brew. As with
many crimes, money was the motive for burking. Given the value of a
fresh dead body in the 18C, a pound or two, and being seen as easy
money, drunken victims found lying in a street, or lured into a
darkened alley, in effect already anaesthetised and unresisting, were
far too tempting for less inhibited resurrection men to pass up as
opportunities for cash conversion. Although risky in terms of an
ultimate penalty if caught, a murder was quicker and less effort than
robbing a gave. Sailors from foreign ships were ideal targets, who,
when missing, were just assumed to have jumped ship. There was a
perfect method of disposing of the evidence of burking; remove the
clothes and possessions for resale, and deliver the subject to a
willing anatomist. Risk was short term as, within a couple of days,
the body was unrecognisable. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
With
increasing demand for bodies, there was increasing temptation for
murders-to order. Bodies were generally left by night at the
anatomists in bags, and occasionally resurrectionists did bag drunken
men on the street and deliver them as subjects. William Clift
(1775-1849), the first curator of the Hunterian Museum, was awoken
while still a student with John Hunter, to receive and pay for two
bags. The men had gone but a few steps when Clift perceived the
swindle, and, though in his night-clothes, he ran after them,
collared the principal, and said t<span style="font-style: normal;">o
him, 'You've left me a live man.' 'I know it,' said the man, shaking
off his hold and escaping with the money; 'you can kill him when you
want him.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
This story was repeated in </span>the Morning Chronicle of October
1812;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm;">
<br />
<b>Tantum
for Tantum</b></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="300*"></col>
<col width="300*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="49%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
There
are more ways than one of thriving,</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
In
crowded towns, 't is said; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
Some
villains rob and cheat the living, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
And
others steal the dead.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
Whoe'er
in London town has been, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
Has
heard of resurrection-men, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
Fellows
who raise dead bodies from their lodgment, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
Anticipation
of the day of judgment! </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
One
of this sacrilegious pack, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
Savage
in mind as any Turk, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
Before
he sallied to his work, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
With
mattock shovel and a sack, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
Stept
into a gin shop, the sign of the Whale, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
To
harden his bowels with hollands and ale.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
Here,
as it happ'd a hardy tar, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
Had
been so often to the bar, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
That
Jack at last no more could pour in, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
But
on a bench lay fast and snoring: </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
The
watchful resurrectionist </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
Straight
the landlady address'd,</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
And
bargain'd with her for a crown, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
To
rid her of the drunken loon. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
The
paction made, the money paid, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
The
thing was done as soon as said: </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
The
exhumist, half rogue, half wag, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm;">
Depos'd
his bargain in his bag;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-left: 0.24cm;">
And
just like fishmonger with sturgeon,<br />
Hied
off with him to H____ the surgeon. [i..e Hunter]</div>
.<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
The
signal-tap Albinus hears,</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
With
joy elate he trips down stairs, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
Receives
the sackful in a trice,</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
And
pays the customary price; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
Then
lays the bag upon bis shambles, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
And
back to bed Albinus ambles. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
But
lo! in the morning, how great his surprise, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
To
see the sack tumbling at terrible size; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
To
hear honest Bowline, a, d____g his peepers, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
And
flound'ring about as bit by the creepers,</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
Vociferously
b_____g his barbarous lot, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
By
his mess to be sew'd up alive in his cot,</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
The
Doctor, though stagger'd, unloosen'd the sack, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
And
restor'd to the light the still more stagger'd Jack;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
Muttering,
“Last night had I stuck my knife in you, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
I
should not now wail for the loss of a guinea.” </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
Next
day, the sly chap who had sold him the tar, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
Pass'd
by the sore-nettled anatomist's door; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
Who,
calling him back, complain'd of the trick </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
He
had serv'd him, by bringing “a man that was quick.”</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
“It
is so much the better,” returns Resurrection;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
“To
so much convenience why start you objection?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.11cm;">
If
I've had your guinea, Sir, you have had tantum;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-left: 0.11cm;">
And
you've only to slaughter the man when you want him.”<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
On top of this, in 1750 the London surgical fraternity was in disarray,
the parting between the barbers and surgeons had taken place in 1745
and, as neither wished to take responsibility for the considerable
library they had accumulated, it was sold in 1751 for only £13.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
It took several years to establish the Corporation of Surgeons, which
initially had no anatomy theatre. A new theatre was built in 1753 and
used by a Professor of Anatomy, Henry Watson (1702-1793), who was
given an annual salary of £120 and required to teach anatomy three
times a week throughout the year. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
Missing
children, assumed to have run away from home, were instead often
kidnapped and murdered. Resurrectionists were sometimes brazen in
their pursuit of children, as in a 1831 London
case, clearly burking and reported in Bell's Weekly Messenger, the
defendant being Bridget Calkin (aka Bridget Culkin).<span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
</span>The defendant was found not guilty, but the case shows even
where there was overwhelming evidence, juries were reluctant to
convict and send a defendant to execution, if presented with a
technicality whereby they could adopt a verdict of not guilty. The
body of Margaret Duffy, aged six years, was found in a privy in
London. William Newton said in evidence;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Saturday evening
last, about eight or nine o'clock, my mother sent me on an errand for
some butter, and on my return I met Mary Cain, who appeared very much
frightened, and said she had been to the privy, and trod upon
something there which she thought was the leg of a child. She had a
candle in her hand at the time, and gave it to me, and then went to
fetch some of the neighbours. During the absence of Mary Cain, I
endeavoured to push hack the privy door, and in attempting to do so,
a man dashed out of the privy, gave me a violent push, and at the
same time blew out the candle, and ran towards the Black Boy
public-house: immediately as the man had left the privy, a woman also
came out and ran in the direction of Golden-lane; the man had on a
long cloth coat, a black hat with some crape on it, and he was a tall
lusty man; I could plainly see him as he was running, with his back
towards me.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A
witness, a little girl named Kenny, stated that between six and seven
o'clock on Saturday evening, she saw Calkin with the child, who was
was crying, and Calkin promised to give her a penny if she would not
cry, and said that they should soon go home. Eliza Renny said she saw
Calkin dragging the deceased by her door towards the privy. The child
was crying at the time, and had neither shoes nor stockings on.
Martin Bailey saw Calkin, at about 8 o'clock on Saturday evening,
near the privy, where the body of the deceased was found. She
appeared to have come out of it, and walked off in a hurried manner.
Renny said Calkin was in the habit of keeping bad company, some men
she associated with were believed to be body-snatchers.<br />
<br />
Mr John
Leeson, a surgeon in Chiswell Street, stated that on examining the
body, he found the extremities quite cold, but some warmth remained
in the body. There was no lividity or swelling of the face; no
contusion or swelling of the tongue: or any other appearance, but
those indicating that she had died of suffocation or strangulation.
The deceased was a fine healthy child. There was a mark on the neck,
as also a discolouration of the skin, which led him to believe that
some violence had been applied to that part. The teeth were also
clenched; and from these circumstances he imagined that the child had
met its death by foul means, probably by suffocation, by stopping the
mouth, and placing a thumb and finger behind the neck. There was a
bruise on the right arm, apparently by the pressure of the thumb,
done while alive. Another surgeon, Mr W Brooks, stated ... his
opinion the child had died from suffocation by closing of the mouth.
But from the Old Bailey evidence it is seen Calkin was saved by a
legal technicality.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The indictment charged that the
prisoner in and upon one Margaret Duffy 'did make an assault, and
that the said Bridget Culkin, with both her hands about the neck of
the said Margaret Duffy, the said neck and throat of the said
Margaret Duffy then and there feloniously, wilfully, and of her
malice aforethought, did grasp, squeeze, and press, and by the
grasping, squeezing, and pressing aforesaid', did suffocate and
strangle the deceased. It appeared that Margaret Duffy, a child of
about six years of age, had been suffocated for the purpose as was
supposed of being dissected. The surgeon said that her death had been
caused by the pressure of a hand on the back of the neck, another
hand being held over the mouth. There was evidence tending to shew
that a man and woman had committed the offence; and there was much
circumstantial evidence tending to shew the guilt of the prisoner.</span><i>
</i>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Clarkson,
for the prisoner, objected that the mode of the death was improperly
stated in the indictment, as it was not stated the hand over the
mouth was the cause of death. From their comments, Justices Park and
Parke did not accept this argument.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Mr Justice Park - It is the same kind of death.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
Mr Justice J Parke - If the death was proved to be by suffocation at
all it would be sufficient.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
Clarkson - The indictment states the pressure to have been about the
neck. In stating a wound, it is laid down by Lord Hale that about the
breast, circiter pectus, would not be sufficient.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
Mr Justice J Parke - About the breast might mean only near the
breast, but about the neck means round it.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
Mr Justice J Parke in summing up - If you are satisfied that this
child came by her death by suffocation or strangulation, it is not
necessary that the prisoner should have done it with her own hands;
for if it was done by any other person in her presence, she being
privy to it, and so near as to be able to assist, she may be properly
convicted on this indictment.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Despite
the strong evidence, Calkin was acquitted, as the jury seized on the
technicality about the covering of the victim's mouth, as an excuse
not to convict. However, the case shows the casual and brazen
readiness of body-snatchers to commit murder. Where there were no
passing witnesses, the risk of being caught was minimal, especially
against children without strength to resist. It appears the
neighbours were dissatisfied with the not guilty verdict and tried to
take the law into their own hands, as the index to Bell's Weekly
Messenger recorded under police examinatio<span style="font-style: normal;">ns;
'Selina Turner and Sarah Newby, for attempting to burke Bridget
Calkin, a burkite'. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1831
John Bishop and Thomas Williams were tried and executed for burking,
with the full case well documented elsewhere.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a>
The two men lived at Nova Scotia Gardens in Spitalfields. It was
proved during the trial they had commenced murdering victims to meet
the demand for even fresher corpses. Their method was to dose their
victims with alcohol and opium before dangling them upside down in a
garden well to drown. At their trial, it was estimated Bishop and
Williams had resurrected at least 500 bodies in 1831 alone and had
supplied many bodies to the anatomy school associated with Sir Astley
Cooper. Bishop and Williams were sentenced to death, duly hanged at
Newgate, and their bodies sent to for dissection.<br />
<br />
The last case of
burking before British courts is less well reported. It occurred when
Elizabeth Ross, alias Cook, was sentenced to be executed at Newgate
for burking Catherine Welch, an old lady aged 84, who earned her
living by selling tapes, laces, & etc. about the streets.
Although Ross was found guilty, there was a sad element in her case,
in that the key evidence against her at her trial on 5 January 1832
was from her twelve year old son, Edward. He later had his name
changed, but had to live with the facts of the case and her fate for
the rest of his life. The evidence from the trial is illuminating, as
Ross knew to go take the body in a sack to one of the Hospitals,
indicating that was common practice. She was caught because Catherine
Welch's granddaughter tried to find out what had happened to
Catherine, but convicted because Ross's son Edward gave evidence.
Without that, Ross would have been freed.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Sea
Burking</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">To
provide a benchmark comparison, any estimate of murders for
dissection can be compared with the 2000 deaths per year, claimed due
to 'sea-burking', i.e. deliberately sending unsafe ships to sea by
way of insurance fraud. The subject does illustrate the 18C and 19C
preparedness to initiate murders for monetary reward. The claim was
made </span>in a pamphlet <i>"Sea-Burking"</i> written in
1833 by Samuel Seaworthy, who was later identified as James
Ballingall,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a>
a respectable man, seaman, shipowner, and ship surveyor. He reported
on the circumstances leading to 2000 lives being annually lost at sea
through an organised system of robbery and murder. He questioned the
sea worthiness of vessels such as the <i>"Amphitrite"</i>,
a convict ship bound for Australia, wrecked on the coast of France
with all 108 convict women aboard drowned.<br />
<br />
The ship's master, Captain
Hunter refused help from the shore and Seaworthy believed it was an
insurance scam, with the ship deliberately sent to sea in an
unseaworthy condition. The National Standard reviewed his publication
and reported the scams extended also to shipbuilders, who paid a
shipowner to have his vessel wrecked, so that they could get an order
to build a replacement. Other vessels mentioned were the <i>"Shannon"</i>,
<i>"Erin"</i>, and the <i>"Rothsay Castle"</i>
steamer. The National Standard concluded its commen<span style="font-style: normal;">ts
with; 'We wonder that the author does not propose to have the
underwriters at Lloyd's hanged all in a row.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a>
</span>Tait also wrote;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
[Ballingall] has made out a clear case, that those who profit by such
nefarious doings are four classes of persons; underwriters,
merchants, shipowners, and the British Government. The latter
personage seems never to be out of the way wherever 'revenue' may
accrue, whether morally or immorally. The losers in the transaction
are sailors, passengers, and the community at large ... It is for the
interest of the above-named parties that ships should occasionally be
lost; because the underwriter would not otherwise be able to drive a
profitable trade; and the merchants, so long as they were paid for
their goods, would willingly see the whole raw material of England
wrought up and thrown into the sea. The shipowners care for nothing
but the wearing out of ships, in order that they may build new ones;
and the government dearly loves its revenue.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The
ultimate victims being not only the unfortunate crew and passengers
lost at sea, but also the general public, who effectively paid the
extra cost by increased insurance premiums in the price of goods and
in passage tickets. The insurers not minding, as the publicity of
losses of life, encouraged more people to insure their lives and
goods, so generating much more business for all insurance companies.
The content of <i>"Sea Burking"</i> has the ring of truth,
and the practice did parallel 'medical' burking. In both instances,
bad laws and the smell of money, begat multiple murders. Sea
burking continued as a concern for another forty years, until Samuel
Plimsoll convinced parliament in 1875, to pass a law making the
Plimsoll Line on ships, a mandatory safety feature.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>The United States
Experience</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
America
was not immune to body snatching and burking. In 1788 in New York, it
was reported that a young boy peered into the dissection room at New
York Hospital in post-colonial Manhattan, only to see medical student
John Hicks pick up a corpse's arm and wave it at him. Hicks then
shoute<span style="font-style: normal;">d, 'This is your mother's
hand. I just dug it up. Watch it or I'll smack you with it!'</span>
The frightened boy ran into the April night, believing every word the
student had said, because his mother had died a few days before. The
boy's father, upon hearing the story, gathered some friends and
headed toward the local cemetery and his wife's burial plot. They
found the grave open and empty.<br />
<br />
Word soon spread through lower
Manhattan and hundreds approached the hospital. When the mob reached
the Hospital they circled the building and blocked the exits. The
torch carrying crowd cried to lynch the doctors inside and might
have, except that most escaped out the rear windows. Only Dr Wright
Post and three students remained inside to protect anatomical
specimens. But they couldn't defy the rioters and everything from
rare specimens to surgical instruments was destroyed. The doctor and
his students were taken to the city jail by the sheriff in order to
protect them. The mob's anger continued to build through the night.
They were looking for vengeance and doctors as they moved from street
to street. The crowd searched for John Hicks at the home of a
prominent physician and would have found him had they looked in the
attic.<br />
<br />
In the morning Governor Clinton called out the militia and
many doctors scurried to leave town. But the mob increased in size as
the day progressed and they eventually headed towards Columbia
College, destroying yet more specimens and medical tools. The future
Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton tried valiantly to quiet
them while future Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Jay was
knocked unconscious by a thrown rock.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a>
Thomas Jefferson reported the ensuing events in diplomatic
correspondence to William Carmichael;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
A riot has taken place in New York, which I will state to you from an
eye witness. It has long been a practice with the surgeons of that
city to steal from the grave bodies recently buried. A citizen had
lost his wife. He went the first or second evening after her burial
to pay a visit to her grave. He found that it had been disturbed. and
suspected from what quarter. He found means to be admitted to the
anatomical lecture of that day, and on his entering the room, saw the
body of his wife, naked and under dissection. He raised the people
immediately. The body, in the mean time, was secreted. They entered
into and searched the houses of the physicians whom they most
suspected, but found nothing. One of them, however, more guilty and
more timid than the rest, took asylum in the prison. The mob
considered this an acknowledgement of guilt. They attacked the
prison. The Governor ordered the militia to protect the culprits and
suppress the mob. The militia, thinking the mob had just provocation,
refused to turn out. Hereupon, the people of more reflection,
thinking it more dangerous that even a guilty person should be
punished without the form of law, than that he should escape, armed
themselves and went to protect the physician. They were received by
the mob with a volley of stones, which wounded several of them. They
hereupon fired on the mob, and killed four. By this time they
received a reinforcement of other citizens of the militia horse, the
appearance of which, in the critical moment, dispersed the mob.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
New York's legislature passed a law authorizing the dissection of the
bodies of persons executed for burglary, arson, and murder, but body
snatchers continued escorting their nights' work from Long Island to
Manhattan via ferry, purchasing tickets for 'drunken friends', who
more than repaid their kindness at $100 a body. </div>
<br />
The
body snatching problem was so great that wealthy families would pay a
shotgun-wielding watchman to stand guard
over a new burial for two weeks. Events in New York of 1829 were
recalled by George Halsey, which referred to the burking excitement
occasioned by alleged mysterious disappearances, and intensified by
the horror of the Burke and Hare murders;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
I recollect one of
the stories then prevalent, and universally believed, that missing
children had been found in the haunts of the burkers in our city,
fastened in a sitting position in a chair, with their feet immersed
in warm water, an important artery cut, and slowly bleeding to death.
All that winter the community was in a state bordering on panic in
the evening ladies and children never left their homes alone unless
accompanied by one or more able-bodied male attendants, though but
going a block or less away to church or to a neighbor's, and their
protectors were always provided with stout bludgeons or other means
of defence. ... I recollect that the colored population were even
more excited, none of them then being so bold as to leave home after
dusk. The other day I asked a venerable old Ethiopian, whom I have
known from boyhood, when his aunt was a domestic in my parents' house
in Liberty Street, whether he recollected the 'burking' affair; he
answered, almost to the verge, apparently, of trembling, that he did
fully remember, and that the reminiscence was painful.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
While the method of
killing children may sound preposterous, there is a fear it is based
upon truth, as a means of procuring undamaged bodies empty of blood,
and so suitable for injecting wax. A similar killing method is
discussed later in the context of Hogarth's Stages of Cruelty.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
One
might expect late 19C anatomists to be more ethical than in earlier
years, so burking would not occur. Not so! There is proof of late 19C
medical school complicity, involving multiple examples of burked
victims. In America, on
28 January 1848 at Cincinnati, a resurrectionist in the act of
removing a body from the grave for the purpose of his unholy traffic,
was shot dead and found next morning lying by the body he had
attempted to steal.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
On 31 May 1878, the body of John Scott
Harrison, son of President William Henry Harrison, was stolen and
later found hanging on a hook in the cellar of the Ohio Medical
College in Cincinnati. The
New York Times reported
on 10 December 1886, that Emily Brown, an old white woman, was
brutally murdered and her body carried in a wheelbarrow to the
Maryland University where it was sold for $15. The crime caused a
tremendous sensation and coloured people were scared, so that for
weeks many of them would not venture out after dark. John Thomas
Ross, Anderson Perry, the janitor of the university, and Albert
Hawkins, all coloured, were arrested. Ross was convicted, but the
others were not.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The 'efforts made to upset the verdict' were
made by the medical faculty of Maryland University to try and save
their supplier. Presumably, Perry the janitor was their 19C cut-out
man, so the faculty could say they knew nothing of burking, as
claimed by Dr Cilley. As a result evidence of burking is usually well
hidden, but it is probable most 18C and 19C medical schools in
America, Britain and Ireland were familiar with the story of the
Three Wise Monkeys and had their staff quickly learn it "Speak no evil, See no evil,
and Hear no evil".'</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Certainly,
William Hunter warned his students to be careful not to speak of what
occurred in the dissection rooms. As already discussed, the
established Church also adopted a "Three Wise Monkeys"
stance to the body-snatching from graves; instead of promoting and
supporting, a means of legal access to subjects. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Evidence of burking in this case
is clearly indicated by the vacuous answers to questions directed
towards Dr Cilley of the Medical College. It is unlikely the
prosecutor was at all convinced by his replies. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br />
Q - Have they ever brought bodies
to the college before? - I decline to answer that question. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
Q - Are the heads of corpses
brought there usually bruised? - No, but they are sometimes caused by
rough handling; but my goodness! Why, I never no more thought of
anyone committing murder to sell the bodies of their victims than
anything in the world, and it makes me shudder now to think of it....
I will say that it is possible that persons are murdered and brought
to the college and sold to us. We never ask any questions, and our
suspicions are never aroused by wounds as they may be caused by the
handling. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
Q
- Then all these people who so mysteriously disappear may, many of
them, land in medical colleges? - It is possible.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
In 1878 it was reported during a trial in Cleveland Ohio, that the tools
with which a corpse was raised from a grave, were obtained from the
Homeopathic Medical College in Cleveland and returned there when the
job was done, and that the janitor was waiting to take the body when
it arrived at the College.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a>
As late as the 1890's there was the case of the American serial
killer H H Holmes (aka Herman Webster Mudgett, 1860-1896) a graduate
from the University of Michigan Medical School in 1884, who supplied
dozens if not over one hundred burked bodies, body parts, and
articulated skeletons to Chicago medical schools in the 1890's.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
The schools raised no queries over his supply of murdered bodies,
which must have appeared suspicious. Holmes was only caught by a
detective investigating an insurance fraud, involving a policy on one
of his murder victims.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<b>The 1828 Anatomy
Committee</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1823 Sir Robert Peel sought confidential suggestions on the preferred
sources of subjects from nine anatomists; Cooper, Stanley, Shaw,
Carlisle, Mayo, Carpue, Green, Guthrie, and Brookes. Their
opinions varied, with most seeming to favour official connivance via
existing supply routes, and covert body-snatching continued for
several more years. Of the nine, only Carlisle and Green
favoured legislation.<br />
<br />
Carlisle expressed fundamental objections to
the use of the poor; <span style="font-style: normal;">'The forlorn
wretches driven within [hospital] walls [might] attempt to escape
their doom by crawling away in the agonies of death, or to beseech a
rescue from pending horror through the interference of relatives. He
felt the same argument applied to those dying in workhouses'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>
Only Carlisle and one other urged better economy in the use of
corpses. Carlisle was correct in this view as, one hundred years
later, the average number of subjects supplied in the whole of Great
Britain in the three academic years 1936-37 to 1938-39 was 759,
compared to around 4000 per year in the early 19C.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In Britain, the increasing public ire over body snatching caused the
British parliament in April 1828 to set up a Select Committee on
Anatomy chaired by Henry Warburton, to investigate the subject and
its associated implications.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
In the year 1827, the number of bodies legally given over for
dissection was only eleven, and the number of persons executed in
that year was fifty-nine besides, making in all seventy. The number
of criminals, therefore, was utterly inadequate to satisfy the
demand.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The</span>
legal debate over body-snatching gained much impetus in early 1828
when a jury found John Davies and William Blundell guilty of
procuring the body of Jane Fairclough (at a cost of four guineas), it
not being a body of an executed criminal. The charges they faced
including;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
11th Count - that the said defendants did unlawfully procure, and
receive, and take into their possession, the dead body of Jane
Fairclough, ... and that at the time they so received it, they knew
the said body to have been unlawfully disinterred.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
12th Count - that the said defendants did unlawfully procure, and
take into their possession the body of Jane Fairclough, and brought
it into the town of Warrington with the intent to dissect the same,
the said body ... knowing the said body to have been disinterred.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Baron
Hullock stated; 'The only bodies legally liable to dissection in this
country, were those of persons executed for murder. However necessary
it might be, for the purposes of humanity and science, that these
things should be done, yet as long as the law remained as it was at
present, the disinterment of bodies for dissection was an offence
liable to punishment'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
The Court fined Davis £20 and Blundell fined £5. Although actual
sentencing took place on 17 May 1828, two weeks after hearings of the
Anatomy Committee, the jury verdict caused consternation in the
medical profession. After the Hullock decision, Astley Cooper voiced
a prior belief surgeons were not exposed to any danger, therefore he
had never concealed the dissections conducted within his own house.
However, he was now so concerned, that in future he would be afraid
to have a body in his possession. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The
resurrectionist Ben Crouch, as witness AB, gave evidence to the
Committee, where he stated the most bodies he had ever obtained in a
short time was twenty-three in four nights, when the price was four
or five guineas each. He said competing gangs would inform against
sextons helping other gangs, and open and destroy graves, to draw
attention to the work of other gangs and make it hard for them to
compete. His father had been a carpenter at Guy's Hospital and Sir
Richard Owen recorded it was Astley Cooper who introduced Crouch to
the resurrection trade.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
During his evidence, Cooper described resurrection men in derogatory
terms, as 'the lowest dregs of degradation'. One has an impression of
Cooper, on the one hand working with Crouch to obtain subjects, but
on the other hand being careful to distance himself and to seek
public sympathy in describing Crouch as evil. Whereas Crouch was well
known as the Corpse King, Cooper was often called King of the
Resurrectionists.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a></span></div>
<i>
</i><span style="font-style: normal;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Crouch was even hired to give
students lessons on making exhumations.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
Much reported was an arrogant statement by Astley Cooper to the
Committee;</span>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<br />
Q Does the state of the law actually prevent the teachers of anatomy
from obtaining the body of any person which ... they may be
particularly desirous of procuring?
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">A The law does not prevent our
obtaining the body of an individual if we think proper; for there is
no person let his situation in life be what it may, whom, if I were
disposed to dissect, I could not obtain. If you are willing to pay a
price sufficiently high, you can always obtain the body of any
individual! The law only enhances the price, and does not prevent the
exhumation: nobody is secured by the law, it only adds to the price
of the subject.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
In contrast to the comments of Cooper, Carlisle expressed genuine
concern at the nature and impact of the open and detailed reporting
of evidence on the feelings of the general public;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Mr Guthrie presented Sir Anthony and Mr White with a pamphlet each
“for their amusement on Sunday”. Sir Anthony observed, “I shall
read it with a great deal of pleasure; but I decidedly object to
these things being so much brought before the public; I object to the
publication of the evidence before the House of Commons; I do not
approve of making the public mind, if I may so term it, familiar with
such things; they should be strictly private. There is a
superstitious reverence for the dead among the public generally,
which I would by no means do away with; it would be destroying one of
their finest feelings; without it, what are they? I would by no means
allow the poor people who die in Hospitals to be given up for
dissection, and while I am surgeon to this Hospital, it shall never
have my consent.” “Had we not better speak of this in some other
place,” said Mr White, in an undertone, “No! Why?” replied Sir
Anthony, “I wish them (the patients) to know it,” and there the
conversation dropped.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
Committee recognised the Hullock decision placed trainee surgeons in
an impossible situation. If they dissected a body, other than of an
executed murderer, they broke the law, but to obtain a certificate to
practice as a surgeon they needed to attend a course of dissection of
bodies. In evidence to the Committee Sir Henry Halford said, 'When there is a difficulty in
obtaining bodies, and their value is so great, you absolutely throw a
temptation in the way of these men to commit murder for the purpose
of selling the bodies of their victims'.<br />
<br />
His prophetic opinion was
given in May 1828 and a few months afterwards the public were
appalled by the discovery of the anatomical murders at Edinburgh. So
how widespread was burking? It was earlier estimated that between
1745 and 1832, perhaps 200,000 bodies were supplied to anatomists by
resurrectionists across Britain and Ireland. If
only one in every fifty was burked, instead of resurrected, it
equates to 4,000 murders. Even one murder a week in London between
1745 and 1832, amounts to around 4,000 murders. </div>
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Given
the financial incentive from sale of a body, with no questions asked,
one murder for every one hundred grave robberies seems a modest
estimate. One could not feel surprised if murders were one in ten.
Ten percent of total subjects dissected is around 20,000 murders over
the period, approaching 200 per year, but only about five murders a
week during the dissection 'season'. </span>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
As reported by <i>The
Quarterly Review</i>, in commenting upon the possibility of murder;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
But although these
are the only instances that have been detected, there can be little
doubt that similar deeds had been done before, and are perpetrated
still. An eminent surgeon tells us, that when he was young in
practice, and had leisure to keep up his anatomical knowledge by
dissection, he had a dissecting room in his own house and that bodies
were sometimes brought to him under very mysterious circumstances.
One evening a body was brought into his dissecting room; it was that
of a young woman who appeared to have died in perfect health, and our
friend could not help saying to himself, “She looks as if she had
never been buried.” The man who brought her said that he could
procure him bodies of any kind, male or female, of any age, fat, or
thin, to order. The suspicion of murder never crossed his mind until
he read the trials of Burke and Hare. This is rather an old story;
but another surgeon, of high anatomical reputation [perhaps
Carlisle?], with whom we conversed on these matters very lately,
assures us that he has had no doubt, during several years past, as to
the frequent perpetration of murder, for resurrection-men purposes in
this city. He informs us, that students are of late much in the habit
of purchasing for private dissection, not a whole body at a time -
but a limb, or a part of a limb - so that it is obvious a human
butcher may realise abundant wages of blood without exhibiting to his
customers the slightest means of discovering under what circumstances
the machine, of which a fragment only is before each of them, ceased
to move. At the time when this article meets the public eye the price
of bodies in the London dissecting rooms is from thirteen to sixteen
guineas!<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
By 1828
the number of students in London had reduced from 1000 to 800, due to
British students attending foreign schools where subjects were less
expensive, there being 200 British students in Paris out of a total
Paris student population of 1500. This itself created legal
complications as the RCS required a student to undertake a course at
a recognised school within the United Kingdom.<br />
<br />
But evidence given to
the Committee was that students trained in Paris or Dublin were
better trained on account of there being cheaper bodies and more
practise at dissection. A witness, David Barry, said a student should
dissect eight subjects before qualifying. Granville Sharp Pattison
stated twelve subjects were necessary over a minimum course of three
years. He had worked at Glasgow University and said at that time
teachers such as Dr Jeffray and Dr Allen Burns each had what was
called his private party, of eight students who went out and exhumed
bodies. J Webster stated that in Germany and Italy, students usually
dissected eight, ten, or a dozen bodies and Southwood Smith said nine
or ten subjects should be dissected during a course. B C Brodie, said
the recommended number was five bodies per student and another
surgeon, William Lawrence, stated four to six bodies were necessary.
These estimates were higher than suggested by Astley Cooper, the
first to give evidence.<br />
<br />
As it progressed, witnesses were more
forthcoming with answers, nominating numbers of bodies needed for
study at levels closer to the situation overseas. In a desire to
minimise public attention, the Committee reported only 500 of the 800
students in a course would actually dissect, and each student
required three bodies, two for learning the structure of the parts of
the body, and one for the mode of operating, a total of 1500
annually.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a>
Public concern continued;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
We have severe laws against the raising of human bodies and not only
the actors, but the promoters are punished occasionally with vigour,
yet [there are] organized resurrection men in every parish; and every
church yard is a scene of the most disgraceful outrage and corpses
packed in casks are imported like beef and pork and human remains
sent by coaches in hampers among geese and turkeys and other
Christmas fare. These scenes, occurring every day, and enlarged upon
in the public prints, have so shocked the weak and alarmed the timid
that their feelings and prejudices are roused into a state of the
most morbid activity. Many worthy persons in England are, at this
moment, more anxious for the future fate of their bodies, than of
their souls. Numbers of people are known actually to keep their
[deceased] friends, till they are reduced to a state of the most
disgusting putridity and will not part with them, till they think
them no longer fit for anatomical purposes.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
With the execution of Bishop and Williams, burking seemed to come to an end
but, as was reported;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
There is too much reason to believe that it was carried on to a very
great extent in London Many persons had been missed, and were never
afterwards heard of; it was naturally supposed they had been murdered
and their bodies sold for dissection. ... The low ruffians who acted
as 'resurrectionists' were to a certain extent, necessary evils, but
they were the lowest of the low, and would stop at nothing to obtain
their ends. ... But it is awful to contemplate the amount of crime of
a worse kind which must have been committed. Wretches who held human
life as a mere marketable commodity must, to have lived, committed
many murders.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The passing of the
1832 Anatomy Act expanded the legal supply of medical cadavers, via
the requisition for dissection of the bodies of individuals dying in
workhouses or hospitals, too poor to pay for their own funerals.
Although dissection lost its criminal association with execution for
murder, it became regarded as the result of shameful death in
poverty. Anatomists found it harder to collect curiosities for their
collections, as they could no longer ask a resurrectionist to
circumvent family mourners to obtain an anatomical curiosity. <i>The
Lancet</i> stating;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Burke and Hare ... are the real authors of the measure, and that which
would never have been sanctioned by the deliberate wisdom of
parliament, is about to be extorted from its fears ... It would have
been well if this fear had been manifested and acted upon before
sixteen human beings had fallen victims to the supineness of the
Government and the Legislature. It required no extraordinary
sagacity, to foresee that the worst consequences must inevitably
result from the system of traffic between resurrectionists and
anatomists, which the executive government has so long suffered to
exist. Government is already in a great degree, responsible for the
crime which it has fostered by its negligence, and even encouraged by
a system of forbearance.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Despite the Anatomy
Act, subjects were still in short supply, as in reported in 1842;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.26cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
[W]e are ourselves
receiving, from all parts of the country, the strongest attestations
of their truth. On this side, pupils are complaining to us of the
dearness of subjects, and their scarcity at any price; on that we
have lecturers murmuring at their unfair distribution - every species
of influence, they say being exercised by rival claimants to obtain a
preference. Here, anatomical courses are interrupted, according to
our accounts, because there are no bodies; there, Neophytes are
emigrating to France for those advantages of dissection they cannot
find at home.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.26cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Although most references to the term 'baby farming' arose in the 19C, it is
worth considering the genesis of the practice. The sight of dead
babies discarded in public disappeared during the 1746-1832 heyday of
the resurrectionists as any bodies of children were sold for
dissection.<span style="font-style: normal;"> But
the hidden effects of burking and resurrections reappeared after the
passing of the Anatomy Act;</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.32cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">... from the middle of the
nineteenth century on, British society became more and more aware of
the crime of infanticide, committed by the mother-figure, either in
the form of the natural mother or that of a surrogate. The high rates
of infant mortality led to investigations into infant deaths by
“uncommon” means, committed both by the mother herself and by
those engaged in the occupation of baby farming. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">… Rumours which
had circulated for some time in the press as well as in learned
journals about this casual “massacring of the innocent” − </span><i>The
Lancet</i><span style="font-style: normal;">, for instance, famously
claimed that 76 children under the age of one had been murdered in
England and Wales in the years 1838-1840 and that this constituted
34% of all murders for the period … By the 1860s the problem was
believed to have reached crisis proportions and figured as one of the
great plagues of society, ... According to some experts, it was
impossible to escape from the sight of dead infants’ corpses,
especially in the capital, for they were to be found everywhere from
interiors to exteriors, from bedrooms to train compartments. <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Limited resurrections continued, supplemented by deaths from baby farming.
However, the Anatomy Act represented the end of the large, well
organised, class of London criminal who provided limitless supplies
of resurrected and/or murdered subjects. But elsewhere the old
conditions continued. An excellent impression of the underhand
actions of London anatomists between 1745-1832, can be gained from
the reports of English bone collectors, and newspaper accounts of
dissections taking place in Hobart, Tasmania in 1869.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a>
Even in London, for decades after 1832, passers-by viewed the sad
evidence of discarded babies, no longer convertible to cash. So
paralleling the circumstances of 100 years earlier, which had led to
Captain Coram opening the Foundling Hospital in 1739, after horror at
seeing the bodies of babies dumped in drains and rivers. </div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Burke, Edmund, <span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>The Annual
Register, </i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">London,
Baldwin, Craddock and Joy, 1816, p 2</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>The Criminal recorder,</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
Vol II, Nottongham, R Dowson, 1815, p 385-386</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Humanus, <i>A Letter to John Abernathy on Stealing Dead Bodies</i>,
London, 1823, p 7-15</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
<i>The Literary Chronicle</i>, London, Davidson, 1823, p 268</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Poyer, John, <i>The History of Barbados,</i> London, Mawman, 1808, p
283</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Boswell, James, <i>The Scots Magazine</i>, Vol XIV, Edinburgh,
Sands, Murray, and Cochran, 1752, p 98-99</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Fido, Martin, <i>Bodysnatchers</i>, London, Weidenfield and
Nicholson, 1988, p 21-28</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Carpe Diem, <i>The Day, a Journal of Literature, Fine Arts, Fashions
etc.</i>, Glasgow, R & J Finlay, 1832, p 40</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
<i>The Scots Magazine and Edinburgh Literary Miscellany</i>,
Edinburgh, Archibald Constable, 1807, p 154-155</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
Macnee, John, <i>Trial of William Burke and Helen M'Dougal,
</i>Edinburgh, Robert Buchanan, 1829, p 192-193</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
<i>The Edinburgh magazine and literary miscellany</i>, Vol III,
Edinburgh, Archibald Constable, 1818, p 589
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Bates, Alan W, <i>The Anatomy of Robert Knox</i>, Eastbourne, Sussex
Academic Press, 2010</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Macnee, John, <i>Trial of William Burke and Helen M'Dougal</i>,
Edinburgh, Robert Buchanan, 1829, p 67-70</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
Macnee, John, <i>Trial of William Burke and Helen M'Dougal</i>,
Edinburgh, Robert Buchanan, 1829, Appendix p 4</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Christison, Robert, quoted in Richardson, Ruth, <i>Death, Dissection
and the Destitute</i>, London, CUP, 2002, p 141</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a><i>
Internet</i>,
http://www.nytimes.com/2003/01/19/books/juniper-madness.html?pagewanted=all,
accessed April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, 1736, p 594</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a><i>
Internet</i>, http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Gin+Craze
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
Fielding, John, <i>A Plan for Preventing Robberies Within Twenty
Miles of London</i>, London, Millar, 1755, p 7</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
McLintock. Alfred H, <i>Smellie's Treatise with annotations</i>, Vol
III, London, New Sydenham, 1876, p 298</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
<i>The London Magazine</i>, London, 1755, p 135</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
The Cabinet Lawyer, <i>A treatise on the Police and Crimes of the
Metropolis</i>, London, Longmans, 1829, p 201</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
Gentleman, A, <i>London Guide and Stranger's Safeguard,</i> London,
Bumpus, 1818 p 121</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a><i>
Internet</i>, http://www.londonancestor.com/leighs/pol.htm, Accessed
April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Keen, William, <i>A sketch, early history of practical anatomy</i>,
Philadelphia, J B Lippincott, 1874, p 23
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
<i>The Spirit of the Public Journals for 1812</i>, London, James
Ridgeway, 1813, p 38-39</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a><i>
Internet</i>, http://www.rcseng.ac.uk/library/history/founding.html
accessed April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
<i>Bell's Weekly Messenger,</i> 1831,
http://www.londonancestor.com/bells/1863-duffy.htm accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
Carrington, Frederick Augustus, <i>Reports of Cases Argued and Ruled
at Nisi Prius</i>, London, Sweet, 1831, p 121
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Wise, Sarah, <i>The Italian Boy,</i> New York, Henry Holt, 2004</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Tait, William, <i>Tait's Edinburgh Magazine</i>, Vol IV, Edinburgh,
William Tait, 1834, p 72</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
Bayley, Frederick W N, <i> The National Standard, of Literature,
</i>London, Thomas Hurst, 1833, p 314</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Tait, William, <i>Tait's Edinburgh Magazine</i>, Vol IV, Edinburgh,
William Tait, 1834, p 72</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Bjerg, Greg, <i>The Doctor's Mob Riot</i>,
http://www.damninteresting.com/?p=376 accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Jefferson, Thomas, <i>The Diplomatic Correspondence of the United
States of America</i>, Washington, 1837, p 165
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
Mines, John Flavel, <i>A Tour Around New York and My Summer Acre,
</i>New York, Harpers, 1892, p 143-144
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
<i>The Western Literary Messenger</i>, Buffalo, Jewett, Thomas and
Co, 1848,, p 32</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Quoted in Shultz, Suzanne M, <i>Body
Snatching</i>, Jefferson, NC, McFarland &
Co, c1992, p 76</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
<i>New York Times, </i>24 September 1878</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a><i>
Internet</i>, http://www.essortment.com/all/hermanmudgettb_rzsg.htm
accessed April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a><i>
Wikipedia</i>, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._H._Holmes, accessed
April, 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in Richardson, Ruth, Death, <i>Dissection
and the Destitute,</i> Chicago, CUP, 2000, p 164</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Goodman, Neville, <i>The Supply of Bodies for Dissection</i>,
British Medical Journal, 1944, p 807-811</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
House of Lords, <i>Report from the Select Committee on Anatomy</i>,
in House of Lords, Sessional Papers, London 1829,
http://books.google.co.nz/books?id=NshbAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage
accessed May 2009
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
Barrow, John Henry, <i>The Mirror of Parliament</i>, London, 1829, p
1672
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
Hullock, Baron, in <i>Reports from Select Committees</i>, Vol VII,
1828, London, p 147,
http://books.google.co.nz/books?id=VjZbAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
Hullock, Baron, in <i>Reports from Select Committees</i>, Vol VII,
1828, London, p 149</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
Richardson, Ruth, Death, <i>Dissection and the Destitute,</i>
Chicago, CUP, 2000, p 71</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
Marshall, Tim, <i>Murdering to Dissect,</i> Manchester, MUP, 1995, p
57
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
Quigley, Christine, <i>The Corpse</i>, Jefferson, NC, McFarland,
1996, p 297</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, Vol II, London, 1828, p 725-727</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, Vol I, London, 1829, p 507-508</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
<i>The Quarterly Review</i> Vol XLII, London, Murray ,1830, p 5-6</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
Goodman, Neville, <i>The Supply of Bodies for Dissection</i>,
British Medical Journal, 1944, p 807-811</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
<i>London Medical Gazette</i>, Vol I, London, Longmans, 1828, p 792 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a>
<i>The Medical Times</i>, Vol I, London Churchill, 1871, p 285</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, quoted at Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burke_and_Hare_murders accessed May
2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a><i>
The Medical Times</i>, London, McRitchie, 1842, p 90</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
Findlay, Rosie, <i>More Deadly Than The Male</i>,
http://revel.unice.fr/cycnos/index.html?id=763 Accessed Feb 2010</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
MacDonald, Helen, <i>Human Remains</i>, London, Yup, 2006, p 96-182</span></div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-56730507360724202592015-04-08T15:25:00.003-07:002021-11-26T09:30:14.300-08:008 - In Their Own Wretched Dwellings ©<b>Adjusting the focus</b>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Research now moves from a magnifying glass directed at anatomists to, instead, a
microscope focussed on man-midwifery. Despite the resource of
research into the history of man-midwifery, obstetrics, and anatomy
over the last 250 years, no record has been found of a previous study
of the legitimacy of the abundant undelivered subjects depicted in
the famous anatomical atlases of William Smellie and William Hunter. Where an
undelivered subject is defined as a corpse containing a deceased
fetus. This was extremely rare as, invariably, efforts were promptly
made to deliver a fetus, naturally either live or dead, or by using
instruments, or by Caesarean. Both Smellie and Hunter used anatomical
models for their lectures as well as bodies. Near full-term
undelivered corpses were so rare they could not legally be procured
as resurrected bodies, nor as patients, nor from hospitals or
poorhouses. We will see that targeting and murder was the only means
to procure pregnant subjects. Any alternative theory to this shocking
conclusion needs to address many questions. <br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
1 – Did Smellie conduct excessive numbers of experiments with forceps
and crotchet?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
2
– Why in 1748 did William Douglas publicly accuse Smellie of eight
patient deaths?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
3
- What was the source of Smellie and Hunter's undelivered subjects in
1750-1754?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
4
- Why did Smellie and Hunter procure 17 ninth month undelivered
subjects in 1750-1754? </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
5
- Why is there no written record of Smellie and Hunter pursuing the
detailed leads in the 1750-1751 writings on Caesareans, after
Eddescastle, and by Simon, Burton, and Levret?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
6
- What was William Hogarth's angle (Ann Gill) in his 1751 prints of
the Four Stages of Cruelty?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
7
- Why did Hogarth choose the name Tom Nero for Smellie in the Stages
of Cruelty?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
8
– What occasioned Nicholls' 1751 Petition of the Unborn Babes? </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
9
– Why did Camper travel from Holland to participate in undelivered
dissections in 1752? </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
10
- What was the significance of King George II's speech of 15 November
1753?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
11
- Why in 1755 did John Hunter discuss his experiments on exposing a
dog's heart and lungs, in the same paragraph as he discussed the
interrupted life of a fetus during childbirth?<span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
12
– Why did a letter writer in July 1755 recommend murderers be
passed to anatomists alive?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
13
- Why did Smellie ask Mackenzie to leave in 1755?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
14
- Why had Smellie, the Hunters, Burton and Jenty ceased research by
1755, then John Hunter and Jenty leave the country, and van Rymsdyk
go to Bristol, all within a year or two?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
15
- Why was William Hunter reluctant to support use of the Caesarean
operation after 1755?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
16
– Why did the Foundling Hospital greatly relax its acceptance
criteria in 1756?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
17
- Why did Samuel Johnson write heavily criticising anatomists in
1758? </div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
18
- Why do Smellie's hundreds of reported cases in his Treatise exclude
those depicted in his atlas?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
19
- Why was Smellie's writing on Caesarean operations only published
after his 1763 death?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
20
- Why is there no record of John Hunter attempting an unassisted
Caesarean until 1774?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
21
- Why was Hunter's atlas delayed for twenty years, from 1754 until
1774?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
22
– What was the nature of the 1778 written threat made by van
Rymsdyk to William Hunter?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
23
- Why was Hunter's commentary on his plates delayed from 1754 until
1794?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
24
– Why was Carlisle so opposed to man-midwifery and to phrenology?</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
25
– What caused Carlisle to propose a law change such that any death
of a mother or baby associated with man-midwifery should be fully
examined in a Court of Law?</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The
science of obstetrics is regarded as originating from the 18C growth
of man-midwifery which, over time, tended to displace midwives and
home births. The process has been viewed as a positive contribution
to women's health, but the statement warrants close inspection.<br />
<br />
The research tabled here logically builds on detailed contemporary evidence to demonstrate man-midwifery was a disaster for women and children. Careful extrapolation of contemporary base evidence and available statistics illustrates that the impact of man-midwifery in Britain and Ireland was one million (1,000,000) more deaths in 1730-1930, than would have applied had midwives retained full responsibility for childbirth.<br />
<br />
The rise of man-midwifery was prompted by a peacetime surplus of military surgeons at the end of the mid 18C wars. They viewed parturition as a "new business opportunity", one which displaced midwives. With those existing and experienced midwives replaced, via "high fashion" and "misleading advertising", by male military surgeons ignorant of the working of the female body. Midwives had no prior need to understand in detail the internal organs, as their experience and patience meant maternal deaths were rare. As such midwives did not carry infection, nor cross-infect other pregnant women with fatal diseases.<br />
<br />
In contrast, man-midwives saw an opportunity to experiment on the female body, especially during pregnancy. In order to medically understand the internal organs and parturition they murdered pregnant women for dissection. In their impatience to achieve maximum payment for their time in attendance, they used instruments to fatally hasten or terminate births which, if left to midwives' patience, would have not resulted in deaths. The man-midwives surgical contact with murdered and resurrected bodies used for demonstration purposes when teaching, allowed fatal infection to be transferred from those bodies to the patients they attended. As a result the death rate for women and babies sky-rocketed, and the MMR and IMR (maternal and infant mortatility rates) for surgeons did not abate to match the consistently lower MMR and IMR for midwives until 1930.<br />
<br />
Some
earlier writers raised queries about the trend
from midwifery to man-midwifery, whereas modern historians have averred
Smellie and Hunter as 'the Founding Fathers of obstetrics'. However,
this is a recent view, as Smellie is rarely mentioned in 18C and
early 19C texts, and in 1873 James Aveling wrote; 'we dedicate our
Journal to the immortal memory of William Harvey, whom we rightly
own, and proudly proclaim to be the Father of British Obstetrics'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a> </div>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Recent
histories dealing with man-midwifery overlook the question; 'If
undelivered subjects for dissection were as rare as William Hunter
suggests, how did he and Smellie manage to procure so many?' Seeking
answers invited forensic assessment of the anatomical atlases of Smellie, Hunter, and
Charles Nicholas Jenty; resulting a shocking new view of 18C
medicine.<br />
<br />
It is a puzzle the new conclusions have not emerged before. The
answer proffered is that biographers of Smellie draw on his treatise,
but they never scrutinised his atlas. In contrast, this research commenced with an
evaluation of the atlas, before seeking the cases depicted within the treatise.
This highlighted an unexpected and critical disconnect, as the undelivered cases
depicted in the atlas are unreported in the treatise, despite the
view; '[it] may be assumed to include all the more memorable examples
of difficult midwifery in the master's experience'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
Smellie does reference back to the treatise from the atlas, to
illustrate the points he is discussing, but the cases instanced and
discussed in the treatise are delivered and/or surviving mothers,
whereas those depicted in the atlas are deceased and undelivered, so
inviting the question; 'What was the reason for Smellie to omit such
rare undelivered cases from his three volume treatise on midwifery?'
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The subjects of
midwifery and man-midwifery are intertwined with maternal and
neonatal deaths associated with pregnancy and delivery. But before
proceeding to outline the research, a comment on technical issues is
necessary. A point made clear by Irvine Loudon in <i>“Death in
Childbirth”</i> is that historical definitions have varied over
time. Additionally, the further one goes back, the less statistics
are available, and the less reliable they are. These then are hurdles
for historians. To address such limitations, the approach necessary
is akin to assembling an old jigsaw puzzle with no picture as a
guide. Various pieces are seen as linked to one another and, even if
some pieces are missing, the overall picture becomes clear. In our
21C, statisticians often require proof to a 99% probability, or if a
lower standard is required, to 95%. Probability of 99% is rarely
achievable with 18C statistics, but if 18C statistics show
probabilities significantly better than 50%, they should not be
ignored. The closer they approach to a 95% probability, the greater
their reliance. Equally, 18C definitions are not as precise as those
of the 21C. Nevertheless, the same approach can be adopted; if there
seems reason to accept data as materially correct, results need not
be discarded. A conclusion may require qualification, but with
consistent logic, even circumstantial evidence is valid. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
<b>The Church role in the decline of midwifery</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
From 1512 midwives
were subject to licensing, with the regulation and licensing the
responsibility of the bishops of the Church of England. In 17C London
it was recognised a midwife needed to serve as a deputy for up to
seven years. To receive a licence a she had to present a testimonial,
swear an oath and pay a fee, a process not dissimilar to the granting
of medical degrees to surgeons and physicians at Scottish
universities. English midwives could even baptise babies<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
and;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
The midwife also
figured prominently in post-birth rituals. It was she who carried the
infant to the christening, also enjoying an honoured place at the
ensuing celebration. She was also present with the 'gossips' at the
'churching' of the mother who, veiled, eyes downcast, with a lighted
candle in her hand and the 'accustomed offering' to the priest, knelt
before the church to be 'purified' before she might re-enter it.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
A midwife received
gifts of money for her ceremonial role, but the reformed Church of
the 16C saw this as an opportunity, and c1600 acted to remove the
right to baptise, diminishing the midwives role, and diverting any
resultant gifts to the Church. Having secured for itself the income
stream, the Church no longer took licensing of midwives seriously,
and in the 17C the process fell into disuse; disappearing in London
by 1720. If the Church had continued licensing, the role of midwives
would have been protected. Instead Church self-interest dealt a
treble blow to midwives; from untrained women, man-midwives, and
anatomists.<br />
<br />
The decline of midwife licensing meant that untrained
women set up as low cost competition, so undermining the lengthy
midwife training process. These untrained women could not cope with
difficult deliveries. They turned to surgeons eager to expand into
man-midwifery, but without proper midwifery training. Deaths occurred
from their ignorance, but the surgeons blamed the unlicensed women,
thus eroding the professional reputation of the trained midwife, for
both simple and difficult deliveries. In addition, the Church turned
a blind eye to the growing number of resurrected bodies needed to
instruct the expanding number of medical students, hence exacerbating
man-midwifery competition. The disinterest of the Church was thus a
major factor in the displacement of midwives, leading to a proposal
the state should intervene;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
Peter Chamberlen …
was moved … to represent to King James I in 1616, “That some
order may be settled by the state for the instruction and civil
government of midwives”. Had this proposal been carried out at that
time, England would have been in the van of the movement which has
been going on in Europe since Peter Chamberlen's days, instead of the
rear; our midwives would have been for more than two centuries
properly instructed and controlled, and we should have been saved the
humiliation of being pointed at by our continental neighbours as a
nation which does not care so much for the lives of its mothers as to
induce it to secure for them efficient help in their time of
jeopardy.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.07cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<b>The Rise of
Man-midwifery</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A letter of 1811 by Obstetricus sought the history of the terms
man-midwife and accoucheur. Given Carlisle's interest in language and his penchant for letter
writing, it is likely he wrote the letter signed Obstericus; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
I should be much
obliged to any of your Correspondents for information when the
compound word Man-midwife was first used, and by whom? It is inserted
in Ainsworth's dictionary 1736, immediately below the word Midwife
and is explained, Medicus parturientibus opem ferens. It is likewise
inserted in Boyer's French dictionary, 1742, but it is not in
Johnson's English dictionary. Sir Fielding Ould, in 1742, writes
himself Man-midwife; Smellie has a chapter on the Qualifications of
an Accoucheur, thus rejecting the term Man-midwife. In 1705 was
published <i>Portal's
complete Practice of Men and Women Midwifes.</i>
In <i>The
compleat Midwife's Practice</i> published in 1656, this expression is not to be found, though the
ladies are censured 'for making election of men to bring them to bed'
which is said to be 'a great piece of impudence, unless it be in a
case of very great danger' the word chirurgeon is throughout this
book used to designate the accoucheur. Dr Hugh Chamberlain, who
translated Mauriceau's <i>Diseases
of Women with Child and in Child-bed</i>
1672 employs the term 'Artist in Midwifery'. From this it may be
supposed that the word Man midwife began to be used between 1672 and
1705; but for the express time I must refer to some other
correspondent.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Although
the OED quotes a slightly earlier date, the earliest reference to the
term 'man-midwife' noted during research for this book was in the
fourth edition of a book, published in 1647; 'without the will of one
man-midwife.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
Another reference of around 1665, occurring during the life of Rev Dr
Samuel Winter (1603-1666), is to a man-midwife in attendance on a
distressed and pregnant Mrs Smith in Dublin.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a>
In 1670, Nathaniel Brook advertised a book for sale titled; <i>"The
Man Midwife"</i>, although its content is unknown.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a>
<span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">A
reference of 1687, is by Elizabeth Cellier in; </span></span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">"A
Scheme for the Foundation of a Royal Hospital."</span></i><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
Cellier proposed a Corporation of Midwives be established to manage,
licence, and train midwives, being limited to one thousand midwives,
with twelve lesser midwifery houses, one in each parish and a
principal man-midwife at the main hospital. The Royal Dictionary of
1715 included; Midwife – Une sage-femme, une accoucheuse, and
man-midwife – un accoucheur. </span></span>An early reference is a
poem, <i>“Sylvae”</i>, first published in 1685.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
A Quack (too
scandalously mean to Name) </div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
Had by Man-Midwifry,
got Wealth and Fame; </div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
As if Lucina had
forgot her Trade,</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
The Lab'ring Wife
invokes his surer Aid.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.07cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Lucina
being another name given to Diana, as a goddess who presided at
childbirth. By 1708 there was already a risqué reference in a poem
about surgeons; 'A man midwife I am, Have laid many a Dame.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
Other negative views have been recorded, in 1848 Samuel Gregory
wrote;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Dr James Gregory … compared men-midwives to that species of frog, in
which according to the allegation of Reaumur, the male draws out the
ova from the female, or, to use the naturalist's own words, 'accouche
la femelle'. If this is a fact in natural history, this frog practice
is doubtless the only precedent, in the whole animal kingdom, in
favour of accoucheurs and man-midwifery.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Let us think about Britain in the early 18C. The country was largely
rural, with the Industrial Revolution 100 years in the future. London
and other cities were less dominant than later the case. Country folk
were familiar with life and the seasons, they were used to births and
difficult deliveries of their livestock; horses, cattle, sheep, pigs,
dogs, and cats. Thus, on farms, if the midwife had not arrived, a
husband was capable of assisting with all but the most complicated of
his wife's deliveries. For a farmer, cowman, or shepherd, attending
dozens of animal births each year, a single human birth every two or
three years was a routine medical event. The midwife was a respected
professional and in times without veterinarians, midwives also
delivered animals, as in the 16C; 'Given to the midwiffe which helped
cowe that could not calve, 2s 6d'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a><br />
<br />
Over eons, midwifery knowledge had evolved, so women were delivered
with, or sometimes without, assistance from friends or the village
midwife. Help from surgeons was not called for, as their knowledge
was usually less than the village midwife with her years of
'on-the-job' training. It
is probable that if surveyed on the need for formal training of
midwives, most pregnant women of the day would have said it was no
more necessary than formal training for their husbands to deliver
foals, calves, lambs, or piglets. In the cities it was a little
different, mainly related to the class of the individual midwife.
Those attending wealthy families were respected, and charged
commensurately, conversely the poor were assisted by friends to whom
they were related, or to whom they had provided assistance on
similar, earlier occasions. As
Elizabeth Nihell wrote; 'I fancy that the ladies who want assistance
in their lyings-in, are not very curious of having one that can
dissect instead of delivering them.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.07cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Trained midwives'
maternal mortality rates were low, as indicated by the records of
Catharina Geertruida Schrader (1656-1746) of Friesland, Holland. By
1740 she had made notes on; '4000 deliveries. Mrs Schraders delivered
64 pairs of twins and 3 sets of triplets and, in all, lost only 15
mothers! On three of these sad occasions the patient was already
dying and one patient was actually dead when the midwife arrived. Two
of her patients died of hemorrhage due to placenta previa, one of
eclampsia, six of puerperal sepsis, one of tuberculosis and one of
gangrene of the leg.<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
</span>From that summary, it seems none, or perhaps only the
'actually dead' patient died undelivered of a baby.<br />
<br />
Many midwives
were skilled, an obituary notice in the Boston Liberator of 1845,
stated “Mrs Janet Alexander … was instructed in the theory and
practice of midwifery ... and ... for a period of more than
twenty-five years’ practice ... was most singularly successful,
having Never, In Any Instance, Lost A Patient.”<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
An obvious difference between midwives and man-midwives can be
overlooked. Midwives had usually been delivered of their own
children, knew the discomfort of menstruation, pregnancy, the pain of
childbirth, the care of babies, and the menopause, but those were
genetically alien to man-midwives, and at a time when women's legal
rights were more akin to chattels. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.07cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.07cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In seeking the
reasons for the rise of man-midwifery, one can note that career
prospects for young men as clerics became hampered by clerical
incumbents living longer, so they turned instead to medicine, as with
William Hunter. Similar pressures applied after the crushing of the
1745 Jacobite Revolution and achievement of peace in Europe; with
resultant de-mobbing of military surgeons. Midwives were without
employment protection, at the same time as surgeons aggressively
sought to earn a living amid increasing competition.<br />
<br />
Surgeons saw
midwifery as a tempting medical field, where the incumbent midwives
were barred from employment as surgeons. Male surgeons thus
approached pregnancy and birth as a career opportunity, with
man-midwifery flourishing as its attention moved from problematic
births to normal births. They increasingly called themselves
man-midwives, or accoucheurs, with pregnancy and birth coming to be
seen as a medical, rather than a household concern. In the process
displacing midwives disadvantaged by women's inferior social status.
When midwife Sarah Stone moved to Bristol in 1730, she found that,
'every young man who hath served his apprenticeship to a
barber-surgeon, immediately sets up for a man-midwife although as
ignorant, or indeed much more ignorant, than the meanest woman of the
profession'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
In 1772 a letter writer opined in a <i>"Letter on the Present
State of Midwifery"</i>;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
In times when every
winter brings scenes of prostitution from the privacy of darkness
into the public light of day; when our ladies of quality, and women
of fashion, instead of being as remarkable for their virtue as for
their beauty, openly cast aside every sense of shame, and barefacedly
encourage the addresses of men, who avowedly, can have no intention
but to involve them in guilt; it is the duty of every honest man to
endeavour to trace the evil to its source, in order that, by pointing
out the foul spring which corrupts the stream, the fountain may be
cleared, and the contagion which rages from it, lessened, if not
entirely removed. Boarding schools are, beyond doubt, seminaries,
where the minds of girls are early polluted. Let the mistress of the
school be ever so virtuous, prudent, and attentive, the vicious girls
(and some such there always must be among a number) will find
sufficient opportunities to taint the tender minds of unsuspecting
innocence. ... Though I believe the first seeds of vice are imbibed
at a boarding school, yet I by no means look on that education as the
great cause of these frequent adulteries.... It is to the almost
universal custom of employing men-midwives that I attribute the
frequent adulteries which disgrace our country.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.06cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.06cm;">
While
one might express surprise that boarding schools for girls were so
much to blame for vice, it is clear some believed men-midwives were
an 'almost universal custom', although this overstated the case (as late
as the 1880's around 99% of births in England and Wales were at home,
attended about equally by midwives or GPs).<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a>
The
1772 author discussed an eminent man-midwife who, after a practice of
over thirty years, confessed to never meeting a case where a good
woman might not have done the business, the benefit of midwives being
that;
'They never dream of having recourse to force, - the barbarous,
bloody crotchet never stained their hands with murder'.<br />
<br />
In contrast,
men claimed midwives were badly trained, and the risk of
complications required the attendance of trained men-midwives. But,
insofar as training, a surgeon-apprentice
was instructed by men to whom bleeding was a key treatment, who
prescribed potions made from strange ingredients, who paid little
attention to cleanliness, and had little knowledge of midwifery. Much
quoted is Elizabeth Nihell;
'those self-constituted men-midwives made out of broken barbers,
tailors or even pork-butchers, for I know myself one of this last
trade, who, after passing half his life stuffing sausages, is turned
an intrepid physician and man-midwife'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
In her Complete Practice of Midwifery (1737) Sarah Stone wrote: "More
mothers and children had died at the hands of raw recruits just out
of their apprenticeship to the barber surgeon than through the worst
ignorance and stupidity of midwives."
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.06cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Many writers refer to untrained midwives as a risk, with 18C case notes often containing criticisms of midwives. The argument is simplistic, as the cases thought worthy of publishing
tended to be complicated ones. While the case notes are useful, their
accessibility allows them historical prominence out of proportion to
their significance, as they were written to enhance the status of the
author. There are probably less than 2000 such cases discussed in all
18C medical textbooks published in Britain. That is not to suggest
those published were the only complicated births, but to put them in
perspective, the number needs to be compared to total births. In
London alone, between 1700 and 1800 there were over 1,500,000 births,
nearly all successfully delivered by midwives. To use some hundreds
of cases with complications, as reason for man-midwifery, was to
focus on a tiny fraction of births, at the expense of hundreds of
thousands of trouble-free, midwife managed births. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Although
the trend away from midwives started in the 18C, it took many years
to prevail. It is probable 90% of all British births between 1730 and
1830 were attended by midwives. There were many highly experienced
midwives; Mrs Hopkins, who died in 1767 having delivered upwards of
10,000 women, and also Mrs Crewe who died in 1817, with her tombstone
recording that she had delivered 9730 children.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
There were many others, in 1860; 'There were three midwives in the
neighbourhood, who were in the habit of sending for me in every case
of difficulty or emergency (one of whom attended upwards of 300 women
a year)'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
When midwives were licensed they had undergone apprenticeship type
training, with a focus on women's health, pregnancy, birth, and
post-natal care using techniques and knowledge passed on over
hundreds of years. Hence to describe 17C midwives as untrained was on
a par with describing a 17C farmer as 'untrained', only because he
had no formal qualification. But with the 18C proliferation of
unlicensed midwives, average skill levels declined. By the 19C the
appellation 'untrained' as applied to midwives was more appropriate,
due to the ongoing impact of man-midwifery. The lack of training in
Britain compares to 1747 Netherlands, and 1751 Prussia, where the
King ordered midwives to view dissections as part of their training;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Many persons in
Holland, having set up for men-midwives, without being duly
qualified, the government thought proper to interfere, and
consequently there was an ordnance issued on 31 January, 1747, by
which it was enjoined, that no one should practice in the quality of
man-midwife, or exercise this art, unless he were especially
authorized for this function, by a certificate of his having
undergone a sufficient examination.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
… It having been represented to the King of Prussia, that the
ignorance of most midwives in their profession was the occasion of
many sad accidents, equally fatal to the mother and the child, his
majesty has given orders that a professor, particularly appointed for
that purpose, shall, during the winter, read private lectures on the
formation, growth, and birth of infants, and whatever relates to that
subject, in the anatomical theatre of Berlin; and that all women who
intend to practise midwifery shall attend these anatomical lectures,
... accompanied with<span style="text-decoration: none;"> </span><u>indications
taken from dissections</u>. [my emphasis] The king has ... forbidden
any to be licensed or employed as midwives, but such women as are
well and duly qualified for that profession as well in theory as by
practice; for which purpose they shall previously undergo a proper
examination.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
This state
encouragement in Germany continued into the 19C;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
A few years after
the opening of the new School for Midwives at the Paris Maternitie in
1802, the Prussian government had set up a similar school in Berlin.
Admission to this institution continued to be much sought after,
preference being given to wives of officials and doctors in the
government's service, and by 1837 over 11,000 midwives had been
turned out by this and similar government schools in the provinces.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Man-midwifery
became fashionable as Britain became wealthy. To use a modern
analogy, despite two pairs of blue jeans being made in the same
factory, the upwardly mobile prefer the highly advertised pair, with
a fashionable designer label, at 'thrice the price'. Even when
themselves responsible, man-midwifery blamed deaths on attending
midwives, as 'insurance' against difficult deliveries. Standards
declined as experienced midwives attending the wealthier classes
retired, and those replacing them could not offer the 'insurance' of
formal medical training. Nevertheless, the MMR for midwives remained
modest along a declining trend, in stark contrast to rising MMR at
hospitals involving man-midwives. As in a telling comment of 1852,
comparing the Glasgow Lying-in Hospital MMR of 130, with a 30 MMR for
home births; 'Permit me to remark in conclusion that the maternal
mortality of the cases delivered within the hospital amounts to 1 in
77, whereas the maternal mortality of those delivered in their own
wretched dwellings is 1 in 325 only.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.06cm;">
Although the term 'general practitioner' had not been coined in the
18C, the term 'General Practice' was used in 1748 by William Douglas
(1710-1758) in a letter to Smellie. The term itself is telling,
physicians learned multiple medical skills in limited detail, of
which man-midwifery was a small part. In Scotland universities
granted the degree of MD to surgeon-apprentices on the basis of a fee
and letters of recommendation from established physicians, a system
with potential for abuse. The training situation was little better in
20C England, with Loudon quoting Haultain in 1911; 'The parade of the
puerperal wards, so far as true clinical instruction is concerned, is
a farce, and might be as thoroughly conducted at Madame Tussaud's',
and Loudon himself observing; 'In general the teaching of midwifery
in England in the nineteenth century was grossly inadequate. Many
fresh young general practitioners embarked on their career with a
degree of ignorance about normal and abnormal labours that hardly
bears thinking about.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
Loudon also notes;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Sir Eardley Holland remembered that at his medical school in 1901,
'getting your Midder done and out of the way', as the Dean put it,
consisted of one month on the 'Extren. District', unsupervised and
with no in-patient midwifery teaching whatsoever. ... Sir Dugald
Baird, recalling his student days in the 1920's, said that clinical
instruction consisted of watching their teachers perform Caesarean
deliveries from a distance in an amphitheatre, and conducting
domiciliary deliveries 'on the district', unsupervised, with no
practical instruction, and without being allowed to give drugs to
relieve pain or stop bleeding.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Loudon follows that
with a telling observation; 'If I was asked to pick out one factor
above all others as responsible for the high maternal mortality in
the first thirty-five years of this century, it would be the standard
of obstetric education in the medical schools'. Since 1935 things
have improved and in the 21C, maternal mortality rates (MMR), as
between midwives and obstetricians, are comparable and deaths rare.
This was not the case between 1730 and 1930, with the low MMR of
modern Britain only achieved after a major fall in MMR between 1935
and 1950, with a more gradual improvement since then to around
1:10000. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<b>Smellie's
Pre 1750 Experiments</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1733 Edmund Chapman published an early Treatise on midwifery, with his
views described as;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Mr Chapman professes
his Aversion to the Caesarian Operation, and insists on speedy
Delivery as the only Method for saving two Lives. Nor is he more a
Friend to the use of the Hook and Knife, which he calls terrible and
barbarous Instruments, while the Child is alive, and have been
employed by Persons ignorant of the Art of turning the Infant. He
recommends the Forceps and the Fillet, which he has used with great
Success as appears in several of his Cases.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br />
Midwives had little
need to contemplate instruments. Sarah Stone, who attended over 300
deliveries per year, declared she never found instruments requisite
above four times in her life. Elizabeth Nihell delivered far more
babies than Smellie, herself delivering 900 women in just two years
and noting hundreds of women a month were delivered at Hotel Dieu in
Paris without instruments; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
I never once saw an occasion in which there was any necessity for using
instruments, though in my time we had, at least five or six hundred
women a month to deliver … For my part, I dare maintain it, that
the surgeons, in form of men-midwives, have been the death of more
children, with their speculum matricis, their crotchets, their
extractors or forceps, their tire-tetes, etc. than they have
preserved. If in killing the children, they have saved the lives of
some mothers, they have hurt and damaged, not to say murdered, a
number of others.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
At 500-600 per
month, this equates to 12,000-14,000 deliveries in two years, with
none requiring instruments. This statistic deserves attention and
discussion, although space does not permit here. An explanatory
factor may have been spontaneous evolution, not described in London
until Denman did so in 1772. This condition arises, with patience,
where the pregnant female body itself copes with an arm or leg
presentation, without outside intervention. Many man-midwives were
impatient, so rather than waiting, they intervened and encouraged the
use of instruments. However, the midwives at Hotel Dieu must have had
a great fund of knowledge and experience, overlaid with considerable
patience, hence being able to manage deliveries without using
instruments. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
We will discuss the careers of some man-midwifery pioneers, and post
1750 events connected to man-midwifery, in later chapters but, prior
to that, it is appropriate to consider William Smellie's pre 1750
experiments with instruments. Smellie
set up in London, where he established a trend towards attendance of
man-midwives at childbirth. In ten years to 1751, he and his 900
students attended 1150 births of poor women,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a>
about two a week. Each course included two labours, apparently one
unassisted delivery and likely one using forceps. His classes were
limited to four students and; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
… he
made it a condition of attendance on his clinical course that each
student should pay six shillings into a common fund to be used in the
support of the more needy of his patients. … The expense of being
present at a real labour, is one guinea; but such as contract for two
courses and four labours, pay only five guineas, and perform the last
delivery themselves. Pupils who engage for a year … are intitled to
attend all the courses and labours of that time, whereby they will
have the opportunity of seeing and performing in several difficult
cases.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Smellie took ten
years to match the number of deliveries Nihell attended in two years.
He also wrote; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Suppose, of three
thousand women in one town or village, one thousand shall be
delivered in the space of one year, and in nine hundred and ninety of
these births the child shall be born without any other than common
assistance. … Of the remaining ten that make up the thousand, six
shall present with the head differently turned, and two with the
breech; and these cannot be saved without stretching the parts, using
the forceps or crotchet, or pushing up the child in order to bring it
by the feet; ... the other two shall lie across, and neither head nor
breech, but some other part of the body, present, so that the child
must be turned and delivered by the feet. Next year, let us suppose
another thousand women delivered in the same place; not above three,
six, or eight, shall want extraordinary assistance.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
That is, the two antagonists, Nihell and Smellie, both stated that less than 1% of
deliveries required the use of instruments. When applied to Smellie's
1150 poor patients over ten years, that is only one difficult birth
per year, which needs to be compared against the aggregate difficult cases
summarised from his Treatise; presumably the cases where Smellie was
called in to assist by the midwife involved.</div>
<br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;"><colgroup><col width="285*"></col></colgroup><colgroup><col width="60*"></col></colgroup><colgroup><col width="79*"></col></colgroup><colgroup><col width="62*"></col></colgroup><colgroup><col width="71*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="29%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">All cases in Smellie's Treatise</span></div>
</td>
<td width="15%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Total
Cases</span></div>
</td>
<td width="19%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Using
Instruments</span></div>
</td>
<td width="16%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Forceps</span></div>
</td>
<td width="20%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Crotchet
etc.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="29%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Scotland
1722-1738</span></div>
</td>
<td width="15%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">74</span></div>
</td>
<td width="19%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">12</span></div>
</td>
<td width="16%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">0</span></div>
</td>
<td width="20%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">12</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="29%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Difficult
1739-1744</span></div>
</td>
<td width="15%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">39</span></div>
</td>
<td width="19%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">4</span></div>
</td>
<td width="16%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">3</span></div>
</td>
<td width="20%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">1</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="29%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Difficult
1745-1749</span></div>
</td>
<td width="15%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">85</span></div>
</td>
<td width="19%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">32</span></div>
</td>
<td width="16%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">21</span></div>
</td>
<td width="20%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">11</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="29%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Difficult
1750-1754</span></div>
</td>
<td width="15%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">56</span></div>
</td>
<td width="19%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">17</span></div>
</td>
<td width="16%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">12</span></div>
</td>
<td width="20%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">5</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="29%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Difficult
1755-1759</span></div>
</td>
<td width="15%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="19%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">0</span></div>
</td>
<td width="16%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">0</span></div>
</td>
<td width="20%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">0</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="29%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Non difficult 1739-1759</span></div>
</td>
<td width="15%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">173</span></div>
</td>
<td width="19%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">0</span></div>
</td>
<td width="16%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">0</span></div>
</td>
<td width="20%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">0</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="29%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Cases of other
doctors</span></div>
</td>
<td width="15%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">102</span></div>
</td>
<td width="19%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">n/a</span></div>
</td>
<td width="16%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">n/a</span></div>
</td>
<td width="20%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">n/a</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td width="29%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Total
cases</b></span></div>
</td><td width="15%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><b>531</b></span></div>
</td><td width="19%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><b>65</b></span></div>
</td><td width="16%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><b>36</b></span></div>
</td><td width="20%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><b>29</b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br />
Where
instruments were needed, midwives had ongoing relationships with
established surgeons. As a Scot new to London, especially after the
failure of the 1745 Jacobite Rebellion in Scotland, it is unlikely
Smellie was called upon by many midwives. Assuming once a month, it
infers adding 120-150 difficult call outs in 1742-1751 to the 1150
poor patients attended, i.e. about 1300 cases, with the aggregation
giving about 12% difficult, and about 3%, say 45, involving
instruments. That is, in 1742-1751, it is unlikely Smellie attended more than five per
year actually requiring instruments.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
Low
need for instruments was confirmed by the British Lying-in Hospital
which announced that 545 women had delivered 550 babies between
November 1749 and January 1752, with only two requiring instruments,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
a rate of less than 0.4%. For annual births of 15,000 to 20,000 in
London, a ratio of 0.4% equates to only 60-80 difficult births per
year requiring instruments, spread across all London surgeons, so for
Smellie to be called to four or five of them per year is plausible.
Statistics
kept over a seven year period at the Dublin Lying-in Hospital noted
for 16,654 deliveries, instrumental assistance of any kind had only
been needed 27 times, equal to 1:608 childbirths.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm; text-decoration: none;">
Smellie's Treatise
includes 173 non-difficult cases, including babies' clothing, milk
problems, fractures, and insufficient exercise. But, as discussed
later, most striking is a complete absence of reference to the 15
undelivered subjects depicted in his atlas. The atlas does refer to
cases in the Treatise, but they are clearly different cases, as the
atlas subjects are dead and undelivered, whereas those in the
Treatise were delivered. The disconnect from the rare atlas cases to
the treatise is as if they are two completely different man-midwives
and invite the question: Why are such extremely rare, undelivered
deaths not itemised and discussed in Smellie's Treatise? Was it
sanitised?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm; text-decoration: none;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The history of the
forceps is well covered by other authors, with the focus here on the
degree to which Smellie experimented on patients. We have Smellie's
own statement that under 10 in 1000 of women required instrument
assistance, equivalent to less than one patient per year, as shown in
the table by the four cases he records for 1739-1744. He first used
forceps in 1737, but was dissatisfied. He travelled to London to
learn more and then to Paris in 1738 where 'likewise I was very much
disappointed in my expectations'. William Douglas notes forceps were
readily available in Britain;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Forceps
are the principal basis upon which this pretended invention is
founded, and indeed you [Smellie] have, in this shape, sufficiently
rung the changes. Those sold in the shops before you returned from
Paris, I think them the most convenient; you recommended a sort that
receive each other for their fastenage, and in this the principal
difference consists.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In 1745 Smellie said 'my eyes were now opened to a new field of
improvement in the method of using the forceps'. Smellie notes
'repeated trials' in 1747, 'The above Gentleman will inform you of the other Improvements that I have
lately made on the Crotchets, Scissors, and the steel Forceps; all of
which I found, by repeated Trials, answer better than those formerly
used'. In
1747 he made a pair of wooden forceps, to make them seem less
terrible to the women, as they made no clinking noise. He also
describes 'many trials' and 'frequent occasion', as with; 'For this
reason forceps were used secretly, and were hidden when possible from
both the attendant midwife and the patient'. … Smellie was
evidently about this time in the heat of invention, for about 1748,
as ... “after many trials, altered the forceps, and brought into
general usage a kind of forceps, more convenient than any before
contrived”. … [in 1747 he writes] About three years ago I
contrived a more simple method of fixing the steel forceps by locking
them into one another. … and, as
I have had frequent occasion to use them,
[my emphasis] I can assure you that I save three in four of those on
whom they are practised. ... He incorporates a letter written to one
of his pupils, dated London, 1749, in which he says, “I contrived
the last forceps with shorter handles, on purpose that too great
force might not be used.” … [In 1749] I introduced a longer pair
that were bent to one side'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Johnstone writes
'But from 1745 to 1747 must have been a period of glowing inventive
ingenuity for Smellie'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
While some experiments were on his machines, the impression is most
were on patients. Given the large number of references to trials,
compared to the limited number recorded in his Treatise, it appears
the number of Smellie's experiments reached a peak in 1748-1749, but
with most unrecorded in his Treatise. The Treatise shows his use of
forceps 21 times, and crotchet and scissors 11 times, in 1745-1749,
but the Treatise records the minimum instances forceps were used, <u>not</u>
the maximum. Smellie was also making improvements to crotchets and
other instruments designed to kill a baby in utero and then extract
it. Improving instruments required multiple trials;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
Not
only was his mechanical ingenuity busy in devising as perfect a
phantom as might be made, but it also took the form of simplifying
the instruments used in difficult labours. His ingenuity must,
indeed, have been very
active. And the outcome of it – the forceps, with his ingenious form of union,
the scissors or perforator, the double crotchet, and the sheathed
crotchet – he made free to all the world, and thus showed an
example to those about him of giving freely whatever he had invented
that would be of benefit to humanity.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Smellie wrote; 'Make yourselves masters of anatomy, and acquire a competent
knowledge of surgery and physic'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>
Apart from his own trials of design alterations, Smellie demonstrated
the forceps, vectis, and crotchet to his students, presumably
allowing them turns. Forceps were used to save lives, whereas the
crochet, scissors, and perforator, imply the converse, perhaps with
some trialled on prostitutes who did not want to keep their babies,
in accepting a craniotomy as a form of abortion, babies being an
unwanted problem for most prostitutes. One concludes Smellie and his
students conducted multiple secret trials with forceps, crotchet, and
other instruments, on patients whose pregnancies did not warrant it,
by
concealing their use; 'Let the <i>forceps</i>
be unlocked, and the blade <i>cautiously</i>
disposed under the cloaths, so as not to be discovered'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
From all the trials;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.34cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
[Smellie] contrived
the lock at present adopted in the English forceps. He also brought
forward a scissors for perforating the cranium, in place of
Mauriceau's knife; this, as improved afterwards by Denman, became the
perforator. The crotchet was placed inside the cranium ... and the
present operation of craniotomy was thus established. ... He was
puzzled by the explanations given of the passage of the head through
the pelvis. He found that Sir Fielding Ould was right in his view;
but, in order to satisfy himself, he measured the pelvis in almost
every direction. He found that the widest space in the brim was the
transverse, and in the cavity and outlet the antero-posterior. He
therefore laid it down, that the head entered the brim transversely,
passed through into the cavity, changing into the antero-posterior,
in which it was expelled. ... He laid down rules for the forceps,
never before understood; and placed operative midwifery on a
foundation upon which the present superstructure is raised.
Notwithstanding the reputation of Smellie, and his admitted skill in
the application of instruments, such was the prejudice in the public
mind against these operations, that <u>he was obliged to perform his
operations secretly</u>.[my emphasis] Chamberlen did so to conceal
his invention; but <u>Smellie was obliged to continue the practice,
in order to avoid the attacks made upon him</u>. [my emphasis] <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Smellie's multiple trials of 1745-1747 invoked concern among medical men, as alluded to
by John Barker; 'The following Essay was ... occasioned by<span style="text-decoration: none;">
some disputes in Physick</span> which have lately happened, and which
it is needless here to mention'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
Barker maintained there was an Invariable Rule for Physicians.
Firstly, Nature is the primary agent in the cure of diseases, and the
physician can be said to cure them, only in a secondary sense, as an
instrument in Nature's hands. Secondly, it is the duty of every
physician, to follow the road which is pointed out by nature; or to
act in subserviency to her dictates.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
In discussing this, he drew on Hippocrates. The Hippocratic Oath is
unrelated to Hippocrates himself, but it encapsulates his teachings,
was well known in the 18C, and relevant even in the current century;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
I will prescribe regimens for the good of my patients according to my
ability and my judgement and never do harm to anyone. I will not give
a lethal drug to anyone if I am asked, nor will I advise such a plan;
and similarly <span style="text-decoration: none;">I will not give a
woman a pessary to cause an abortion ... I will not cut for stone,
even for patients in whom the disease is manifest; I will leave this
operation to be performed by practitioners, specialists in this art.
In every house where I come I will enter only for the good of my
patients ...</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<b>William Douglas</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
William
Douglas (1710-1758) was a younger Scot than Smellie. He trained under
James Douglas in London for five years, then studied with Hermann
Boerhaave at Leiden, gaining a degree at Rhiems in 1738. Returning to
London in 1739 he quickly gained respect, in 1746 being appointed
Physician
to the Prince of Wales and Man-midwife at Middlesex Hospital in 1749.
In 1748 Douglas wrote two letters critical of Smellie. They do not
mention the Hippocratic Oath, but it is clear the sense of the Oath
was in the mind of Douglas. Given his Royal appointment to the Prince
of Wales, who would have been King had he not died in 1751, Douglas
could not afford to make criticisms lightly. Previous writers on
Smellie have inferred that Douglas was insane, but when his full
letters are re-read in light of what is now known about Smellie's
actions, the letters read as genuine concerns. Douglas accused
Smellie of the death of a total of eight women, expressing his views
with intensity; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
The
great Fatality that has of late happened in Midwifery, has caused
Numbers to call in question that superior Skill that is claim'd by
Men-midwives. And 'tis now high time that some of us should examine
into the Reason of these <i>Out-cries</i>.
... I have been told of no less than <i>Eight
Women</i>
who have died within these last few Months under the hand of a <i>Wooden
Operator</i>,
which I believe is greater Execution than all the <i>Men-Midwives
put together</i>
in the Bills of Mortality can pretend to ... People have that
<i>implicit
Faith in Men-midwives</i>,
that they Scarce ever accuse them of any Fault in their Parts, but
impute any Misfortune that befalls <i>poor
Women</i>
to the Badness of the Case; and a Man may go on a long While with the
Vulgar, and do a great deal <i>of
Mischief </i>...
Decency is a Thing that should be very particularly preserved in this
Operation; that obscene Method you have brought into Use, of exposing
Women <i>quite
bare</i>
to a whole Room full of Company, is sufficient to make every Woman
abhor the Name or Sight of a <i>Man-midwife</i>.
Barbarities, on the other Hand, are equally shocking, and the Epithet
of Butchering, apply'd to some of us, has no Injustice in its
Similitude.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
Smellie
arranged for an anonymous 'pupil' to respond to Douglas, likely the
writer Tobias Smollett, a fellow Scot 'whose success as a medical
practitioner was apparently very limited'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
In the reply Smellie sought to evade the indictment of eight deaths
by claiming he had used the wooden forceps but twice. Douglas was so
incensed he repeated his accusations in a second letter, and listed
Dr Sands, Sir Richard Maningham, and Dr Hody as man-midwives who
declined to use forceps;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
I have been told of no less than <i>Eight
Women</i> who have died within these last few Months under the hand of a <i>Wooden
Operator.</i> Now,
Sir, it is very plain that the Allusion is to the General Practice of
<i>that</i>
Operator, and not confined to the <i>
Forceps</i>
only. … I refer to the most eminent Practitioners, who use no such
Thing, viz. Dr S...ds, Sir R...d M...n...n..m, Dr H...y.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Rather than analyse
the reasons for the deaths and Smellie's excessive use of
instruments, previous biographers of Smellie have glossed over the
accusation, as with Glaister; 'By the year 1748 so famous had become
his teaching that Smellie began to attract to himself the malicious
envy of a bitter critic'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
Johnstone described Douglas as 'This contemptible creature … not
content with publishing two scurrilous and venomous letters to “Dr
Smelle” (sic) … It is not unsurprising to learn from one of
Smellie's autobiographical fragments that he became insane before his
death'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The views of Douglas
need briefly to be put on one side, with a forensic analysis of
Smellie's atlas to be discussed in the next chapter. That analysis
will support this author's view that by 1748 Smellie was already
killing, if not murdering, pregnant patients during his trials with
various instruments, and this was known to, or suspected by, William
Douglas. With this in mind, it is seen that Smellie's reference to
insanity was an attempt to cover his actions and discredit Douglas
for posterity. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<b>Man-midwifery
Training</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
In 1737 Sarah Stone
had written; 'In my humble opinion it is necessary that midwives
should employ three years at least with some ingenious woman in
practising this art' and 'I am certain that where twenty women, are
delivered with instruments (which is now become a common practice),
that nineteen of them might be delivered without, if not the
twentieth'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
While surgeons' previous training assisted them, her three years of
training can be compared to Smellie, who taught in 'a <i>Week</i> or
a Fortnight', as noted by Douglas when criticising Smellie's
excessive number of students;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.39cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
Your [teaching] has carried itself so far, as to introduce five times the
Number, more than ever will, in all probability, get any Employ. …
I think, were the Pupils you have introduced to have equal Turn
about, there would not be real<i><span style="text-decoration: none;"> Midwifery
Cases</span></i><span style="text-decoration: none;"> enough in the
whole Kingdom to make one good Operator amongst 'em … there are now
</span><i><span style="text-decoration: none;">more Men-midwives</span></i><span style="text-decoration: none;">
than Streets …You, without any Regard to the Consequence, in your
Bills set forth, that you gave a </span><i><span style="text-decoration: none;">universal</span></i><span style="text-decoration: none;">
Lecture in </span><i><span style="text-decoration: none;">Midwifery</span></i><span style="text-decoration: none;">
for </span><i><span style="text-decoration: none;">Half a Guinea</span></i><span style="text-decoration: none;">,
or divided it into Four for a </span><i><span style="text-decoration: none;">Guinea</span></i><span style="text-decoration: none;">
… There are Numbers … that have your Certificates in their
Pockets, and are no more capable of performing a difficult labour,
than I am able to carry St Paul's Church on my back. Other Masters of
Midwifery declare twenty Guineas to be their Price.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
</span>The Opportunity of learning Midwifery upon easy terms in
<i>England</i> being known, very soon began to extend itself into the
<i>Country</i>; upon this the <i>Apothecaries</i> in all Parts, began
to think of acquiring a <i>Midwifery</i> Knowledge, and their Method
has been, to write to some Friend here in Town, the Know when Dr
<i>Smellie's</i> Course would begin, and ordering matters so, as that
they could attend his <i>Lectures</i>, have returned in <u>a </u><i><u>Week</u></i><u>
or a Fortnight</u>, [my emphasis] with their <i>Certificates</i> of
being <i>Masters of Midwifery</i>; this <i>Certificate</i> being
ornamented with a <i>Frame</i> and <i>glazed</i>, is hung up in the
<i>Parlour</i> or <i>Shop</i>, to attract the Eye, and thereby give
Intelligence to every Body who shall come there, that the <i>Proprietor</i>
has taken his degree in that Profession. Thus, to the infinite
Disreputation of <i>Midwifery</i> and I fear to the Loss of many
Lives, has this Method of Teaching afforded these <i>Practitioners</i>
an opportunity of being called to the most difficult Cases that
happen which they never refuse to attend. The fatal Consequences of
which <i>superficial Education</i> is, I am informed, felt in almost
every County of England.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
Smellie's large number of inadequately trained students, all eager to carry and
use their new bags of instruments, spelled danger for pregnant women,
and for midwives. As Douglas noted; 'This <i>modern
practice</i>, and the <i>Numbers</i> introduc'd by you, seems to have alarmed the good old Women, who,
when they find their own insufficiency, generally send for better
help'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
It appears Smellie
was more concerned with making quick money, with one or two week
courses of lectures, rather than extended training for his students
to be capable of handling difficult deliveries. The 'Week or a
Fortnight' courses and resulting certificate of Smellie, so
criticised by Douglas, can be compared to earlier teachers. Circa
1670, Percivall Willughby wrote, 'The young midwives at London bee
trained for seven yeares first under the old midwives, before they
bee allowed to practice for themselves'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
John Maubray (1700-1732), in his <i>“Midwifery bought to Perfection
by Manual Operation”</i> of 1725, promoted man-midwifery training
of four or five months;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Maubray instituted a set of private lectures to be read twice a week, on Tuesday and
Friday evenings, betwixt the hours of five or six, for the benefit of
his students and pupils only. “The whole course may consist of
about 20 lectures, and two courses may be sufficient to qualify any
studious and 'diligently hopeful' man, especially if he be already
instructed and grounded in the anatomical part. Thus in four or five
months' time he may accomplish and perfect himself in this our noble
art of midwifery. … “In the presence of this learned assembly,”
he continues, “I, for me at least and my pupils, disclaim and
explode out of the practice of midwifery all sorts and kinds of
instruments whatever, except that only which Nature designed, the
hand.” … he had “at great expense and trouble provided a
sufficient number of pregnant women upon whom the students would
occasionally, perhaps once a week, practise the touch; and when the
women fall in labour the students would have the performance of the
deliveries, every one in his turn. At this rate I flatter myself that
in time I may contribute to the stocking of not only London but all
Great Britain with a set of as good and expert practisers of
Midwifery as any other country whatsoever may have to boast of.”<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The account shows that the lectures of Maubray were far more extensive than those of
Smellie, and infer that the criticisms by William Douglas were
justified. Maubray praised the Hotel-Dieu in Paris, hoping the rich
of London would provide a similar hospital 'for poor miserable women
in the time of their natural affliction'. Unfortunately, he died at
age 32, before achieving such a hospital. However, it can be noted
that Smellie was dismissive of the London scene as McLintock notes in
recording Smellie's 1738 view of the London lectures before he left
to visit Paris;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
“[Smellie] actually made journey to London in order to acquire further
information on the subject;” but he adds. “here I saw nothing was
to be learned.” The only teacher of midwifery at that time in
London was either Maubray [sic] or Manningham; and Smellie's
observation is certainly not complimentary to the teaching then
provided.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
McLintock appears to be in error with the reference to Maubray who reportedly died in
1732. The reason for Smellie to comment in this manner seems less
unconnected to the course content, and more due to an absence of
instruction in the use of instruments. Smellie already had some years
of midwifery experience and had travelled to London specifically to
learn more of the use of forceps. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<b>Peter Camper</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
A relevant source in
assessing Smellie's research and teachings is Peter Camper
(1722-1789), a Dutch man-midwife and anatomist, who three times
visited London. Camper had started using Slichting's small forceps in
Holland at a time when the leading man-midwives there, the
Roonhuysians, would have nothing to do with forceps as they claimed
it was not possible ever to deliver a child alive with them. Thus he
was keen to understand the techniques developed in England. Already
respected, on his first visit he attended Smellie's course in January
1749 and again in April. Camper wrote a full account of Smellie's
lecture content in his private Journal which, significantly, he never
expected to be published, and hence one can assume it has not been
sanitised; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
January 5<sup>th</sup>
[1749] In the morning at 11 o'clock I subscribed on Dr Smellie's
course on midwifery for three guineas. … January 21<sup>st</sup>.
Saw Dr Smellie deliver a child with the forceps according to the
method prescribed by him; the head was slightly bruised and the child
alive ... He explains both their external and internal parts by using
the dead bodies of women but much more clearly in other exhibits
specially prepared for the purpose. He also shows his listeners an
almost complete series of foetuses. … Before delivering his sixth
lecture he demonstrates by means of poor women who often attend in
large numbers, how pregnant and non pregnant women should be
examined.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
One can deduce many women were so desperate and so destitute, they made themselves available for
examination at Lecture 6, to receive a penny or two from the common
fund. In describing Lecture 2, Camper wrote;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
<u>He [Smellie]
exhibits the dead bodies of women</u> [my emphasis] to be able to
show their parts in their usual position which is of the greatest
advantage: the abdomen is opened up in a straight line from the
xiphoid to the navel and from here to the end of the cresta of the
ilium where the artotious muscle begins. In the dead bodies he shows
the clitoris reaching to the middle of the pubes and the ostium
vulvae or external outlet not in the centre of the pelvis or properly
not in the position of the axes, but outside it and very near the os
pubis. On the contrary the arse is actually placed in the centre of
the lower part of the pelvis. … He demonstrates this in the dead
body mentioned above. In order to demonstrate everything better in
their true position, he shows the pelvis dissected straight down to
the os pubis and sacrum, which is the best method of examining the
parts in their proper position.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Smellie thus had a ready supply of fresh bodies as Camper makes a point of
distinction, on the same page, in recording; 'He preserves in spirit
of wine the body of a woman who died shortly after delivering her
child'. Camper discusses at length, Smellie's instructions for using
the forceps, the curved hook, the noose, the scissors, and forfex,
and also writes of Smellie's lectures; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
The length of the
cord is usually two feet or more although sometimes shorter; it is
clear enough that the foetus is joined to the mother, but how is
uncertain. Anastomosis between the vessels of the uterus and the
placenta has not yet been demonstrated: indeed the famous Hunter
maintains that the celebrated experiment of Noortwyckius proves
nothing. Whatever it is, Dr Smellie does not come to any decision,
and rightly notes that it is a mere speculation with no practical
result. Behold his observations! … Although <u>we can come to no
certain decision about the position of the embryo or foetus in the
uterus</u>, [my emphasis] yet the probability is that the foetus
during the whole period of gestation is always placed with the head
inwards. Dr Smellie has delivered foetuses in the 4<sup>th</sup>,
5<sup>th</sup>, 6<sup>th</sup>, and 7<sup>th</sup> months head
first.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
As Camper does not differentiate in commenting upon the two courses, one realizes
Smellie was readily able to procure female corpses for demonstration
purposes. But from Camper's wording, it appears that the dead bodies
he saw were delivered, and the detailed anatomy of the gravid uterus
was still unknown at the time of the April lectures. However, the
tone of the lectures, and the later record, suggests Smellie was not
revealing his progress in gravid uterus research. Van Rymsdyk would
have been making drawings by April 1750, but Camper does not mention
van Rymsdyk's drawings until his second, 1752, visit. The impression
from Camper's Journal, is that Smellie had a set course content, but
was unforthcoming concerning his research. An understandable
omission, as Smellie earned his income by selling man-midwifery
knowledge, and would not want a new discovery known, before he had
determined how to use it to enhance his income. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Similarly, he would not want his failures known, as that could discourage potential
students. For example, in the 1764 Vol III of his Treatise, Smellie
describes three earlier instances in 1747-1748 where he
unsuccessfully attempted Caesareans, but his only recorded comment to
Camper in 1750, was; '[Smellie] considers the Caesarean operation
necessary in certain cases. He refers his listeners to Roussetus, to
the Royal Academy of Surgery in Paris, to the surgery of Heister
etc.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a>
This shows Smellie was familiar with the Caearean work of Francois
Rousset (c1530-1603) and also the Memoires of the French Royal
Academy, published in an English translation in 1750. This also
reveals that, while Smellie did not elaborate on his Caesareans to
Camper, and despite three failures, he still believed the Caesarean
operation should be undertaken in certain cases. It is therefore
logical to conclude that Smellie had an ongoing interest in Caesarean
research. Further, it becomes apparent that Smellie and Camper
developed a mutual professional respect, to the extent that Camper
returned to London in 1752 to undertake gravid uterus research with
Smellie. The second and third visits of Camper to London, in 1752 and
1785, are discussed in a later section. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<b>Forceps and
Experimentation</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
Smellie did warn of the risk of infection from unclean forceps; they
'will corrupt and stink; and in some cases, perhaps may convey
infection',<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
but his warning was ignored by man-midwives of the 18C and early 19C.
His concern
about infection was echoed by Elizabeth Nihell, who
ironically observed; 'Certainly, certainly, not only the Doctor's
nine hundred pupils, but all other practitioners, that use this
famous instrument, will do well to observe this injunction. It is the
very best thing they can do, next to never using it at all.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a>
Despite Nihell's objections, use of instruments spread rapidly.
Nihell quoted the French man-midwife, de la Motte, another who
opposed instruments;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
I found several ancient master-surgeons, who pretended to help the
women in their difficult, or preternatural labours, solely with the
use of the crotchet; without ever, in their life having made any
delivery, but in that manner, and as soon as they had extracted the
foetus with their crotchet, they left the rest or the after-birth to
be brought away by a woman, as they themselves knew nothing of the
matter. When they were fetched to help a woman in labour, they took
their crotchet, went to the woman, whom they put into posture, and
whether the child presented the head, breech, arm or leg, whether it
was dead or alive, a woman's having passed a day and a half in labour
was cue more than enough for them to go to work with their crotchet.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
Even Glaister, a supporter of Smellie, commented; 'During
his practice in London ... Smellie was blamed not only for having
himself used the forceps far too frequently, and in cases where
nature could herself have terminated the labour, but also, for
inculcating their too frequent use to his pupils'. Glaister
also comments on Smellie's secrecy over accidental deaths at his
attendances; 'This practice of keeping such an accident secret he
seems to have followed consistently in his teaching; for we read in a
case happening to a pupil in 1746, where a similar accident had
befallen the patient, the pupil writing ... “according to your
prudent advice, I spoke nothing of the matter”'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66sym" name="sdendnote66anc"><sup>lxvi</sup></a>
</div>
Secrecy was stressed
by William Hunter to his own students;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br />
[W]here Anatomists
are not legally supplied with dead bodies, particular care should be
taken, to avoid given offence to the populace, or to the prejudices
of our neighbours. Therefore it is to be hoped, that you will be upon
your guard; and, out of doors, speak with caution of what may be
passing here, especially with respect to dead bodies. These
considerations render it necessary to shut our doors against
strangers, or such people as might choose to visit us, from an idle
or even malevolent curiosity.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67sym" name="sdendnote67anc"><sup>lxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In ten years Smellie
had 1150 poor patients and 900 students, so the period 1745-1749
involved about 575 poor patients and 450 students. An attempt can be
made to estimate his total experiments. Based upon four students per
course and one demonstration with forceps per course, that is about
110 courses with forceps were demonstrated on patients. Smellie was
also conducting his own 'many and frequent trials' of the forceps,
crotchets, and other instruments. Assuming one trial a month over the
five years, equates to experiments on another 60 patients. Hence, a
reasonable estimate is that in 1745-1749, in addition to the 21 uses
of forceps recorded in his Treatise for midwife call outs, Smellie
used forceps for a further 150-200 deliveries, a rate of 25%-35% of
poor patients, either by concealment or by convincing patients
forceps were necessary for their deliveries. In contrast, in 1781
Bland reported on 1897 deliveries, with 63 'unnatural labours' and
instrument deliveries, being the single blade of a forceps, needed
only four times, i.e. 0.2% of cases.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68sym" name="sdendnote68anc"><sup>lxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
The letters of William Douglas reveal eight patient deaths. Thus, prior
to 1750 Smellie was not just conducting unnecessary, and sometimes
fatal, experiments on pregnant patients, beyond the number requiring
instrument assistance. He was unleashing barely trained man-midwives
on the pregnant women of Britain, each student anxious to try out
newly learned intervention techniques. (Although it is valid to note
Loudon's comment, discussed earlier, indicating early 20C training of
students was little better.)<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69sym" name="sdendnote69anc"><sup>lxix</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
With this rapid rate of experimentation,
it is not surprising that Smellie expressed satisfaction with his forceps, sanitising his vast
number of experiments and claiming; 'In my private practice, I have
very seldom occasion for the assistance of the forceps or any other
instrument; but I have often been called in by other practitioners to
cases in which I have had opportunity to use it with success'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70sym" name="sdendnote70anc"><sup>lxx</sup></a>
The statement draws attention to a paradox. How can one reconcile
Smellie's 'many trials' and 'frequent occasions', with his 'very
seldom occasion for the assistance of the forceps'?
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
Taken
with his secrecy over 'accidental' deaths, the disconnect is
indication Smellie did sanitise the content of his Treatise. As much was conveyed by
William Douglas to Smellie in 1748; 'To <i>you</i>,
where <i>you</i> claim the Invention of <i>Instruments of Safety</i>,
by which neither <i>Mother</i> or <i>Child</i> are hurt! And to him [a defender of Smellie, likely Smollett], where he says <i>you</i> have reduced the Number of <i>Instruments</i>,
and brought them to the greatest Perfection; which are both absolute
Falsehoods'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71sym" name="sdendnote71anc"><sup>lxxi</sup></a>
Sanitisation of content seems to be common in man-midwifery
treatises, which need to be read with caution. Nihell accused six
man-midwives, including Smellie, of omitting failures in their
treatises;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
[A]ll the mighty pretences of the men-midwives to superiority of skill and
practice to the women are false and absurd. Look into <i>Deventer, Peu, La Motte, Mauriceau, Levret, Smellie</i>, &c. and you will find that except their accounts of the <i>innocent</i>
manual function, in which midwives must so much excel them; except
<i>their</i> pernicious practical part, on which they so tediously insist, by way
of recommending each some particular instrument that is to <i>usher</i>
him into employment, and increase his profit, in which noble noble
view he takes care to decry the instruments of all others, or at
least prefer his own; except the scientific jargon of hard Latin and
Greek words, so fit to throw dust in the eyes of the ignorant, and
give their work an air of deep learning; except what they have
pillaged from regular physicians and surgeons, who have treated upon
these matters: except in short all the quacking verboseness of the
various histories of their exploits and deliverances of distressed
women, and you will find <u> the
merit of their whole works shrink to little or nothing, under the
appraisement of common sense</u> [my emphasis] and true practical knowledge. The most that you will
find in them, is, hard or lingering labours, oftenest precipitated
fatally to the mother, or at least to the child; they hardly, you may
be sure, carrying [sic] their candour so far, as always to mention
when it has proved so to both; of which, however, the tenor of their
practice with instruments gives you but too much room to presume the
probability. In short those cases, of which their works are chiefly
patched up, are little better than so many quack-advertisements.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72sym" name="sdendnote72anc"><sup>lxxii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.56cm; text-decoration: none;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm; text-decoration: none;">
Osborn endorsed this
in reviewing the symphysis pubis operation, an alternative to the
Caesarean;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
It is with infinite pain, and not without some indignation, that I have
detected the most palpable perversion of the truth …to palliate,
conceal, or in any other manner misrepresent the circumstances of a
case, is highly culpable; but especially so far to depart from the
sacred obligation of truth, as to describe that event to be
successful which has in reality been fatal, is an event so injurious
to the interests of humanity, that it cannot, in my opinion, be too
openly exposed, or too severely, reprehended.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73sym" name="sdendnote73anc"><sup>lxxiii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br />
Similar misleading behaviour was noted by McTavish; 'Despite being accused of
causing the deaths of unborn children and pregnant women, physicians
rarely if ever included blame narratives in their own obstetrical
treatises.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74sym" name="sdendnote74anc"><sup>lxxiv</sup></a>
In referring to 18C France, McTavish makes comments pertinent to
Britain; 'Complex blame narratives were written primarily by those surgeon men-midwives
and female midwives interested in renegotiating the medical hierarchy
in relation to childbirth. In spite of their conventions, the tales
represent the birthing room as a potentially fraught realm, in which
neither men nor women were immune from attack. Chirurgiens
accoucheurs accused both female midwives and physicians of causing deaths in
childbirth, but could also malign each other'.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
A consistent theme
in contemporary literature, is excessive and dangerous use of
instruments by man-midwives. Smellie used the crotchet or similar
instruments 12 times before 1738, whereas Edmund Chapman said in 1733
he had only four or five times used these instruments in a
twenty-five year career. The vectis was preferred by some
man-midwives as a substitute for forceps. Although Smellie is not
noted for his use of the vectis, an indication of the widespread,
unnecessary, and secret use of obstetric instruments was conveyed by
William Osborn (1736-1808) in 1793; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
As the secrecy with
which the vectis may be used, and I believe, is generally used in
this town … I am persuaded, that if concealment in the use of the
means intended for relief in laborious or difficult labours be not
permitted, but the the absolute necessity of such means be first
established, and that every practitioner be obliged openly and
avowedly to use them, we should never again hear or read of one
person having used the vectis in eight hundred, [Le Bruyn] and
another in twelve hundred cases. [Waroquier] … Nor do real
difficulties occur so often as to render it possible to believe, that
any man's life could afford such numbers of difficult cases as are
stated in the printed accounts from abroad.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75sym" name="sdendnote75anc"><sup>lxxv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
Nihell concluded
that financial motives were paramount in the increasing use of
instruments;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
But why do these gentry then so much insist on the absolute necessity there is of
<i>sometimes</i> having recourse to instruments? ----Why? The motive
for that insistence is so transparent, that not to see through it
would indeed be blindness. It is the capital, and perhaps <u>the only
plea that has the least shadow of plausibility for the men to intrude
themselves into the women's business of midwifery</u>. [my emphasis]<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote76sym" name="sdendnote76anc"><sup>lxxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br />
Thirty years later,
Osborn, who in 25 years experience stated he had taught 1400
man-midwives, echoed this, in revealing his own key motive as
financial, by fearing that if women became aware of the degree of
overuse of instruments by man-midwives, midwives would instead become
preferred; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
If an opinion should prevail among women, that practitioners in midwifery ever … for
their own convenience, and without necessity … hurry the labour …
and it should be discovered by the marks of the instrument on the
child after birth, or by the unusual painfulness of their present
feelings in delivery, or by future effects still more injurious, and
lasting, that an instrument had been used, without conviction of the
necessity, without their own consent, and even during the full
operation of the labour pains … if such an opinion should become
general, I am persuaded the inevitable consequence would be, that the
practice of midwifery, in ordinary cases, <u>would again revert into
the hands of female practitioners</u>, [my emphasis] much to the
injury of the sex, and equally to the injury of the interest of the
profession.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote77sym" name="sdendnote77anc"><sup>lxxvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Concern continued in 1827, over excessive intervention and use of instruments by
man-midwives;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
The truth is, that accoucheurs will not permit, if they can, the belief
to be entertained that nature is everything, and all their pretended
art as nothing in the great process of the birth of mankind. Thus, in
the Dublin lying-in hospital, numerous cases of difficult parturition
were absolutely created, by the preliminary treatment to which the
inmates were subjected. They were kept in a close warm room, and
sustained on coarse stimulating diet. How many operations took place
under this system it is impossible to tell. All we know is that when
the treatment was reversed, the whole of the doctors began to marvel
very much, and to tremble a great deal at the wonderful power of
unassisted nature.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote78sym" name="sdendnote78anc"><sup>lxxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Carlisle was another who expressed concern and Dr Robert Lee
was reported in The Lancet of 1842;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Of forty cases narrated by Dr Lee, he says in none did
anything but mischief result from the use of the instrument ... In no
case was the employment of the forceps advantageous where the blades
were applied and locked with great difficulty, and great force
required to extract the head of the child. The lives of eleven
children were saved, which otherwise must have been sacrificed out of
the forty-two, by the forceps, and the death of only three of the
mothers can be referred to its injudicious use. Sixteen however,
suffered more or less severely from laceration; and sloughing of the
perineum, vagina, bladder, and rectum.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote79sym" name="sdendnote79anc"><sup>lxxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
But to return to the mid 18C. Despite the statements by
Johnstone that 'the reader of [Smellie's] books is left in no doubt
that he was most assuredly a good man' and that Smellie is 'one whose
reputation as a skilful and kindly man-midwife was steadily growing
and spreading',<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote80sym" name="sdendnote80anc"><sup>lxxx</sup></a>
the evidence, together with the accusations by Douglas and Nihell,
shows Smellie as a man prepared to act unethically to obtain
knowledge and willing for his patients to be sacrificed in order that
his experiments can continue. This side of his character will be seen
even more clearly when we consider Smellie's atlas and his continuing
attempts to understand the mechanics of parturition. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<b>Craniotomies</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
With forceps widely
available by 1740, the under 1% of births said to require instruments
were approached by man-midwives in a positive manner. However,
outstanding were craniotomies, the crushing of the skull of the fetus
where the physical condition of the mother precluded any birth,
natural or assisted. Although man-midwives proclaimed a need, these
cases were exceedingly rare in the 18C. Difficult deliveries are
regarded as resulting from the disease of rickets, but archaeologists
rarely find rickets in medieval skeletons, because most people worked
out of doors and lived in the countryside. Rickets was an issue from
the commencement of the Industrial Revolution, and also in European
communities where babies were excessively swaddled, but in 1750,
8,000 to 12,000 people a year moved to London from the countryside
where rickets was uncommon. Thus a high proportion of London
residents were country born and rickets among parturient women was
rare. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In
1788 William Black commented upon the extreme rarity of deformities
of the pelvis; '[S]uch
instances of deformity very rarely occur ... during the last hundred
years in this island ... including three generations, of fifty or
sixty puerperal women in London, whose pelvises were remarkably small
and deformed, notwithstanding the unavoidable necessity of recurring
to obstetrical instruments, in order to diminish and tear away the
infant, yet not above five or six died'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote81sym" name="sdendnote81anc"><sup>lxxxi</sup></a>
In one hundred years, Black states there were few instances where it was
deemed necessary to contemplate sacrifice of a baby for its mother
via an embriotomy [craniotomy], and only five or six mothers died.<br />
<br />
When related to total London births over the hundred years, the
rarity is clear, one needing contemplation every two years, and one
death occurring every 15 to 20 years. There were 1,250,000 births in
London from 1700-1776, or say 1,500,000 births in the one hundred
years to 1788. Black is therefore stating an craniotomy was only
needed for 1:25,000 deliveries, and only 1:250,000 died from an
craniotomy.<br />
<br />
In 1733 Edmund Chapman wrote, 'Here, again, I was
forced, the Child being <i>Dead</i>,
to have recourse to the <i>Hook</i>.
But these Cases are so uncommon, that I have not had Occasion to be
concerned in them more than <i>Four</i> or <i>Five</i> times, in the Course of <i>Five</i> and <i>Twenty</i> Years Practice.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote82sym" name="sdendnote82anc"><sup>lxxxii</sup></a><br />
<br />
Benjamin
Pugh wrote in 1754 that in 14 years and 2000 cases, he had never
needed to resort to a craniotomy. In
contrast Smellie reports using the crotchet or similar instrument
eleven times between 1745-1749; but probably across less than 1000
deliveries, a rate of 11:1000.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In Britain, a craniotomy was promoted as the preferred treatment for
residual difficult deliveries until much later acceptance of the
Caesarean. Opinions of the Caesarean as
an alternative to craniotomy varied, in France it was a recognised
procedure. In France the Caesarean was tried to save both mother and
child, but in Britain was only attempted to save the baby, if the
mother died before delivery.<br />
<br />
When Smellie reported attempting three
Caesareans in 1747-1748 his intention in each case was to save a
child immediately after the death of its mother. All three failed, so
foremost in Smellie's mind was whether there was a variation in his
Caesarean procedure which may have been successful. To research and
test any such variation in procedure presented considerable
difficulties. Smellie could not experiment on his patients, as a
distorted pelvis was very rare, and to save the mother in that
circumstance dictated the need to use forceps or, if the forceps
failed, to undertake a craniotomy. In considering a Caesarean as an
alternative to craniotomy, Smellie had two options; to wait until a
mother died and save the child, the preferred British approach, or
operate before the mother's death in an effort to save both of them,
the preferred French approach. It is doubtful Smellie contemplated a
'French Caesarean' on these three live mothers. However, he must have thought about it afterwards, with his
contemplation of an alternative 'British Caesarean' procedure complicated by his lack of detailed knowledge of the gravid uterus,
and the ethical implications in procuring suitable cases of near term pregnant women to perform experimental Caesareans upon.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
We will later consider the 'red flag' here raised; whereby
circumstances dictated Smellie's need to undertake three
Caesareans in 1747-1748, but his <i>Treatise</i> records no further attempts
by him in the next ten years. Why not? The
evidence is already showing that the criticisms of Smellie by William
Douglas, John Burton, and Elizabeth Nihell deserve far greater
credence than they have been given by those medical historians who have instead
lauded Smellie and the Hunters. William Hunter warned that anatomists
lie and there is also a belief that Tobias Smollett, who assisted
in the editing of some of Smellie's <i>Treatise</i>, sanitised Smellie's
cases for public consumption as he did so.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Research in
succeeding chapters focuses closely on a specific aspect of maternal
mortality, i.e. undelivered deaths, where a mother died before
delivery, with no attempt made by any midwives or man-midwives
present to save the baby. The normal response instead being to
intervene. Hence undelivered corpses for dissection were so rare
there has not been an agreed term to describe the rate of undelivered
deaths among pregnant women. In choosing an acronym, Undelivered
Mortality Rate (UMR) and Undelivered Death Rate (UDR) were
considered, with UDR selected, as 'Mortality' has overtones of
natural death, whereas 'Death' better encompasses any excess of
violent deaths. But what about 18C knowledge of the physical nature
and appearance of an impregnated womb?</div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Hunter, John, <i>The works of John
Hunter</i>, with notes, Vol IV, ed. by J.F.
Palmer, London, Longman, 1837, p 169</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Aveling, James Hobson, <i>English Midwives</i>, reprint of 1872
edition, London, Elliott,1967, p xv</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Johnstone, R W, <i>William Smellie</i>, London, Livingstone, 1952, p
66</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Aveling, James Hobson, <i>English Midwives</i>, reprint of 1872
edition, London, Elliott,1 967, p 6-10</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Donnison, Jean, <i>Midwives and Medical Men</i>, London, Historical
Publications, 1988, p 15
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Aveling, James Hobson, <i>English Midwives</i>, reprint of 1872
edition, London, Elliott, 1967, p 22</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Fothergill, Samuel and Royston, W, <i>The Medical and Physical
Journal,</i> Vol XXVI, London, R Phillips, 1811, p 41
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Ward, Nathaniel, <i>The Simple Cobbler of Aggawam</i>, London, S
Bowtell, 1647, p 58</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
Clark, Samuel, <i>The lives of sundry eminent persons in this later
age, </i>London, Thomas Simmons, 1683, p 108</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
Eachard, John, <i>The grounds & occasions of the contempt of the
clergy and religion, </i>London, N Brooke, 1670</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
<i>The Harleian Miscellany,</i> London, T Osborne, 1745, p 136-140</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Dryden, John,<i> Sylvae or Poetical Miscellanies, </i>Third Edition,
London, Jacob Tonson, 1702, p 11</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
<i>The British Apollo</i>, London, 1708.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a><i>
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">Freedman, Sarah A</span><i>,“Frog
Practice: Medicine, Midwifery, and the Exclusion of Women”</i>,
Calgary, UC, 2005. </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Aveling, James Hobson, <i>English Midwives</i>, reprint of 1872
edition, London, Elliott, 1967, p 21</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
Nihell, Elizabeth, <i>A Treatise on the Art of
Midwifery, </i>London, A Morley, 1760, p 34</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
Snapper, I, <i>Bulletin of the New York Academy
of Medicine</i>, <span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Vol.
39, August 1963</span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">,
p 513</span></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
Morant, George, <i>Hints to Husbands</i>, London, Simpkin, 1857, p
116</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>Medical Care and the General Practitioner</i>,
1750-1850, New York, OUP, 1986, p 87
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
Kimber, Issac, and Kimber, Edward, <i>The London Magazine</i>,
London, R Baldwin, 1772, p 225-226</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>Death in Childbirth</i>, Oxford, OUP, 2000, p 177</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
Nihell, Elizabeth, <i>A Treatise on the Art of Midwifery, </i>London,
A Morley, 1760, p 71 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
Wilson, Adrian, <i>The Making of Man-Midwifery: Childbirth in
England 1660-1770,</i> London, UCL, 1995, p 43</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Harper, Philip, <i>Transactions of the Obstetrical Society</i>,
London, Longman, 1860, p 181</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Nihell, Elizabeth, <i>A Treatise on the Art of
Midwifery, </i>London, A Morley, 1760, p 34</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, Nichols, 1751, p 286</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
Donnison, Jean, <i>Midwives and Medical Men,</i> London, Heinemann,
1988, p 63</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
Pagan, J, <i>Glasgow Medical Journal,</i> Glasgow, MacKenzie, 1854,
p 215</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>Death in Childbirth</i>, Oxford,OUP, 1992, p 192</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>Death in Childbirth</i>, Oxford,OUP, 1992, p 230</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
<i>The Present State of the Republic of Letters for July 1733</i>,
London, Innys, 1733, p 237</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
Nihell, Elizabeth, <i>A Treatise on the Art of
Midwifery, </i>London, A Morley, 1760, p 37-54</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Glaister, John, <i>Dr William Smellie and his Contemporaries</i>,
Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p 128</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Johnstone, R W, <i>William Smellie</i>, London, Livingstone, 1952,
Fig 1, p 23-25</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
McClintock, Alfred H, <i>Smellie's Treatise</i>, Vol I, London, NSS,
1876, p 197-198</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
Cook, J W, and Cook, B C, <i>Man-midwife, Male Feminist; George
Macaulay</i>, Ann Arbor, UMUL, 2004, p 118</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
Donegan, Jane B, <i>Women & Men Midwives</i>, Westport,
Greenwood, 1978, p 145</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Glaister, John, <i>Dr William Smellie and his Contemporaries</i>,
Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p 91</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
Glaister, J, <i>Dr William Smellie</i>, Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p
87-88, p 173, p 229, p 231, p 235</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
Johnstone, R W, <i>William Smellie</i>, London, Livingstone, 1952, p
102</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
Glaister, John, <i>Dr William Smellie and his Contemporaries</i>,
Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p 60-61</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
<i>The London Magazine</i>, London, Kimber, 1767, p 52</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Smellie, W, quoted in Nihell, Elizabeth, <i>A Treatise on the Art of
Midwifery</i>, London, Morley, 1760, p 161</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
Murphy, Edwin, <i>History of Midwifery, London</i>, BMJ, 14 May
1864, p 526
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
Barker, John, <i>Essay on the Agreement Betwixt Ancient and Modern
Physicians</i>, London, Hawkins, 1747, p viii</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
Barker, John, <i>Essay on the Agreement Betwixt Ancient and Modern
Physicians</i>, London, Hawkins, 1747, p 58</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
Douglas, William, <i>A Letter to Dr Smelle</i>, London, Roberts,
1748, p 2-22</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
Glaister, John, <i>Dr William Smellie and his Contemporaries</i>,
Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p 113</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
Douglas, William, <i>A Second Letter to Dr Smelle</i>, London,
Paterson, [1748], p 4, 15</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
Glaister, John, <i>Dr William Smellie and his Contemporaries</i>,
Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p 68</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
Johnstone, R W, <i>William Smellie</i>, London, Livingstone, 1952, p
33</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a>
Aveling, James Hobson, <i>English Midwives</i>, reprint of 1872
edition, London, Elliott,1 967, p 106-109</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
Douglas, William, <i>A Letter to Dr Smelle</i>, London, Roberts,
1748, p 4-16</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
Douglas, William, <i>A Second Letter to Dr Smelle</i>, London,
Paterson, [1748], p 20-21</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
Douglas, William, <i>A Letter to Dr Smelle</i>, London, Roberts,
1748, p 24</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a>
Willughby, Percivall, <i>Observations in Midwifery</i>, Wakefield, S
R Publishers, 1972, p 73</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
Spencer, Herbert R, <i>The History of British Midwifery from
1650-1800</i>, London, John Bale, 1927, p 12-13</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
McLintock. Alfred H, <i>Smellie's Treatise with annotations</i>,
London, New Sydenham, 1876, p 4</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV,
Amsterdam, Sum. Soc., 1939, p 3-11</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV,
Amsterdam, Sum. Soc., 1939, p 13-15</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV,
Amsterdam, Sum. Soc., 1939, p 21, p 31</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV,
Amsterdam, Sum. Soc., 1939, p 63</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a>
Glaister, John,<i> Dr William Smellie</i>, Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894,
p 237</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
Nihell, Elizabeth, <i>A Treatise on the Art of Midwifery</i>,
London, Morley, 1760, p 419</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
Nihell, Elizabeth, <i>A Treatise on the Art of
Midwifery, </i>London, Morley, 1760, p 291</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote66">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66anc" name="sdendnote66sym">lxvi</a>
Glaister, John, <i>Dr William Smellie and his Contemporaries</i>,
Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p 172, p 244</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote67">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67anc" name="sdendnote67sym">lxvii</a><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>
</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Hunter,
William, </span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>Two
Introductory Lectures Delivered by Dr. William Hunter,</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
London, J Johnson, 1784, p 113</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote68">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68anc" name="sdendnote68sym">lxviii</a>
<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, London, Royal Society, 1781, p
358</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote69">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69anc" name="sdendnote69sym">lxix</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>Death in Childbirth</i>, Oxford, OUP, 1992, p 230</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote70">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70anc" name="sdendnote70sym">lxx</a>
Glaister, John, <i>Dr William Smellie and his Contemporaries</i>,
Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p 247</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote71">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71anc" name="sdendnote71sym">lxxi</a>
Glaister, John, <i>Dr William Smellie and his Contemporaries</i>,
Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p 91</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote72">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72anc" name="sdendnote72sym">lxxii</a>
Nihell, Elizabeth, <i>A Treatise on the Art of Midwifery</i>,
London, Morley, 1760, p 146-147</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote73">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73anc" name="sdendnote73sym">lxxiii</a>
Osborn, William, <i>Essays on the Practice of Midwifery,</i> London,
Johnson, 1795, p 304-305</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote74">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74anc" name="sdendnote74sym">lxxiv</a>
McTavish, L,<i> Blame and Vindication in the Early Modern Birthing
Chamber</i>, Medical history, 2006, p 447-464</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote75">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75anc" name="sdendnote75sym">lxxv</a>
Osborn, William, <i>Essays on the Practice of Midwifery,</i> London,
Johnson, 1795, p 110-111</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote76">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote76anc" name="sdendnote76sym">lxxvi</a>
Nihell, Elizabeth, <i>A Treatise on the Art of Midwifery</i>,
London, Morley, 1760, p 143</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote77">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote77anc" name="sdendnote77sym">lxxvii</a>
Osborn, William, <i>Essays on the Practice of Midwifery,</i> London,
Johnson, 1795, p ix and p 142</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote78">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote78anc" name="sdendnote78sym">lxxviii</a>
<i>The Monthly Review</i>, Vol V, London, Thomas Hurst, 1827, p
19-20</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote79">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote79anc" name="sdendnote79sym">lxxix</a>
Wakley, Thomas, <i>The Lancet,</i> London, 1842, p 410</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote80">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote80anc" name="sdendnote80sym">lxxx</a>
Johnstone, R W, <i>William Smellie</i>, London, Livingstone, 1952, p
5, p 23</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote81">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote81anc" name="sdendnote81sym">lxxxi</a>
Black, William, <i>A Comparative View of the Mortality of the Human
Species</i>, London, Dilly, 1788, p 357-359</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote82">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote82anc" name="sdendnote82sym">lxxxii</a>
Chapman, Edmund, <i>A Treatise on the Improvement of Midwifery</i>,
London, Brindley, 1735, p 232</span></div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-8721827048524545852015-04-07T20:41:00.003-07:002021-11-26T15:57:34.470-08:009 - Then We Sawed this Body in Two ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The state of obstetric knowledge in 1750 is conveyed in this plate from
<i>Institutiones Chirurgicae</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
by the German anatomist Lorenz Heister FRS (1683-1758), who taught at
Helmstädt. It is clear from the engraving made by Francesco Sesori,
that he and Heister had only a rudimentary knowledge of how a fetus
filled the womb. This is a signal that even though he was a famous
anatomist, between 1720 and 1750, Heister had never been able to
procure an undelivered subject with a fetus in the womb, as one which he
could dissect and observe, thus demonstrating the extreme rarity of
undelivered subjects. </span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgiVfUapOv3a_2fUqDkR2OHXzA0M1fNUj7uq_XkQ0MikDGUL46Pgeo9fX5anXioNmURKFouoqSScQMmlvh1yIaFnnb9I1XAyKTMgdDFI08ko37CPtEESrk7XIUuCzPG_cAHz3g15l2g_WY/s1600/Table+3+Heister+Germany.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgiVfUapOv3a_2fUqDkR2OHXzA0M1fNUj7uq_XkQ0MikDGUL46Pgeo9fX5anXioNmURKFouoqSScQMmlvh1yIaFnnb9I1XAyKTMgdDFI08ko37CPtEESrk7XIUuCzPG_cAHz3g15l2g_WY/s1600/Table+3+Heister+Germany.jpg" width="542" /></a></div>
<span style="font-style: normal;"><br /></span></div>
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<span dir="LTR" id="Frame232" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border: medium none; float: left; height: 255%; padding: 0cm; width: 100%;">
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1QOnTvwvY9RPAYDCzePWb22LF3yd3l7W6kYcu_9z2GySyysMxCOFh3xJVY0F8rR42qobT_YKUNxRTQ4iffOpHmnIceWBMMET1oX02krUtOeYGLnKcK9UUuq2oNeRAVsSKizhtymjuYgY/s1600/Heister.tif" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1QOnTvwvY9RPAYDCzePWb22LF3yd3l7W6kYcu_9z2GySyysMxCOFh3xJVY0F8rR42qobT_YKUNxRTQ4iffOpHmnIceWBMMET1oX02krUtOeYGLnKcK9UUuq2oNeRAVsSKizhtymjuYgY/s1600/Heister.tif" width="293" /></a></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Plate
from 1750 "Institutiones Chirurgicae" by Lorenz Heister</i></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8e4P_rqTdFGZ8M_8abm7Ez9tjksIb7JWfUg761e_DHLcXm31I6_tAmTHh9sU9ZeJKgZMdj9dTPO3CSyINAnXmgOhYBFwXgVcm3Cgzi0w3ajj6DzrepAwKzPTpMbpfl7WODXmkD3Exe4g/s1600/burton.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img align="LEFT" border="0" height="400" name="graphics336" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8e4P_rqTdFGZ8M_8abm7Ez9tjksIb7JWfUg761e_DHLcXm31I6_tAmTHh9sU9ZeJKgZMdj9dTPO3CSyINAnXmgOhYBFwXgVcm3Cgzi0w3ajj6DzrepAwKzPTpMbpfl7WODXmkD3Exe4g/s320/burton.jpg" width="290" /></a><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Stubbs,
c1751, for John Burton</i></span></div>
</td>
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</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
By comparing the plates with images made the next year, it is clear John Burton and his
artist George Stubbs, had little better fetal knowledge than Heister.
One can thus presume neither Burton nor Stubbs had ever seen a fetus
in the womb, with Stubbs' plates as more evidence of the rarity of an
undelivered subject. The lack of fetal knowledge was discussed in a
paper by Richard Hale, <i>“Of the Human Allantois”</i> which was
republished by the Royal Society in 1749. The contents of the ten
page paper show that the internal physical features of a pregnant
human female, and the fetus in the womb, were the subject of widely
conflicting medical opinions, as examples were unavailable.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
In this respect, it is noteworthy that pre 1750 engravings portray
spacious wombs, whereas textural accounts from pre 1750 stress that
the fetus was always in a cramped position within the womb.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhboR8ZMXtEBJ9fR1PAwQz_BfyQqO05M5Ru0vk1clNhN1izZWkCEAHQuutgDI1P6aDItoiTxEU4i9bOneNUsUYy4YkLT4Yhze7_RGuTm7kciGwt1RRQim_AvKT-MhMaoe5OuwghFpH32Mw/s1600/Table+14+van+Rymsdyk,+c1751,+for+William+Smellie.tif" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhboR8ZMXtEBJ9fR1PAwQz_BfyQqO05M5Ru0vk1clNhN1izZWkCEAHQuutgDI1P6aDItoiTxEU4i9bOneNUsUYy4YkLT4Yhze7_RGuTm7kciGwt1RRQim_AvKT-MhMaoe5OuwghFpH32Mw/s1600/Table+14+van+Rymsdyk,+c1751,+for+William+Smellie.tif" width="267" /></a></div>
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>van
Rymsdyk, c1751, for William Smellie</i></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgI_0PdVwqxYWffDtGlaUHwQHizzeqTA8AyVWFF2vR_y7nOyRQw2zVssHBHgi30DgIM9xYho5hQoImiJe8it_0UfOhVHvWyYuJczBN5O7sytfetRIo5XYfmPy1mkU_EzP6rzxiKFHuv9c4/s1600/Table+15+van+Rymsdyk,+c1751,+for+William+Hunter.tif" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgI_0PdVwqxYWffDtGlaUHwQHizzeqTA8AyVWFF2vR_y7nOyRQw2zVssHBHgi30DgIM9xYho5hQoImiJe8it_0UfOhVHvWyYuJczBN5O7sytfetRIo5XYfmPy1mkU_EzP6rzxiKFHuv9c4/s1600/Table+15+van+Rymsdyk,+c1751,+for+William+Hunter.tif" width="281" /></a></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>van
Rymsdyk, c1751, for William Hunter</i></span></div>
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<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
One of the first
steps in performing an operation is understanding the organs
involved, knowledge scarcely obtainable until the modern era. Smellie
stated to Camper in April 1749, that '<span style="font-style: normal;">we
can come to no certain decision about the position of the embryo or
foetus in the uterus'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
Earlier, in 1670, Percivall Willughby wrote. 'To set forth a
discourse concerning the posture of the child inclosed in the womb,
would not at all advance their knowledge, and I do decline it. For
Pareus saith, that reason cannot shew the certaine situation of the
infant in the womb, and that it is altogether uncertain, variable and
diverse, both in living and in dead women'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
Discussion about the fetus included </span><i>The Nutrition of the
Foetus in the Womb</i><span style="font-style: normal;"> by F
Bellringer in 1717,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
and a 1722 report </span><i>Problems concerning the Generation,
Nutrition, etc. of the Foetus</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
by Mr Mery, an anatomist and surgeon at Hotel de Dieu in Paris.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a> </span></div>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMN2brINFpQNCvJ6sKb2zZyoupsoFzY6CfH2e0aRgY90DOGBPlRreGUFupHil7hdN16BjozWUbTZ3f6kLBuR8i280lKppI1hfm8pT8xd2gYqUGV19ZdPPK3YXj0aq00xVC5ED1M_axrtI/s1600/Table+17+van+Rymsdyk,+c1784+for+Thomas+Denman.tif" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMN2brINFpQNCvJ6sKb2zZyoupsoFzY6CfH2e0aRgY90DOGBPlRreGUFupHil7hdN16BjozWUbTZ3f6kLBuR8i280lKppI1hfm8pT8xd2gYqUGV19ZdPPK3YXj0aq00xVC5ED1M_axrtI/s1600/Table+17+van+Rymsdyk,+c1784+for+Thomas+Denman.tif" width="257" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>van
Rymsdyk, c1784 for Thomas Denman</i></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJ9nOYz4H84DodkqzGmwyyJnVrrX6-DbMsRHjW3EpmsUDebrMS-IvdAmmEVZbrDOZYGLV3bgZYx4ccNZv-1W_hD89jTVvYG_R26bNHbtOK1LJ5Gt9h2pAWXFAVEqz6ZAEb_N2JlJ9jDf8/s1600/Table+16+van+Rymsdyk,+c1754,+for+Charles+N+Jenty.tif" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJ9nOYz4H84DodkqzGmwyyJnVrrX6-DbMsRHjW3EpmsUDebrMS-IvdAmmEVZbrDOZYGLV3bgZYx4ccNZv-1W_hD89jTVvYG_R26bNHbtOK1LJ5Gt9h2pAWXFAVEqz6ZAEb_N2JlJ9jDf8/s1600/Table+16+van+Rymsdyk,+c1754,+for+Charles+N+Jenty.tif" width="254" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>van
Rymsdyk, c1754, for Charles Nicholas Jenty</i></span></td></tr>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
Varying opinions still prevailed in 1751 when Brudenell Exton
(1723-1764), man-midwife at Middlesex Hospital, published <i>A New
and General System of Midwifery,</i> writing 'Anatomists have
varied very much in their opinions concerning the substance of the
womb during pregnancy'. He commented, 'it is not by the sight, but by
the feel, that the parts are to be distinguished from each other, as
well as the situation of the womb, and the position of the infant in
it'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a>
Exton's 1751 comments infer he had never seen, nor been aware of, any
dissection of an undelivered subject. In contrast, Jan van Rymsdyk,
as artist to Smellie, Hunter, Jenty, and Denman, had access to many
undelivered subjects from late 1750 so that; 'These plates have been
universally admired for the accuracy and their execution; in which
important particulars they far surpassed anything that had ever
appeared before, and have seldom been equalled since.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
Events around this watershed, the sudden abundance from 1750 of
undelivered subjects for dissection, and for van Rymsdyk to draw,
will become the focus after introducing more of the early
man-midwives.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>James Douglas and
William Cheselden</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
James Douglas FRS (1675-1742), was famous as a surgeon, and man-midwife,
who taught and performed public dissections. He was a member of the
FRS Council, and Physician Extraordinary to Queen Caroline. Douglas
published many books and papers. Douglas described his approach; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
I took them all from the life … without taking any of them upon the credit of another. …
I raised them on both sides of above twelve subjects, both foetus's
and adults.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
I took all the dissections from ocular inspection, in dissection,
using twelve subjects to make sure: and I still keep by me the half
of one of my subjects, artfully prepared, which will afford me means
of demonstration when a fresh subject is not at hand. … to [James
Douglas] belongs the credit of being the first, so far as is
recorded, to lecture on Comparative Anatomy and to demonstrate from
his own preparations.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
An important work on human anatomy by Douglas was published in 1707,
<i>Myographiae Comparatae Specimen</i> 'a Comparative
Description of all the Muscles in a Man and in a Quadruped. Shewing
their Discoverer, Origin, Progress, Insertion, Use and Difference. To
which is added, an Account of the Muscles peculiar to a Woman'. The
book was written to accompany his anatomy lectures, being described
by him as 'fit to be carried about to public dissections'. In it he
claimed thirteen newly described muscles. It was successful, going
through six English editions, and still in general use in 1776. In
1726 Douglas discussed his own experiences of experiments;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
I most willingly
embrace this opportunity of doing justice to the ingenious Dr Bamber
and Mr Cheselden by declaring in a publick manner (what I had many
opportunities of knowing, having assisted at most of the Experiments
they made on dead Bodies) that as it was their turn to Cut in the two
great Hospitals of this City the following Season, I beheld with the
utmost pleasure the Alacrity, Industry, and Application with which
they soon made themselves Masters … On the seventh Day of last
August (1726) Dr Bamber made the first Tryal of it on living Bodies
in St Bartholomew's Hospital; and since that time he has made several
more.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Douglas left details
of his study of the reproductive system in the non-pregnant woman and
at various stages in pregnancy, copiously illustrated with fine
drawings. He said of the placenta. "I take the placenta to be
nothing but a ... of innumerable branches of the hysteric and
umbilical blood vessels complicated and wound up into what we call
glands by means of which a constant and needful intercourse is kept
up and maintained between the child and the mother and a fatal loss
of blood prevented, when the part becomes useless to both after the
birth." He was also the first to describe the structure of the
round ligaments of the uterus. On a scrap of paper he jotted down the
proposed contents of his <i>“Introduction to the knowledge and cure
of diseases incident to women and the improvement of ye practice of
midwifery”</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a><br />
<br />
This book on midwifery did not appear, but the concept was carried by
Mackenzie when he transferred to working for Smellie, as inspiration for Smellie to prepare his
<i>Treatise</i> and work with Mackenzie in undertaking gravid uterus
research. An important, wider, anatomical work by Douglas did appear
in 1730, <i>A Description of the Peritoneum and that part of the
Membrana Cellularis which lies on its Outside</i>. In this book
Douglas made detailed studies of the female pelvic anatomy and, as a
result of his investigations, several anatomical terms bear his name;
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; text-align: left;">
<br />
Douglas pouch, cavity, or cul-de-sac - Peritoneal space formed by deflection of the peritoneum.
Douglasitis - Inflammation of Douglas pouch.<br />
Douglas abscess - Suppuration in Douglas pouch, most often seen in appendicitis or
adnexitis.<br />
Douglas fold - A
fold of peritoneum forming the lateral boundary of Douglas' pouch.<br />
Douglas line - The arcuate line of the sheath of the rectus abdominis muscle.<br />
Douglas septum - The septum formed by the union of Rathke's folds, in the rectum of the
fetus. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Clients of Douglas included Lady Conway, Lady Leeds, and Mrs Horatio Walpole.
His high social status is apparent in a report of 5 November, 1734;
'We hear that on Sunday Morning early, Dr Douglas set out from his
house in Red Lyon Square, for Harwich in order to embark for Holland
to attend during the Pregnancy of her Royal Highness the Princess of
Orange; and to be Assistant at the Birth of a Prince or Princess of
that Illustrious House so much wished for, for the Strengthening the
Protestant Interest in Europe'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a><br />
<br />
The role of assistant to Douglas was prestigious. It included
dissecting while he lectured, making wet and dry preparations, and
procuring subjects for dissection. Douglas was inspiration to both
Colin Mackenzie and William Hunter who each worked as his assistant.
Mackenzie left to work for Smellie, whereas Hunter left to pursue his
own career. The date of Mackenzie joining Smellie is unclear, but
before Douglas' death in 1742, as; 'Adams says that “the same event
(? a difference respecting the demonstration of the structure of the
placenta) separated 2 other medical teachers, a master and disciple
also; i.e. Dr Douglas and Dr Mackenzie,” pointing to the
probability that Mackenzie had previously acted as assistant to Dr
James Douglas'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Adams's reference infers Mackenzie was keen to research the placenta, but
Douglas, then an old man, was reluctant to endorse the research.
Obtaining Mackenzie's services enabled Smellie to take over the
mantle of Douglas as a premier man-midwife, together with access to
Mackenzie's knowledge of Douglas' research. Mackenzie was of similar
age to Smellie and there must have been something about Smellie's
approach to midwifery which attracted Mackenzie, perhaps Smellie's
experiments with instruments and/or willingness to allow Mackenzie to
research the placenta. That Mackenzie was keen on research, and made
many preparations himself, is conveyed by Wadd;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
To say [Mackenzie]
was a competitor of a Hunter, would sound oddly in the ears of 'nous
autres' in these days, and yet, when we find his name enrolled in the
annals of medicine, as a teacher of midwifery, and know the fact,
that Doctor Orme gave a <i>thousand guineas</i> for his preparations,
and moreover, that accidental circumstances prevented his sharing
with William Hunter the honours and emoluments of Windmill-street; we
cannot deny his claim to a reminiscence in the Mems. of the medical
fraternity of the last century.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Wadd's reference to 'accidental circumstances', seems to relate to an event
in Mackenzie's career of a nature Wadd was unwilling to elaborate
upon, but likely the dissection of twins in Smellie's atlas.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
William Cheselden
FRS (1688-1752) lectured in anatomy from 1710. In 1713 he published
his <i>“Anatomy of the Human Body”</i>, which achieved great
popularity and went through thirteen editions, mainly because it was
written in English instead of Latin as was customary. Cheselden is
famous for the invention of the lateral lithotomy approach to
removing bladder stones, which he first performed in 1727.
Cheselden's procedure had a short duration (minutes instead of hours)
and a lower mortality rate (approximately 50%). Cheselden had already
developed in 1723 the suprapubic approach, which he published in <i>“A
Treatise on the High Operation for the Stone”</i>. He was appointed
Surgeon to Queen Caroline in 1727, but his biographers have puzzled
why he lost this appointment before a decade had passed.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
In 1729 Cheselden was made an honorary member of the French Academy
of Sciences and in 1732 he became the first foreign member of the
French Royal Academy of Surgery. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
After several years preparation, in 1733 Cheselden published
<i>Osteographia</i>,
the first full and accurate description of the anatomy of the human
skeletal system. Work was under way for the
<i>Osteographia</i> already by 1726 when Cheselden stated in the
preface to the “<i>Anatomy of the Human Body”</i> that he would
have replaced illustrations from the first edition: 'if I had not
been so much engaged about an Osteology in which every plate is
twenty one inches long, and fifteen broad'. “<i>Osteographia”</i>
eventually appeared in 1733. Part of the delay was that the initial
drawings for the plates were abandoned when Cheselden, in his desire
for the greatest accuracy in the rendering of the skeleton, had his
artists, Gerard Vandergucht and Jacob Schijnvoet, employ a camera
obscura.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The circumstances behind the loss of the royal appointment can be surmised from a
report in the <i>Universal Spectator</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
of</span> May 20, 1732; "John Loftas, the Grave Digger,
committed to prison for robbing of dead corpse, has confess'd to the
plunder of above fifty, not only of their coffins and burial cloaths,
but of their fat, where bodies afforded any, which he retail'd at a
high price to certain people, who, it is believed, will be call'd
upon on account thereof. Since this discovery several persons have
had their friends dug up, who were found quite naked, and some
mangled in so horrible a manner as could scarcely be suppos'd to be
done by a human creature."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
Other suggestions have been made, but it seems likely that Loftas had
supplied the bodies to Cheselden for <i>“Osteographia”</i> and
when knowledge of that activity reached the Court, it led to the loss
of his royal appointment. Later, Cheselden had a role in the split of
the surgeons from the barbers and creation of the Company of Surgeons
in 1745. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Sir Fielding Ould</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The most prominent man-midwife in Ireland was Sir Fielding Ould
(1710-1789) of Dublin. His grandfather, Colonel Ould, had arrived in
Ireland in the Army of William III and commanded the Welsh Fusileers
at the Battle of the Boyne. In 1742, Ould published his <i>"A
Treatise of Midwifery"</i> and he was an early user of the term
man-midwife. Ould studied in Paris and in 1738 he obtained a licence
to practice midwifery. This was several years before the first Irish
potato famine of December 1739 to February 1740. Despite the famine,
Ould's influence was a major factor in low maternal mortality
statistics at Dublin's Rotunda Hospital. During his Mastership,
1759-1766, 3800 women were delivered with 49 deaths (1.28%). He
attended the Countess of Mornington at the births of the Marquis of
Wellesley and of Arthur, later Duke of Wellington. Ould expressed a
strongly held view of the need for consultation, especially where a
resort to craniotomy seemed imperative. Ould outlived Burton,
Smellie, and Hunter. He is not as well known as them, although he was
the only one of the four to be knighted, on 17 May 1760, when it was
said;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Sir Fielding Ould, the sword of Knighthood gained,<br />
For saving Ladies' lives in child-bed pained.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
And;</div>
<div align="LEFT" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm;">
Sir Fielding Ould is made a knight;<br />
He should have been a Lord by right<br />
For then the ladies' cry would be,<br />
O Lord, good Lord, deliver me. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Ould was highly regarded in Ireland and wealthy from his practice, but this did not
immunise him from theft. In 1788, when Ould was aged 78, it was
reported; '<span style="font-style: normal;">This morning about four
o'clock, Sir Fielding Ould's house was broke open, and robbed of
plate and bank notes to a considerable amount. Sir Fielding Ould's
servant has been committed to prison by Alderman Exshaw, on suspicion
of robbing his master of plate and notes. The servant says the
robbery was perpetrated by six villains, who broke in through the
area window, and after tying him, went into his master's apartment
and robbed him; the Doctor however, asserts that only one person came
into his chamber, which person he suspects to be this identical
person with whom he struggled and even pulled a button from his coat.
When brought before Alderman Exshaw to be examined, his coat wanted a
button in the place his master said, and the area window seems to
have been forced rather from the inside than from the outside'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
Whether the servant was subsequently hanged and dissected is unclear.
</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>John Burton</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A contemporary was John Burton (1710-1771) of York, immortalised by Laurence Sterne (1713–1768)
as Dr Slop in <i>Tristram Shandy,</i>
a novel read by Mary Shelley in 1818. In
1738 he published a medical textbook, <i>A
Treatise on the Non-Naturals</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
In 1751 Burton published, <i>An
Essay Towards a Complete New System of Midwifry, Theoretical and
Practical</i><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
with eighteen copper plates drawn by George Stubbs who studied and,
from about 1746, taught anatomy at York.
Although not crisp, the images give an idea of the plates. They are
not dissimilar to the Heister images, an indication Stubbs had no
access to an undelivered subject, but 'a female subject who had died
in childbed [i.e. delivered] was found singularly favourable for the
purpose of these studies'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a>
They are far short of the quality of van Rymsdyk; 'The book contains
eighteen engravings on copper, which are poor in quality, and are
certainly not based on original observation'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
Plates 9-15 include posed rearrangements of two or three foetuses,
with three or four subjects overall, one being the twins in plate 16.
Only the bare outline of the mother appears, without surrounding bone
or muscle structure, and one gains the impression the images were
still-born subjects arranged to fit a cadaver.<br />
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtx1iap9yX6UXFYglBcum-L9Tbxyj54EBlWrVXztuBuNldonTYB_CbKQiHsv5slL2u7vk6enBCccDyI4ORqLrH7AXA93nzitdxdAqFQWj0fHfFP5_29jVWaAA_m5Utwkr4czaazeqguDY/s1600/burton.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtx1iap9yX6UXFYglBcum-L9Tbxyj54EBlWrVXztuBuNldonTYB_CbKQiHsv5slL2u7vk6enBCccDyI4ORqLrH7AXA93nzitdxdAqFQWj0fHfFP5_29jVWaAA_m5Utwkr4czaazeqguDY/s1600/burton.jpg" width="584" /></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">The
plates and subjects included in Burton's essay can be summarised as;</span></div>
<div align="LEFT" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">1-8
- Line and other drawings</span></div>
<div align="LEFT" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">9-10
- Positions of fetus, appears to be a single subject</span></div>
<div align="LEFT" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">11-15
- Positions of fetus, appear to be one or two subjects </span>
</div>
<div align="LEFT" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">16
- Positions of fetus, top image shows twins</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">17-18
- Line and other drawings</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
When compared to the atlases of Smellie and Hunter, the Burton images give
an impression of being a teaching document, rather than an anatomical
atlas. Burton rushed to publish his Essay on midwifery in mid 1751,
to pre-empt William Smellie: 'I was informed, that another person was
about to publish my improvement with some other works of his own;
this put me upon the thoughts of publishing them myself.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
Then in 1753, before Smellie published his atlas, but aware of its
imminence, Burton published a bitter attack on Smellie's
<i>Treatise</i>;'Wherein the various gross mistakes and dangerous methods of practice ...
recommended by that writer, are fully demonstrated and generally
corrected'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a><span style="font-style: normal;"> Smellie elected not to
reply; </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
This ostentatious production, which has been some months published,
would not have remained so long unnoticed by us, had we not
entertained some distant expectation that Dr Smellie might possibly
have accepted the challenge Dr Burton has here so confidently
offered, and have condescended to reply to the objections raised
against his treatise upon midwifery: yet it may be no unreasonable
presumption to suppose, that the little regard shewn to candor and
good manners in these remarks, may serve to render a neglect of them
not only excusable, but perhaps commendable. We are however persuaded
that Dr Burton has fallen upon some few real escapes in Dr Smellie's
performance; yet he has left room enough, in this very letter, for
ample recrimination upon himself, were Dr Smellie disposed to enter
the lists with an adversary who seems fonder of invective than
argument. <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The
extreme nature of Burton's attack has puzzled some authors. His
images demonstrate Burton had never seen a fetus in the womb, so he
must have been suspicious at hearing of the abundance of undelivered
subjects available to Smellie. Burton could not make a direct
accusation about this, as any suggestion of 'the pot calling the
kettle black', would rebound on the plates in his own book.
Reciprocal concern on Smellie's part accounts for the lack of a
reply. After the 1754 publication of Smellie's atlas, Burton never
again published on midwifery. 'Henceforth he channelled his creative
energies into the antiquarian studies for which he was better suited,
publishing his </span><i>"Monasticon Eboracense"</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
before Sterne had created Dr Slop, and winning thereby some measure
of renown'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>William Smellie</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Despite the earlier work of others, William Smellie (1697-1763) is regarded
by many as the father of British obstetrics; the first to teach
obstetrics and midwifery on a scientific basis. The degree of MD from
Glasgow University was conferred on Smellie on 18 February 1745. From
March 1720 to November 1721, Smellie was a naval surgeon on HMS
Sandwich, a 90-gun second rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy,
hence was accustomed to navy discipline and punishments. Smellie
practised as a country practitioner, then in 1738 went to Paris to
attend lectures on midwifery, before returning to London to teach
midwifery. He facilitated his teaching by setting up a lying-in fund
for poor patients on the condition they allow his students to observe
them during birth. He began lecture-demonstrations using anatomical
models, by adding to an actual pelvis; ligaments, muscles, and skin
in artificial materials, also artificial wombs with hinges, some with
glass windows. By
1747 Smellie had three machines and six artificial children which he
continued to use until he retired, but he was also
using dead bodies in his lectures. Peter Camper attended lectures by
Smellie and in 1748 wrote in his journal; 'The famous Dr Smellie
lectures in English, and usually completes the lectures in a
fortnight, devoting at least two hours daily to his lectures'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Rather than anatomy, Smellie's main interest was midwifery, where he was
assisted by Colin Mackenzie (1698-1775), also an ex-naval surgeon, who dissected
undelivered subjects c1745-1754. It appears that, like William
Hunter, Mackenzie had been an assistant to James Douglas. Smellie's
teaching was described by a pupil as distinct,
mechanical, and unreserved and in 1742 he was already lecturing on 'the foetus in utero'. He
advertised his lectures as; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
A course of lectures upon midwifery wherein the theory and practice of that art are
explained in the clearest manner – more particularly; - the
structure of the pelvis and uterus - of <u>the
foetus in utero</u>, [my emphasis] and after parturition - the management of child-bearing
women during pregnancy, in time of labour and after delivery -
the manner of delivering women, in all the variety of natural,
difficult, and preternatural labours, performed on different machines
made in imitation of real women and children. ... The course is divided into twelve lectures ... no more than four persons can attend at once …. The expense of being present at a
real labour, is one guinea; but such as contract for two courses and
four labours, pay only five guineas, and perform the last delivery
themselves. Pupils who engage for a year … are intitled to attend
all the courses and labours of that time, whereby they will have the
opportunity of seeing and performing in several difficult cases.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
John Hunter was, at least once, called in by Mackenzie to assist with
dissections for an undelivered subject containing twins.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
Another Smellie assistant was John Harvie (c1710-1770), husband of Smellie's
niece and awarded a certificate by Smellie on 1 Dec 1757. However;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
Smellie also performed several of his own dissections, including some on pregnant
cadavers. ... Anatomy enabled Smellie to visualize the causes of and
solutions to obstructed births. For both female and male midwives,
problems would normally have been intuited from signs read outside
the body. However, by forging a visual link between anatomical
dissection and the process of birth, Smellie's atlas makes visible
the internal forces working on the mother and the fetus. Smellie and
Riemsdyk created cross sections to show internal processes (using,
among other things, an X-ray viewpoint first pioneered by Leonardo da
Vinci) and then reconstituted the female body from the exterior, as
it would be seen in practice.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
In 1751 Smellie published volume one of his <i>Treatise
on the theory and practice of Midwifery</i>, and
it was his knowledge gained from studying undelivered subjects which
prompted Glaister to write;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
Anyone who has made himself conversant with the literature of midwifery up
till Smellie's time, cannot but be struck by <u><span style="font-weight: normal;">the
wonderful advance</span></u><span style="font-weight: normal;"> [my
emphasis] which Smellie achieved in his lucid description of one of
the most difficult problems in that science. Careful study of his
description of the mechanism of parturition at once betrays evidence
of a long, close, and persistent watch on nature. … </span><u><span style="font-weight: normal;">no
writer, in any country, before him, had previously accurately
portrayed the movements of the foetal head during its descent through
the pelvis</span></u><span style="font-weight: normal;"> [my emphasis]
– had, indeed (excepting Ould), even questioned the truth of the
tradition handed down from Hippocrates. … From Smellie's intimate
knowledge of the mechanism of parturition, he was enabled to
introduce manoeuvres in the delivery of the foetal head –
expedients which were completely new to the practice of his time –
when it came by an unusual presentation. … In this he was
distinctly the first, probably because he so accurately knew the
mechanism of parturition in the more usual presentation.</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a><span style="font-weight: normal;">
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
The views which he promulgated on [parturition] were far ahead of the time in which he
lived, and were vastly superior to anything which had before been
written on the subject. It was, besides, an absolutely novel doctrine
… Indeed, it may not inaptly be termed the key-stone of modern
midwifery. Another of the doctrines which he taught, which ran
counter to all previous teaching, and which, moreover, has been
verified by every writer of the subject since his day, was that
respecting the position of the foetus <i>in utero</i> during
pregnancy. … But years before his book was in preparation, Smellie
had reached the conclusion that the [previous] doctrine was totally
erroneous. … <u>from his experiments</u>, [my emphasis] which
showed that in the earlier months the cranial end of the foetus is
always heavier than the pedal end, he believed that a determination
was thus given to a head down position.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<b>A Sett of
Anatomical Tables</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Anatomical dissection had been long considered distinguished, with Vesalius’s
<i>De humani corporis fabrica</i> published in 1543, perhaps the most famous anatomical atlas, and the
book appearing in Carlisle's portrait. Cheselden had published an
atlas and, in a simpler form, Burton published eighteen small
engraved plates. Both Smellie and Hunter were anxious to promote
man-midwifery, the spread of which was being resisted by surgeons and
midwives so they set out to elevate man-midwifery to the status of a
medical science. To surpass Burton, Smellie and Hunter competed to
publish a large illustrated atlas, containing engraved plates of the
pregnant female body. Smellie published first; being
longer established, he had more funds to procure subjects and was
better able to elicit forward orders. His atlas;
<i>A Sett of Anatomical Tables</i><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a> was published by subscription in an edition of one hundred copies. <i>The
London Magazine</i> of December 1754 advertised <i>Thirty-six
Tables of Anatomical Figures</i>,
but the <i>General Evening Post</i> of 22 July 1755 reported;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
This Day were published (price £2.5s in sheets) Thirty-six tables of
anatomical figures, as large as the human subjects, and three of
instruments, to illustrate Dr Smellie's <i>Treatise and Cases in
Midwifery</i>, engraved by Mr Grignion, from the Drawings of Mr Reimsdyk
and others, with an explanation to each figure on fine large imperial
paper.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Smellie's
atlas is distinguished from his Treatise in moving from practical
knowledge of midwifery to an understanding of the female body, as
could only be achieved by an anatomist, and including drawings
showing how to handle difficult births. The atlas contains 39 plates
in total together with a descriptive text, drawn largely by Jan van
Rymsdyk (c1720-1788), who completed 22 drawings by 1751, and drew
four more by 1754. Peter Camper (1722-1789), a professor of medicine
in Friesland who travelled to England<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
and drew eleven, with two (37 & 39) likely by Smellie himself. In
his preface, Smellie stated; '<u>The
greatest part of the figures were taken from subjects prepared on
purpose</u>, [my emphasis] to shew every thing that might conduce to the
improvement of the young practitioner, avoiding however the extreme
minutiae.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
Preparation in this context, meant dissecting and preserving an
anatomical specimen, often with fine blood vessels injected with
coloured wax, before being retained as a teaching aid. It is not
clear when Smellie's dissections commenced, but likely late 1750, and
in 1754 Smellie commented; 'My first plan for these tables confined
them to the number of twenty-two, which Mr Rymsdyke had finished
above two years ago; but I soon saw that a further illustration, and
consequently an addition, to that number was necessary.'</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
For 250 years no art historian has known what van Rymsdyk looked like,
but research for this book has uncovered his portrait by William
Hogarth. The portrait dates to 1750, when van Rymsdyk was aged 30.
There are two versions, one as a wood-block and the other an
engraving. Van Rymsdyk's clothing corresponds with the following
description by Richard Smith (1735-1777); '"The Ship" was
frequented by musicians, artists and interesting Bohemians, who led a
jovial rollicking life. Among these characters were Rymsdyke, the
painter, who dressed in 'large flap waistcoat, immense cuffs to his
coat sleeves, with breeches just to the knee, and slit before, with
knee buttons' '.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Little is known about van Rymsdyk, but it appears he was Jan Johansen
Riemsdyk, christened on 25 February 1720 at Ochten, Gelderland,
Netherlands, son of Johannes Jansen van Riemsdyk (1686-1741) and
Johanna Rogaar (1692-1738), being the second of eight children. He
was well educated, not only in drawing, but also languages, as a
later publication indicates he had read scientific papers in French,
German, Latin, Dutch, and English. He possibly studied with Jan
Wandelaar, who drew for Albinus. There is a record of a marriage
between Jan van Riemsdijk and Maria van den Berg in Ochten on 16 June
1743, when Jan gave his occupation as teacher and custodian.<br />
<br />
This
seems to refer to Jan van Rymsdyk, and the dates and marriage fit
for emigration to England c1746, as inferred by a reference in his
1778 <i>Museum Britannicum</i> to 'thirty-two years ago'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a>
His father, Johannes may have been a lawyer, as there is a document
in the Dutch archives dated Utrecht 23 June 1757 which refers to a
Jan van Riemsdyk of Ochten with an occupation of guardian, custodian,
and secretary.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a>
Alternatively, this may crucially signify Jan van Rymsdyk himself
left London for Holland in 1755 for a period, before re-emerging in
Bristol by 16 December 1758, when the Bristol Journal advertised he
was painting portraits in All Saint's Lane at four guineas each.
However, 'van Rymsdyk's sojourn in Bristol was not a success; he
appears to have painted few portraits, and was forced to paint inn
signs, and to wear the cast-off clothes of William Barrett'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
The order of plates in Smellie's atlas is in contrast to that of Hunter
when he published his atlas in 1774. Smellie began with views of early pregnancy and moved toward
birth itself, whereas Hunter’s began with a dissected pregnancy at
full term, working back to conception. Although
describing his own atlas, Hunter's explanation does distinguish
between detailed plates and line-drawings;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Anatomical
figures are made in two very different ways; one is the simple
portrait, in which the object is exactly as it was seen; the other is
a representation of the object under circumstances as were not
actually seen, but conceived in the imagination.... That figure which
is a close representation of nature and which is finished from a view
of one subject, will often be, unavoidably, somewhat indistinct or
defective in some parts: the other, being a figure of fancy, made up
perhaps from a variety of studies after nature, may exhibit in one
view, what could only be seen in several objects; and it admits a
better arrangement, of abridgement, and of greater precision. The one
may have the elegance and harmony of the natural object; the other
has commonly the hardness of a geometrical diagram: the one shews the
object, or gives a perception; the other only describes, or gives an
idea of it. A very essential advantage of the first is, that as it
represents what was actually seen, it carries the mark of truth, and
becomes almost as infallible as the object itself.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaVj3_SCRONS3hw_Wi1y42DcMG2h65-PWEkLt_0CSGtt5fd3MPQlulwmwuoBhYxdAmXfL31Z-O2ZXhg1Ep4nRDeyp1vn-FX1MkRXdg8jbyTw5n9FDBlEp5fYLPWBhYvGBv-1ppew_DuIw/s1600/smellie.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="620" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaVj3_SCRONS3hw_Wi1y42DcMG2h65-PWEkLt_0CSGtt5fd3MPQlulwmwuoBhYxdAmXfL31Z-O2ZXhg1Ep4nRDeyp1vn-FX1MkRXdg8jbyTw5n9FDBlEp5fYLPWBhYvGBv-1ppew_DuIw/s1600/smellie.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Plates
– Description of Subject, t<span style="font-style: normal;">he
letter 'C' in the list refers to those by Camper, mainly line
drawings. </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">1-5 - Line and other drawings</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">6 - A subject of two to three
months, and a subject of four to five months</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">7-8 - A subject of six to
seven months and another view of assumed same subject</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">9 - A subject of eight to nine
months</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">10-11 - A subject of nine
months, containing twins, and another view of assumed same subject</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">12 (C) - A subject when labour
is somewhat advanced </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">13 - A subject when labour is
advanced</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">14 - A subject when labour is
advanced</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">15-19 (C 16-19) - Line and other
drawings</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">20-23 - Appears to be four
separate subjects showing different fetal positions</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">24 (C) - Line drawing</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">25 - A subject showing a
different fetal position</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">26-28 (C) - Line and other
drawings</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">29-30 - A subject showing a
different fetal position and another view of assumed same subject</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">31-33 - A subject showing a
different fetal position and other views of assumed same subject</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">34-39 (C 34 and 36) - Line and
other drawings</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
<br />
In contrast to the care van Rymsdyk took with his own drawings, he
was very critical of previous artists' drawings of this era; 'as to
their Figures, they seem to be only done after one particular Manner
of Proportion; - In short, all their Figures of Men, Women, and
Children, appear as if they were cast our of one Mould. … Now if
some Portraits, &c. should be shewn, which have a few faint
Traces of Nature, this is only because they are obliged to make a
Resemblance of Persons.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
An important issue is determining how many different subjects were
depicted. It is deduced each detailed drawing is a separate,
dissected subject, unless clearly another view of the same subject.
Detailed drawings cannot be the result of 'artist's impressions', as
there was no previous research of this quality for artists to
imitate. However, line drawings are taken as artist's impressions,
thus refer to the 20 line drawings and 4 instances where subjects
were rearranged for second and third views, viz. 7-8, 10-11, 29-30,
and 31-33. Smellie's atlas therefore shows dissections of 15
different undelivered subjects in the total of 39 plates. Since it
was proposed in JRSM of February 2010, the calculation
of 15 subjects in 39 plates has been endorsed in JRSM of May 2010, by
professors; ADG Roberts, TF Baskett, AA Calder, and S Arulkumaran,
who write; 'Thus, it appears Smellie stretched his use of cadavers
and scrutiny of his atlas suggests that 15 of the plates are drawn
from dead human subjects with the remainder being diagrammatic line
drawings'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
A similar ratio to Hunter, who depicted 17 subjects in 34 plates. </div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Of
the 15 subjects, 12 are near full term, an extraordinary proportion,
given the rarity of undelivered subjects. It
is noteworthy that Smellie's biographer, Johnstone, devotes a whole
chapter to the atlas, but without reference to the subjects
themselves, nor any suggestion as to the method of their
procurement.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
Smellie's assistant. John Harvie was involved in these dissections,
providing further evidence of the sudden abundance of undelivered
subjects; 'Harvie says the thickness of the uterus is not altered
furing pregnancy. … [Harvie] had had frequent opportunities to open
women who died undelivered.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
Scrutiny of Smellie's Tables X-XV reveals mothers murdered during late stages of
labour so Smellie could study how the head turned during descent.
From the variety in the Tables it also seems Smellie chose to murder
abnormal presentations to depict in his atlas. His research into the
mechanics of labour appears to have been the focus of Peter Camper's
1752 visit to London. By 1752 Camper was a busy university professor
and himself a recognised authority. He and Smellie had continued to
correspond after the first visit and the impression from Camper's
Journal is that he came to London primarily to participate in
dissecting undelivered subjects. B Nuyens, the editor of Camper's
Journal arrives at a slightly different conclusion, 'Reading those
letters and the first entries in the diary of this journey, we wonder
whether Camper had made an arrangement with Smellie to draw for
him'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
However, this view is unlikely, as van Rymsdyk was already in London
drawing for Smellie, and Camper as a university professor, was hardly
likely to travel to London, just to draw a few pictures for Smellie.
The more likely reason to travel from Holland was because of the
importance of the dissections planned to be undertaken; with his
drawings a by-product of those dissections; see Tables XII and
XVI-XIX for one of the dissections. He left Holland on 12 July,
arriving in London on 13 July, taking rooms near Smellie, and meeting
with him on Friday 14 July. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
Camper gives a full account of his second visit, including these references to man-midwifery;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Dr Smellie, who was the first person
I saw, as also his figures drawn by Rymsdijk, but <u>not
all</u> [my emphasis] from real life. The children are placed in pelvses of women, the children
themselves looked natural, but the other parts were copied from other
preparations. What I thought very good was the way the bones were
drawn over the children with white dots. The drawings are done in
vermilion on a yellow background. …<br />
On Tuesday [18 July] I drew for
Smellie, and checked precisely the position of the heads that are
wedged.<br />
Wednesday at Smellie's, dined at Hunter's and saw his figures
of uterus gravidus, which are very beautiful, drawn by Rymsdijk. He
had prepared it and afterwards moulded it in plaster, which I think a
very good idea, which I shall apply in future. … In the evening I
saw Smellie deliver a woman with forceps; I had examined the case
thoroughly beforehand and found the head sideways in the pelvis, with
the ear towards the pubis. The operation was done very quickly, and
the child was alive, in spite of having been already two days in that
position. …<br />
Thursday 20<sup><span style="font-style: normal;">th</span></sup><span style="font-style: normal;">
I received Kelly and man-midwife, to whom I showed my pictures of the
uterus. … </span><br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Friday, 21</span><sup><span style="font-style: normal;">st</span></sup><span style="font-style: normal;">,
I drew for Dr Smellie and with the forceps delivered from a corpse a
head in the transversal position wedged with the ear against the os
pubis. This is such a fine method, that it is really worth preserving
such a body in alcohol, that is, of a woman that has died in
childbirth. This experiment astonished me on account of its close
resemblance to nature. … </span><br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Saturday 22</span><sup><span style="font-style: normal;">nd</span></sup><span style="font-style: normal;">
I went to Smellie's and saw a young woman who had for three years had
a prolapsus totius uteri. … In the evening I dined with Mr Kelly. …
Kelly at once gave me three women to examine. [they were seven, six,
and nine months pregnant] </span><br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Wednesday 26</span><sup><span style="font-style: normal;">th</span></sup><span style="font-style: normal;">
I delivered a poor woman of an afterbirth. …</span><br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Thursday, 27</span><sup><span style="font-style: normal;">th</span></sup><span style="font-style: normal;">,
I again experimented with Dr Smellie on a corpse, delivered with
forceps and made careful drawings and profiles. Then we sawed this
body in two, which enabled us to see inside very well (see drawing).
In the afternoon I accompanied him to a poor woman who was lying in
confinement [and Smellie delivered her using forceps]. … </span><br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Monday
31</span><sup><span style="font-style: normal;">st</span></sup><span style="font-style: normal;">,
I attended Smellie's lesson and examined twenty-one women between
seven and nine months [Camper describes several of the examinations].
… </span><br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Tuesday Aug 1 I attended Smellie's lesson about the forceps. He
had nothing new to show … </span><br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">On Wednesday I again attended Smellie's
lesson about the forceps and found no new addition. </span><br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Friday 4</span><sup><span style="font-style: normal;">th</span></sup><span style="font-style: normal;">
I attended Smellie's lesson on the forceps, when the face appears. …
There was nothing special about this birth except the jerking of the
forceps in order not to enclose the orifice of the womb, that is he
jerks the forceps to and fro while moving it firmly along the head. I
then tried to draw off waters in a woman pregnant about nine months.
… </span><br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">[on Sunday 6</span><sup><span style="font-style: normal;">th</span></sup><span style="font-style: normal;">
Camper visited Hunter and examined three pregnant women.] Does the os
tincae move from back to front and the ostium externum from front to
back? Is the former the reason why the ostium must be pushed over the
head in many cases? … </span><br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Friday 11</span><sup><span style="font-style: normal;">th</span></sup><span style="font-style: normal;">
This morning Dr Smellie agreed with me about the questions. I drew
that day an outline in which this was shown. Thursday 31</span><sup><span style="font-style: normal;">st</span></sup><span style="font-style: normal;">
… Dr Smellie was with me that evening and we saw the copperplate,
engraved by Grinson [sic], which we both much admired. He told me
that he was going to continue with those relating to the forceps. <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
There is a lot of material to analyse from Camper's notes above, which fall into two categories; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
<br />
- Firstly, relating
to Smellie's normal lectures. Many poor women presented themselves
for examination, presumably in return for being paid a few pennies.
It appears there had been no change in Smellie's lecture content
regarding forceps since Camper had attended in 1749, thus changes in
the design or use of forceps were not the reason for Camper's visit.
However, Smellie was frequently using forceps on
patients, supporting a view that his course content included
demonstration of an actual delivery using forceps. This infers
Smellie was demonstrating forceps on patients far more often than
required, either by concealment from the patient, or by telling his
patients forceps were necessary, even when if not the case. The
latter is likely, as it would be difficult to instruct his students
in the use of the forceps without describing what he was doing.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
<br />
- Secondly, the
series of dissections undertaken with Camper. Van Rymsdyk and his
drawings are commented upon by Camper, but several red flags appear
from reading his Journal;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
1 Smellie arranged
for Camper to come from Holland for these dissections, showing
Smellie <u>knew in advance</u> he would have fresh, rare,
undelivered, subjects available for dissection. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
2 Three corpses were
procured and dissected in only ten days, Tuesday 18<sup>th</sup> July
to Thursday 27<sup>th</sup> July, with at least two of them being
extremely rare, undelivered corpses.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
3 Why had no attempt had been made to deliver any of these undelivered mothers of a child?
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
4 What was the purpose of these dissections, why so important that Camper came from Holland?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
5 This was the peak of summer and without refrigeration, the corpses had to be absolutely
fresh.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
<b>Analysis of
Smellie's Atlas</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
Smellie's original view was that 22 van Rymsdyk drawings were sufficient, but he then
added four more by van Rymsdyk, plus 11 by Camper, and two by Smellie
himself, making 39 in total. It is not immediately clear which were
the extra four by van Rymsdyk. The two by Smellie, 37 and 39, were of
instruments, so can be put on one side. Camper was a respected
anatomist and man-midwife in Holland, and in a letter to him of 30
July 1750, 'Smellie expresses his approbation of a plan of Camper's:
to write a treatise on delivery by forceps, and states his
willingness to give him assistance should he need it'. Then on 23
December 1751 Smellie wrote a long letter to Camper where he says
'that no doubt Camper has received Dr Thomson's letter, from which he
will have read the reasons why Smellie published no diagrams of
instruments, and that he hopes Camper will publish those drawings in
miniature in his own work'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a><br />
<br />
The inference is that Camper wrote to Smellie seeking assistance,
whereby he could come to London to conduct experiments with forceps
which were not possible in Holland. When he arrives, he credits
Smellie with no new knowledge about forceps in his lectures, so that
was not the reason for the visit. What was different between
circumstances in Holland and London, was that Smellie had plentiful
access to indigent pregnant patients. It therefore appears Smellie
agreed to provide undelivered subjects, to enable Camper to perform
experiments for inclusion in his dissertation and Smellie included
those images in his own atlas. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
This is confirmed by analysis of the atlas. Smellie had decided the 22 plates by van
Rymsdyk were insufficient to illustrate the knowledge he wished to
impart in the atlas. That insufficiency can be determined by
inspecting and analysing the drawings by Camper, it being a fair
assumption that all the Camper drawings related to this 1752 visit.
The drawings made by Camper are as follows;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Plate 12 – the gravid uterus when labour is somewhat advanced</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
Plate, 16, 17, 18, and 19 – the sixteenth table and the three following
shew in what manner the head of the foetus is helped along with the
forceps as artificial hands</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
Plate 24 – the delivery is supposed to be retarded from the largeness of
the head, or a narrow pelvis</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
Plate 26 – represents by outlines in a lateral view of the left side of
the subject, the foetus in the same situation as in the former table.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
Plate 27 – a lateral internal view of a distorted pelvis</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
Plate 28 – a side view of a distorted pelvis</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
Plate 34 – in a lateral view of the pelvis, one of the most difficult
praeternatural cases</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
Plate 36 – in a lateral view of the pelvis, the method of extracting with
.. a curved crotchet</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
Ten of these eleven Camper drawings are line drawings, with Plate 12
appearing to be the undelivered subject Camper records delivering
with forceps and then sawing in half. Together the plates can be seen
as illustrating the use of the forceps and crotchet. The first five
plates show progressive stages for a single subject, and the other
six being artist's impressions of difficult cases. There is a
disconnect here, as Camper's Journal refers to dissecting three
subjects during his visit, of which two were undelivered.<br />
<br />
This
implies either, that only one of those three subjects was drawn by
Camper during the experiments, or alternatively, that two were drawn
by van Rymsdyk, perhaps plates 13 and 14. That the dissections were
experiments is conveyed on 21 July, when Camper says, 'This
experiment astonished me on account of its close resemblance to
nature.' The nature of the experiment for Plate 12 on 27 July, and
its accompaniments seems to be to track the mechanics of fetal
descent during labour and draw the various stages of a forceps
delivery from an undelivered subject. Smellie refers to plates 12,
13, and 14, being his dissection of women during the process of
labour, when he writes; 'I more accurately surveyed the dimensions
and form of the pelvis, together with the figure of the child's head
and the manner in which it passed along in natural labours'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
<b>William Hunter</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Smellie taught midwifery to many pupils, including William Hunter
(1718-1783), a Scot who had been intended and educated for the
Church, but on the advice of the surgeon William Cullen he turned his
attention to medicine. Hunter lived at Hamilton with Cullen, as his
student for three years from 1737. He went to Edinburgh where he
attended classes of Alexander Monro I in 1740, and next made his way
to London. Here he initially trained with Smellie, but was soon
employed by James Douglas as a dissector. Hunter travelled to Paris
where he learned from Albinus (1691-1770) the new technique of
injecting bodies to exhibit blood vessels. Albinus had published
plates showing dissections of the uterus, and Hunter returned to
London convinced that he could do better.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In 1747, Hunter joined the Corporation of Surgeons (aka the Surgeons'
Company) and in 1748 was appointed surgeon-accoucheur to Middlesex
Hospital. He obtained the degree of doctor of medicine from the
university of Glasgow in 1750. Hunter's approach to midwifery, varied
from that of Smellie, Hunter realised the cultivation of manners and
pleasant appearance, more than professionalism, was essential when
negotiating the higher ranks of Georgian England. Unlike Smellie,
Hunter became a fashionable man-midwife to the London elite. It was
said; 'Dr Smellie had the advantage of him in experience, had been
lecturing and writing these many years; but 'his person is said to
have been coarse, and his manners awkward and unpleasing.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
In contrast;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
[Hunter's] classical acquirements were superior to most men's who are not
professed scholars. These, with his native endowments, gave him a
facility of expression, and a most happy choice of words, joined to a
talent at demonstration which never can be exceeded. Whether, from an
originally correct ear, a refined taste, or the early company he fell
into, his dialect had all the polish of the southern metropolis, with
enough of the northern recitative to preserve the close of his
sentences from too abrupt a cadence. His person, though small, was
graceful; his cast of features regular and interesting; his voice
musical his manners attentive and flattering. In short Dr Hunter was
a polite scholar, an accomplished gentleman, a complete anatomist,
and probably the most perfect demonstrator, as well as lecturer, the
world had ever seen.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Although competing, Smellie and Hunter did cooperate as in 1752 when they
endorsed a proposal to the College of Physicians, to set up
instructions for women in midwifery, but the proposal was voted
down.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
Hunter attended Queen Charlotte in 1762, being appointed
Physician-Extraordinary to Her Majesty the following year. His
relations with her became so cordial, that Horace Walpole called him
'the Queen's favourite'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a>
Hunter dedicated his atlas, Gravid Uterus, to George III, saying his
book illustrated; 'one part of science hitherto imperfectly
understood, and ... the foundations of another part of science, on
which the lives and happiness of millions must depend'. Hunter
had trained in Scotland where there were few subjects, similarly with
Douglas, but then in Paris where there was a ready supply of corpses
from hospitals. This gave Hunter the idea to exploit the relaxation
on the rules governing anatomical dissection following the split of
the Barber-Surgeons' Company in 1745. Before this time any surgeon
dissecting a body outside of their Hall was liable to a fine of £10.
His teaching started in 1746, when he set up the first anatomy school
guaranteeing each student a body to dissect. The Daily Advertiser of
8 October, 1746 included his advertisement; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
On Monday next, the 13th instant, at Five in the Evening, will begin A
Course of Anatomical Lectures ... By William Hunter, Surgeon.
Gentlemen may have an Opportunity of learning the art of Dissecting,
during the whole Winter Season, in the same manner as at Paris.
Proposals to be seen at Mr Miller's Bookseller, opposite to the End
of Katherine Street in the Strand.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a>
In the earlier part of my life, I found such advantage in putting my
own hand to the knife, and in examining the different parts of the
body, at my leisure, and in my own way; that I was convinced I might
be of considerable service to the public as a teacher, by opening a
school for practical Anatomy, which had not been done before in this
great city; and the influence which it has actually had in this
country is evident.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
school opened and the guarantee of a body quickly attracted students. Hunter was a natural orator and story-teller, so although his lectures were
two hours long, his listeners were seldom tired. At
that time, a complete course upon anatomy, might comprise twenty
lectures, with demonstrations made upon a single cadaver, while to
explain the operations in surgery the carcass of an animal was used.
The guarantee of a body meant arranging a supply of resurrected
subjects and Hunter must have participated in this, at least in the
initial stages, as there was no pre-existing network of
resurrectionists. His success was such that in 1747 he
was admitted to the Corporation of Surgeons of London: and in 1748
made a tour through Holland to Paris, and on his way visited Albinus
at Leyden. He came back to London in time to prepare his lectures for
the winter; and in September, a fortnight before the course began,
John Hunter joined him.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Hunter later stated that 'in the only course which he attended in
London, which was by far the most respectable that was given in that
city, the professor, Dr Nicholls used only two dead bodies in his
course,' Nicholls' course was finished in from thirty to forty
lectures; and consequently, he adds, it was contracted into too small
a compass of time, and therefore several material parts of anatomy
were left out entirely.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
Initially, Hunter's own courses ran twice a year in October and February,
developing into 112 two-hour lectures, six days a week from 2.00pm to
4.00pm, October to May.
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In his introductory lecture to students, Hunter outlined his views on
learning;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Besides attending lectures and dissecting dead bodies, there is here an opportunity of
learning Anatomy to the best advantage by attending the dissecting
room. One winter's attention there will certainly make a diligent
student a good Anatomist. He will in that time see the preparatory
dissection for every lecture, which will make the lecture itself much
more intelligible, and fix it deeper in the mind; he will see all the
principal parts dissected and demonstrated over, and over again,
whatever he finds he does not clearly understand, there is such a
number of bodies dissected in succession, that he will at any time
have an opportunity of attending to that particular object and of
getting it explained to him; he will see all the operations of
surgery performed, and explained, again and again, and he will see
the practice of all the arts of making preparations. It is an
important piece of education and as it is not to be had at other
places, I recommend it earnestly especially to those students who are
to be in London one winter only.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
His school was described; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
There is likewise a school for practical anatomy kept open and much frequented during the
whole winter. Here students see everything that is going on, both
dissections and all the arts of examining diseases and making
preparations; and with their own hands dissect as many bodies, make
for themselves as many preparations, and perform as many operations
of surgery as they please. In this school so many subjects are
dissected in the course of a winter, so many diseases examined, and
occasional demonstrations of all parts of the body so often repeated,
that for acquiring substantial knowledge it is reckoned preferable to
every other kind of study. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
The syllabus for his lectures emphasised the availability of fresh subjects; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
4, 5 & 6. The muscles, male organs, and joints in <u>a fresh subject</u>
[my emphasis]<br />
7. The viscera and female organs in <u>a
fresh subject</u> [my
emphasis]<br />
8. The organs of sense and integuments on <u>a
fresh subject</u> [my
emphasis]<br />
9. The brain and nerves in <u>a
fresh subject</u> [my
emphasis]<br />
10 & 11 The diseases of bones and viscera<br />
12. Chirurgical diseases and surgery explained and performed on <u>a fresh subject</u> [my
emphasis]<br />
13. The anatomy and physiology of the gravid uterus and foetus<br />
14 & 15. The diseases peculiar to the [female] sex. Of pregnancy and
parturition.<br />
16. Of the disorders and management of women in child-bed and of children.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Only a month after the 13 October opening, concern was expressed by 'Publicus' over the
source of Hunter's subjects for dissection, in a letter to the
Westminster Journal dated 19 November, 1746;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br />
I observe by the public papers that there are at least five or six lectures in Anatomy
read every night during the winter season; and I am informed that it
is absolutely necessary for every lecturer to be furnished with at
least one fresh body once a week; and that it would be much more for
the advantage of the pupils who attend, to have two or three bodies
at the same time under dissection. We are sure that they have not all
these bodies from Tyburn, and we do not know that they are allowed
any from the hospitals. Therefore we may reasonably conclude that by
far the greatest part must be procured by a good understanding with
those who have custody of the dead. As things are thus circumstanced
to what a dilemma is that ingenious young surgeon reduced who is
ambitious of making a figure in his profession? He must either
purchase bodies at a greater price than he is able to afford, or lay
himself open and obnoxious to the law, by robbing hospitals and
churchyards. The way for relief lies in the favourable interposition
of Parliament by adding a clause to some Bill in the Present session,
'That from henceforth every felon that shall be hanged at Tyburn
shall be carried from thence to Surgeon's Hall, and there, by proper
persons, be distributed among those gentlemen who are then reading
Anatomical lectures. And that the Governors of all the respective
hospitals in England may be empowered to appropriate as many of the
patients, who shall die in such respective hospitals, as they shall
judge sufficient for the service of the Surgeons who belong thereto'.
A clause like this might easily and properly be added to the proposed
law against duelling, adding that the body of every duellist might
share the same fate. As we are now engaged in a War which in all
probability will continue some years [until May 1748], we have an
immediate call for a great many young Surgeons, both by sea and land.
… To this may be added the great difficulties that gentleman
[William Hunter] is under who (as I read in the papers) has
undertaken to introduce the manner of dissections as practised in
Paris: which is by providing each of his pupils with one entire body
and from time to time inspecting the dissections himself.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The question of supply encompasses all subjects for dissection, of either
gender and from fetus and infants through to old age. The letter is
sympathetic and raises the possibility that, if not the author,
William did encourage the writer. [Smollett?] The reference to
empowering hospital governors supports a view that William's
objectives in helping found the British Lying-in Hospital, was as a
means of procuring subjects. On 23 December 1747, two resurrectionists, James Thomas and Charles
Pretty, were convicted of exhuming the body of a baby, John Race,
buried at Whitechapel. They were fined one shilling and committed to
Newgate prison for six months prison.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a>
Given the time of year, it seems the baby was for supply to Hunter,
and probable they were demobbed soldiers or sailors. The school grew
quickly and in 1748, William encouraged John Hunter to join him
in a new and unregulated, medical environment, where they set their
own direction, and made the rules. </div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
John had given himself body and mind to his task in the dissecting-rooms: he did not
work in anatomy, as is usually done, for a few hours in the day, but
was employed in it from the rising to the setting of the sun. When
the winter course of 1749 began, he was advanced to be demonstrator
to the students: thus, only a year after he left home, he held in his
hands the honour of the new school. It was but a few years old, a
private venture, unendowed, unsupported by any hospital; but the two
young men together drove it on to success: and the younger brother
bore the rough work, hobnobbing with the resurrection-men, slaving
all day long in unwholesome air, dissecting, demonstrating, and
putting up specimens.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
It was
observed in 1823, William Hunter had created the trade of the
professional resurrection man;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br />
When the number of persons engaged in the actual practice of anatomy
was small, a few subjects sufficed for their purpose, and these were
husbanded with the utmost care ... On the first attempt to render
London a school of medicine (or rather surgery), in opposition to the
universities by the establishment of the anatomical theatre in
Windmill Street, by Dr William Hunter, the number of subjects
required became more considerable, because the pupils were required
to exercise themselves in dissection under his inspection. This
increased number was, however, supplied by the new trade of
resurrection-men, then few in number, and either themselves, sextons
or grave-diggers, having the charge of some of the retired
burying-grounds in and round the metropolis, or undertakers' men
connected with them; or by the masters, matrons, &c of workhouses
and hospitals, who took the bodies of those dead under their care out
of their coffins in the night …. the number of subjects required
for the exercise of the students in dissection is so great, that the
agency of the resurrection-men and the increase of their numbers have
become a matter of necessity.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<b>Hunter's Gravid Uterus Atlas</b></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
As early as 1748 Hunter disclosed aspirations as an author, writing to Cullen,
'<span style="font-style: normal;">I'm busy in forming a plan for
being an author'.</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a>
His atlas was initiated in 1750
at his anatomy school, when John Hunter procured the body of a
near full term pregnant woman. On the verge of giving birth, she had
died suddenly and with an unborn child still intact within her womb.
It was a unique chance for study and dissection, as pregnant women
almost never died immediately before their child was born, although
the death of a mother and/or child within days after childbirth was
not uncommon. At this time, William then aged 32, although
experienced in midwifery and working as a surgeon for a dozen years,
<span style="font-style: normal;">'had never before seen a fully
developed baby still in the womb', and </span>resorting to studying
full term pregnancy by dissecting animals.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66sym" name="sdendnote66anc"><sup>lxvi</sup></a>
He later commented;
</div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
With respect to the present undertaking, in the year 1751 [sic, but
more likely 1750] the author met with the first favourable
opportunity of examining, in the human species, what before he had
been examining in brutes. A woman died suddenly, when very near the
end of her pregnancy; the body was procured before any sensible
putrefaction had begun; the season of the year was favourable to
dissection; the injection of the blood vessels proved successful; a
very able painter, in this way, was found; every part was examined in
the most public manner, and the truth was thereby well
authenticated.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67sym" name="sdendnote67anc"><sup>lxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The
words 'a woman died suddenly' are significant. He does not say was
drowned, or poisoned, or died from accident or disease. As will be
shown later, the words 'died suddenly' are a euphemism, chosen to
encompass death by murder. </span>The author Wendy Moore in her book
<i>"The Knife Man"</i> obser<span style="font-style: normal;">ved;
'In other words, circumstances could not have been more perfect, and
there was almost nothing William Hunter himself had to contribute to
the event'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68sym" name="sdendnote68anc"><sup>lxviii</sup></a>
Reports of the dissection have a sen</span>se of being well planned
and executed, something not to be expected with such a rare event.<span style="font-style: normal;">
</span>With no reason to bleed a corpse after a natural death, blood
pooled in a body before dissection. Resurrected corpses were suitable
for teaching purposes, but their condition made them much less
suitable for research. Anatomists were keen to make special
preparations, for example to display blood vessels. This was done by
washing and draining the body, before injecting coloured wax into the
minutest blood vessels. For success it was necessary to use an
absolutely fresh corpse. William's comment from his preface; '<span style="font-style: normal;">the
injection of the blood vessels proved successful' s</span>hows the
corpse was very fresh, quickly drained, and all necessary waxes and
other materials were readily to hand.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The need
for urgency in preparing the fine anatomical details of subjects for
drawing was implicitly endorsed by Matthew Baillie in discussing the
embalming of bodies in 1804;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
According to Dr Hunter's method, embalming is begun as soon after
death as decency will permit. In the summer season, it should not be
delayed beyond twelve hours, but in winter it may be put off till
twenty-four hours, after death. In all cases where a person dies
suddenly who had before enjoyed good health, the body begins very
soon, to putrefy, and putrefaction advances very rapidly; therefore,
if the body of such a person is required to be embalmed, the
operation should take place after a very short interval, <i>viz.</i>
of not more than two or three hours after death.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69sym" name="sdendnote69anc"><sup>lxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Baillie's
description adds to the view that anatomical drawings made by van
Rymsdyk for Smellie, the Hunters, Jenty and others were commenced on
pristinely bodies which had never been buried.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
While
working for Smellie, van Rymsdyk made a progressive series of
detailed drawings for Hunter. His ability to make ten drawings from
the first corpse before decay, illustrating the slow and exacting
dissection process, shows he was immediately available. In the first
five drawings the woman is progressively reduced as the dissection
proceeds, until only the uterus is left intact, with everything
extraneous cut away. Hunter stressed the resultant engravings
reflected actual dissections, and in his text he impressed on the
reader/viewer that nothing had been changed or idealized. William was
so inspired by the perfection of van Rymsdyk's work, in October 1751
he announced he would have the chalk drawings engraved as copper
plates and issued as a set.<br />
<br />
To complete the engravings he needed
further subjects and a second pregnant body fortuitously ar<span style="font-style: normal;">rived
in 1751. A third arrived in 1752 and 'occurred very opportunely,
which cleared up some difficulties'. Two</span> more pregnant bodies
were received in 1753 and 1754, and a corpse of a mother who died two
hours after the birth. Between 1750-1754, five heavily pregnant
corpses were procured, all having died near full term, at a stage of
pregnancy when natural death with an intact fetus was considered most
unusual. Moore comments, without realising the chilling significance
of her words; 'Oddly, after the flurry of activity poring over
pregnant corpses between 1750 and 1754, no more were obtained for a
further ten years'.<br />
<br />
After Smellie published in 1754, William Hunter
shelved his atlas project until 1764, then
expanded the project to cover all stages
of pregnancy, with John performing dissections of a dozen more
pregnant subjects. The atlas,
when published in December 1774, was titled <i>The
Anatomy of the Human Gravid Uterus Exhibited in Figures</i><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70sym" name="sdendnote70anc"><sup>lxx</sup></a>.
A majority of illustrations are
by van Rymsdyk and two by Robert Strange. All dissections being
performed by John Hunter. William gave John credit in the
introduction for this, but van Rymsdyk was given none. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSSZi0j_Yxz6PLlpaVXwsA_N-NJRGsbygOPaYPftW4aU117AkJCAxm7YfEU4zHOg9dTZyUdrCHUS9rwtfjJEAPB-lHLOeFveb8Epsfhz964LU98oQ14Kt13UWfFNH5TJnzmNVJ2EkL82w/s1600/hunter.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="636" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSSZi0j_Yxz6PLlpaVXwsA_N-NJRGsbygOPaYPftW4aU117AkJCAxm7YfEU4zHOg9dTZyUdrCHUS9rwtfjJEAPB-lHLOeFveb8Epsfhz964LU98oQ14Kt13UWfFNH5TJnzmNVJ2EkL82w/s1600/hunter.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
Sixteen of the plates date from 1750-1754 and eighteen plates date from 1764-1774,
the later plates depicting varying stages of pregnancy, drawn from a
total of seventeen pregnant corpses. Teacher speculates those dating
from 1750-1754 were Plates 1-10, 13, 15, 21, 22, 26, and 32.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71sym" name="sdendnote71anc"><sup>lxxi</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
The <i>Critical Review</i> listed Hunter's plates and subjects in
detail;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">1-10 - A subject who died about
the end of the ninth month of her pregnancy</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">11-12 - A subject who drowned in
the ninth month of her pregnancy</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">13 - A third subject who also
died in the ninth month of her pregnancy</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">14 - A fourth subject of nine
months</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">15 - A subject after delivery at
full time.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">16-20 - Another subject of eight
months [this is possibly two subjects]</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">21-22 - A subject of seven
months</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">23-24 - A subject of six months</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">25-26 - A subject of five months
and another subject at five months</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">27-29 - A subject at the
beginning of the fifth month</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">30-31 - A subject at the fourth
month</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">32 - A subject at the end of the
third month</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.63cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">33-34 - Many figures
representing the womb from nine to three weeks after conception.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">In a report by Smollett,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72sym" name="sdendnote72anc"><sup>lxxii</sup></a>
it is disclosed plate 33 shows six figures of three different
abortions and plate 34 has nine figures representing five or six
different subjects in early stages of conception. As plate 15 shows a
subject already delivered, and plate 33 shows only abortions, there
are seventeen pregnant subjects represented. Hunter
presents a series of images, each seeking the admiration of the skill
of the anatomist’s knife. In the series, the mother's body is
progressively reduced, as if archaeological layers, but the fetus
remains intact. </span></div>
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">In
1774, Hunter's Gravid Uterus was reviewed: </span>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
The information derived from figures, arises only from accurate and
attentive inspection. ... It illustrates a branch of the anatomy of
the human body which has been hitherto imperfectly understood ...
From the wise provisions of the author of our nature, <u>death is a
less frequent occurrence during the pregnant state, than at any other
time</u><span style="text-decoration: none;">; [my emphasis] and, when
it has happened, the body has seldom been subjected to the attentive
examination of men of sufficient abilities to make the proper use of
it</span>. ... The author of the work before us, seems to have
employed <u>uncommon opportunities</u> [my emphasis] to the utmost
advantage. ... For us it is enough to say, that, <u>in the execution
of the present work neither pains</u> [deliberate innuendo?] nor
expense have been spared to improve this branch of anatomy.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73sym" name="sdendnote73anc"><sup>lxxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Because of its large size, 62cm by 45cm and thirty-four copperplate
engravings, it is clear Hunter did not view the volume as a manual
for midwifery; instead, besides the atlas's size, cost, and numerous
plates, his choice of John Baskerville as printer infers he intended
the as a collector's item and a memorial to perpetuate his memory.
When advertisements appeared for the book in November 1774, the
purchase price was six guineas. In 1784, a year after William's
death, it was remaindered at three and a half guineas. </div>
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Smollett
was a friend of Hunter and he unwittingly anticipated the concern of
this author as to the high number of undelivered subjects procured by
Hunter;</span>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">It will perhaps, be objected, that a
smaller number of plates than are here published, might have been
sufficient to exhibit the various appearances of the gravid uterus in
the different periods of gestation. In answer to such an objection,
however it must be admitted, that Dr </span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Hunter
could not foresee the opportunities he was to have</span></span><span style="font-style: normal;">
of making the numerous observations with which he has enriched this
valuable work. He informs he has actually suppressed several drawings
which had been made, and two plates which had been engraved, that the
work might not be overcharged.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74sym" name="sdendnote74anc"><sup>lxxiv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The
suppression of several drawings shows there were more than seventeen
subjects, with the extra drawings likely those mentioned by Suzanne M
Shultz who refers to a gift of eighteen van Rymsdyk drawings from Dr
John Fothergill to William Shippen (1736-1808), likely discards from
William Hunter's project.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75sym" name="sdendnote75anc"><sup>lxxv</sup></a>
Those drawings were later donated to Pennsylvania Hospital by
Shippen, who studied in London as a pupil of both William Hunter and
Colin Mackenzie. It would be interesting to determine how many
additional subjects are evident. Aside
from those required for the atlas, William had a major need for
cadavers. His 1775 course comprised 112 lectures, on six days a week,
of which 12 were on midwifery, and about half of them anatomical,
with one student, George Fordyce, saying he personally dissected
three corpses.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote76sym" name="sdendnote76anc"><sup>lxxvi</sup></a>
John Hunter later had his own anatomy school with similar
requirements, suggesting an annual demand for several hundred
subjects for the two Hunter schools, but with additional subjects for
John's personal research on top of this, so in 1780 perhaps 400 or
500 cadavers in total, merely for the Hunters and their two schools.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
William Hunter has puzzled historians, in 1985 Bynum and Porter wrote of him;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
A more enigmatic man, indeed; one who, despite his enormous success and rise to fame
and riches; despite his notable anatomy school and his thousands of
grateful pupils, clearly cut an ambiguous figure in his own times
(almost none of his medical colleagues attended his funeral) and
failed to capture the imagination of succeeding generations of
surgeons and obstetricians, or provide them with a serviceable icon
to worship and ideal to emulate.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote77sym" name="sdendnote77anc"><sup>lxxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The few mourners at Hunter's own 1783 funeral were a sign he lacked wide professional
respect.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
On Saturday at eight o'clock in the evening, his remains were interred in the vault under
St James's Church, attended by his nephew (Mr Baillie) as chief
mourner, Dr Pircairne, Sir Geo. Baker, Dr Fordyce, Dr Heberden, Mr
Cruikshank, Mr Coombe, Mr Birmice (his draughtsman), and a few other
friends.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote78sym" name="sdendnote78anc"><sup>lxxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">As
Schnorrenberg wrote; 'Apart from his Anatomy of the Gravid Uterus,
Hunter made no original contributions. He was concerned with his own
advancement, both financially and socially, so mixed in the leading
political and intellectual circles of London.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote79sym" name="sdendnote79anc"><sup>lxxix</sup></a>
Hunter was hard-hearted and more concerned with research and his
collections, than with people's feelings. He regarded John's
continuing dissections as so important, he
forbade John from pausing to visit their dying mother.
</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
In the summer of 1750 Mrs. Hunter took ill. Dr Cullen attended her, and as early as 12
July we find him writing to William of his persuasion 'that some
scirrhosity is forming in the stomach, which gives me a very
disagreeable prospect with regard to her'. She has evidently been
asking that John should come to visit her, and, with exquisite tact,
Cullen goes on: 'She says nothing now about Johnnie's coming down:
but I know, in her present temper, it would have pleased her much if
he had.' On 1 August William writes to Cullen: 'I cannot consent this
season to her request, for my brother's sake, for my own sake, and
even for my mother's sake. It would be a very bad scheme. I have
wrote of it to her, and I hope she will consider better of it, and
find that it is really a whim begot by sickness and low spirits.' If
this was indeed a reply to the letter informing him of Cullen's
suspicion of a gastric cancer, it seems a very brusque refusal....By
November, Mrs Hunter was dead.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote80sym" name="sdendnote80anc"><sup>lxxx</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Charles Nicholas Jenty</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Charles
Nicholas Jenty MA, was a Professor of Anatomy and Surgery,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote81sym" name="sdendnote81anc"><sup>lxxxi</sup></a>
probably born in France and UK resident from c1745, living in Fetter
Lane, London, but not as well known as other pioneers. In 1756<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote82sym" name="sdendnote82anc"><sup>lxxxii</sup></a>
he published </span><i>“Anatomico-Physiological Lectures”</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
dedicated to the Earl of Macclesfield, for many years President of
the Royal Society. Jenty seems to have practised as neither
man-midwife nor surgeon, but in 1756 he published a proposal for his
anatomical tables which were published in 1757, including plates of
an undelivered corpse; </span><i>"The demonstrations of a
pregnant uterus of a woman at her full term. In six tables, as large
as nature."</i><span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote83sym" name="sdendnote83anc"><sup>lxxxiii</sup></a>
Three of Jenty's plates appear here, all of the same subject. Jenty
said 'she died suddenly … about a fortnight after her reckoning'
and he observed she likely died from a heart ailment, but it is
impossible to confirm this. His comments b</span><span style="font-style: normal;">eing
made after Smellie published in 1755, they</span><span style="font-style: normal;">
cannot be relied upon, as they were probably made to allay suspicion
over the source of the subject. The work is less explicit than
Smellie and Hunter, the cadaver was draped instead of bare, and with
no cross-section of the legs. </span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-style: normal;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPW2RO1aLE-CpQdRPqR-2_xy_Ka24yyoP8Bi44C-TgaT7Zc8EVUbAXovk5gHmfOApI8UW0x6PAGUZCIVw7hJVeBicddiLE8hQE8NWRQPctR2GAl40fKeALngmNQb2yNJa21zuUC6E1HaE/s1600/jenty.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="290" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPW2RO1aLE-CpQdRPqR-2_xy_Ka24yyoP8Bi44C-TgaT7Zc8EVUbAXovk5gHmfOApI8UW0x6PAGUZCIVw7hJVeBicddiLE8hQE8NWRQPctR2GAl40fKeALngmNQb2yNJa21zuUC6E1HaE/s1600/jenty.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Jenty recorded; 'The publick is to take notice, that the originals of the
tables were taken from this woman by Mr van Reimsdyk, and not done at
random, from fancy, as some have been, which having the impunity to
be obtruded upon the publick for real delineations after nature. It
is well known, that the subject, when the tables are done, has been
seen by eminent persons in the profession'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote84sym" name="sdendnote84anc"><sup>lxxxiv</sup></a>
The reference to 'at random, from fancy' refers to the several plates
in Smellie's atlas which were illustrative line drawings, rather than
the bulk which are detailed post mortem drawings. It appears the van
Rymsdyk plates for Jenty were executed prior to 1756. Roberta McGrath
has commented;</span><i> </i>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Like the wax doll, the figure in the illustration hovered between
life and death. 'She' was animate and inanimate; not quite vertical,
and not horizontal, but somewhere between the two..... The
contradiction of the image of life in death suggests a more magical
understanding of the body than is apparent in Smellie's work.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote85sym" name="sdendnote85anc"><sup>lxxxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
In his introduction, Jenty made a comment inferring he had procured
two more subjects and indicating an intent to publish images of these
further undelivered subjects, but this did not happen.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
I propose, some time hence, to publish two more; viz. one
representing part of the cavity of the uterus, where the internal
surface of the placenta adheres; and a view of the internal surface
of the placenta, with the foetus injected and opened for the
inspection of those parts which are peculiar to that state; the other
representing a woman who died in the seventh month of her pregnancy,
and her foetus in a preternatural situation.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote86sym" name="sdendnote86anc"><sup>lxxxvi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Thornton recorded that, like John Hunter, Jenty joined the army, and
went to Portugal in 1762 as a surgeon's mate,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote87sym" name="sdendnote87anc"><sup>lxxxvii</sup></a>
adding that Jenty probably disposed of his possessions on leaving
London, as he intended to remain abroad. To dispose of all his
possessions, including his precious drawings, is a clear sign of
Jenty permanently ceasing gravid research, and inviting the question,
why? Some of the drawings were acquired by Shippen from Fothergill.
The IGI shows Charles Nicholas Jenty married Catharine MacKinnon on 2
July 1764 at the British Factory Chaplaincy in Lisbon. It is
noteworthy that Burton, Smellie, Mackenzie, Harvie, the Hunters,
Jenty, and van Rymsdyk who had procured and dissected, undelivered
subjects between 1750 and 1754, in 1755 all abandoned, (or deferred
for ten years in the case of the Hunters) anatomical research into
the pregnant female body.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>John Hunter</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Several references have been made to John Hunter (1728-1793). Much of
his career is not relevant to man-midwifery, but some is. Apart from
working for his brother, John learned by assisting Cheselden and, after Cheselden retired in 1751,
Percival Pott (1714-1788). John Hunter set up his own anatomy school
in 1764 and started a private surgical practice. In 1767 he was
elected as Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1768 was appointed as
surgeon to St. George's Hospital. Of John it was said; 'Throughout
his boyhood he was good at such games as the village afforded to
boys, and observant of Nature; but deficient in self-control, idle,
and ignorant — a great disgrace for a Scots boy living within
walking distance of Glasgow College'. An aunt, Mrs Joanna Baillie
described him; </div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
John Hunter was nearly ten years younger than his brother William, and the youngest of a large Family. Being the youngest, and a very great favourite of his Mother, whilst his Father — who was an old man and suffering very much from disease for some years before his death — could attend to him but little, he was extremely indulged, and so humoursome that he would often, when a pretty big boy, sit for hours together crying when he could not get what he wanted; and could not be taught to read but with the greatest difficulty, and long after the age when other children read English fluently, and have even made some progress in Latin.
In a separate letter, Mrs. Agnes Baillie wrote that John Hunter was the youngest son, and his Mother spoiled him. He would do nothing but what he liked, and neither liked to be taught reading nor writing nor any kind of learning, but rambling amongst the woods, braes, &c., looking after birds'-nests, comparing their eggs — number, size, marks, and other peculiarities. John's habits were also described by Ottley;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
He was fond of company, and mixed much in the society of young men of his own
standing, and joined in that sort of dissipation which men at his
age, and freed from restraint, are but too apt to indulge in. Nor was
he always very nice in the choice of his associates, but sometimes
sought entertainment in the coarse, broad humour to be found amid the
lower ranks of society. He was employed by his brother to cater for
the dissecting-room, in the course of which employment he became a
great favourite with that certainly not too respectable class of
persons the resurrection-men; and one of the amusements in which he
took special pleasure, was to mingle with the gods in the shilling
gallery, for the purpose of assisting to damn the productions of
unhappy authors, an office in which he is said to have displayed
peculiar tact and vigour.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote88sym" name="sdendnote88anc"><sup>lxxxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A telling comment on John's career was made in 1866 by Sir William
Jardine who wrote in a time of Victorian prudery, even so, comments
by Jardine hint at concerns as to Hunter's celebrity status, and
support a call for a deeper analysis of Hunter than has heretofore
been conducted;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Another circumstance, which has materially contributed to stamp Mr
Hunter's celebrity with that limited and professional character to
which we have alluded, is that his life has been written only by his
professional brethren, <u>men who naturally considered it their main
object to supply that species of information which would be most
highly valued by that learned body of which Mr Hunter formed so
distinguished an ornament</u>. [my emphasis] One of these biographies
proceeded from the pen of a near relation, the late Sir Everard Home;
another is written by an individual whose chief celebrity appears to
have arisen from his being the opponent, and to the extent of his
ability, the persecutor of Mr Hunter; the third is the production of
a pupil and friend, Dr Joseph Adams, a name well known in the annals
of medicine. From these sources we have drawn liberally in the
following pages; but <u>at the same time we must be allowed to add
that the life of John Hunter is still a decided desideratum</u>. [my
emphasis] ... Making anatomical preparations were at this time a new
art, and very little understood. Every skilful preparation,
therefore, became an object of admiration … [John] soon discovered
that human anatomy presented too narrow a field for his ardent
research. Many parts of the human frame being so complex that their
structure and uses had hitherto baffled inquiry, he was led to
examine similar parts in other animals where the structure was more
simple, ... he left no means unemployed to obtain possession of the
rarer kinds of animals, with the view of examining into their
peculiarities. For this end, he applied to those who had the charge
of the Royal Menagerie at the Tower, for the bodies of the animals
that died there; … After twelve years had been spent in the manner
which we have described, <u>Mr Hunter in the very midst of his
career, suddenly left London. It must have been some very violent
cause which could thus tear him from his favourite pursuits</u>, [my
emphasis] and the only scene in which they could be advantageously
prosecuted.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote89sym" name="sdendnote89anc"><sup>lxxxix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
John had dissected pregnant human subjects for William within two years of
reaching London. The dissections are lauded by many as the peak of
anatomical art, but a French book translated into English in 1750,
was used by John Hunter in his study of chicken embryos, paralleling
his interest in the human fetus. <i>The
art of hatching and bringing up domestick fowls of all kinds at any
time </i> was by René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur and the author drew
comparisons with humans; 'What we know of the time at which the human
fetus begins to breathe, has made many an anatomist deny the
possibility that a chicken as yet imprisoned in its shell and covered
with all his membranes, could squeak there in an audible manner; this
matter of fact which they never had any opportunity to verify, is
nevertheless very certain.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote90sym" name="sdendnote90anc"><sup>xc</sup></a>
Thus, by 1755 somewhat surprisingly, John 'graduated' from pregnant
human subjects to a schoolboy type study of birds and eggs. An
incredible case of 'the cart before the horse', which begs the
question; 'What caused such a marked refocus to birds and eggs?' </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
John's reputation was based upon practical dissection, and an aversion to books. When a
friend asked him what books his son should read, Hunter reportedly
seized the poor fellow by the hand and dragged him into the
dissecting room where he pointed at the corpses, and exclaimed "These
are my books!" Of him it was written, 'He sought truth
fearlessly. He taught it as he saw it, earnestly, simply and
directly. His influence on medicine and natural science was far
reaching.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote91sym" name="sdendnote91anc"><sup>xci</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.62cm;">
<br />
When Hunter ... had a surgical theatre behind his house in Windmill Street, where he gave lectures to a very numerous class of pupils. To this place such numbers of dead bodies were brought during the winter season, that the mob rose several times, and were upon the point of pulling down his house. He had a well dug in the back part of his premises, in which was thrown the putrid flesh, and with it alkalis, in order to hasten its consumption.<span href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote92sym" name="sdendnote92anc" sdendnote92anc=""><sup>xcii</sup></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Initially John was refused burial in Westminster Abbey due to lingering concern over his
ethics, but in 1859 his remains were moved to Westminster Abbey and
his grave inscribed; "The Royal College of Surgeons of England has
placed this tablet on the grave of Hunter to record admiration of his
genius as a gifted interpreter of the Divine power and wisdom at work
in the laws of organic life, and its grateful veneration for his
services to mankind as the founder of scientific surgery." </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Stephenson and
electricity</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1747 physicians were using electricity as treatment. A writer from
Kidderminster reported a local man with tormenting pain from
rheumatism, who before going to a surgeon, decided to see if
electricity had any effect. He used an electrical machine upon the
pained finger and the pain abated. He went to bed and the next day it
grew much easier, so on the third day his finger was well, he
stating; 'Who knows what farther experiments and discoveries such an
incident may lead to?' In
1744 David Stephenson, of the Office of Ordnance at the Tower of
London, had published <i>A Mechanical Practice of Physick</i>
on using electricity to cure disease. (A reputable man, by 1748 he
was extraordinary clerk to the Surveyor General on a salary of £40
per year,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote93sym" name="sdendnote93anc"><sup>xciii</sup></a>
and in December 1757 he was promoted to Clerk of Works at the Tower
to succeed Dugal Campbell.) Stephenson followed his book with a
series of letters in April 1747 setting out proposed experiments using the newly
discovered power of electricity. Experiment 11 refers to the pregnant
womb and his proposed Experiment 18 refers to the Caesarean, strange
topics for a man in the Office of Ordnance.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Experiment 11 - Whether by putting a tube into the anus of any animal, the electric
vapour may not be propagated through the whole compound intestinal
canal to the mouth; and contrariwise from the mouth to the anus, and
be transmitted also through the lacteal vessels to the blood, and so
communicated to the whole animal system? ... And <u>what effects will
this æthereal vapour have, if communicated to the womb of animals
either pregnant or not</u>, [my emphasis] and likewise to the urinary
bladder.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote94sym" name="sdendnote94anc"><sup>xciv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Experiment 18 - As the signs of death are uncertain, so long as none of the vital organs
are destroyed, nor any indications of a beginning general
putrefaction; and as there are instances of persons reputed
irrecoverably dead, who have been restored to life; among other
proper methods for that purpose, will not the operation of
bronchotomy, and injecting the ethereal vapour, together with air,
into the lungs, and trying the experiments also proposed in No. 9,
11,12, 15, be of real use for restoring to life persons newly dead of
syncopes, apoplexies, cold, hunger, damps, hard drinking, over-doses
of opium, etc., persons, or other animals newly drowned or hanged,
whose death is produced by an apoplexy of the sanguineous kind?
children or other animals that are born dead, or happen to be
over-laid? and such children etc. <u>as are ushered dead into the
world, by the Caesarean operation, and that a considerable time after
the death of the mother, provided they are near their time, and none
of the fore said infallible signs of death found upon them</u>? [my
emphasis]</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Based at the Tower of London, Stephenson knew John Hunter, who arranged with the Keeper
of the Tower to obtain the bodies of any wild animals dying in the
royal menagerie sited at the Tower. Stephenson's experiments 12 and
15 are also seen as inspiring John Hunter's research;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Experiment 12 - If the stream of æthereal fire is conveyed by a pipe into the lungs of
any animal, and communicated to the blood, (which is always
necessarily impregnated both with æther and air); will not this
additional quantity of fresh æther, thus at once injected into the
blood, produce surprising alterations therein, and in the whole
animal œconomy? </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
Experiment 15 - If a perforation is made in the thorax of any animal with a trocar, and
the ethereal vapour communicated through the canula immediately to
the pericardium, heart, the great blood-vessels, lungs, pleura,
mediastinum, etc. and if a like aperture is made in the abdomen. and
the electric vapour conveyed through the canula immediately to the
stomach, intestines, diaphragm, mesentery, lacteal vessels, liver,
kidneys, etc., may not some extraordinary use be derived from such
operations, both for curing the diseases of those parts, and for
discovering many capital points yet unknown in the animal œconomy?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Stephenson followed up with more comments on a theory of electricity on 11 May
1747; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
But whereas it hath been inserted in some of the news papers, that some late experiments
shew electricity will not promote vegetation, hatching of eggs, etc.
... And whereas the eggs were never electrified all the time of
incubation, but only, and that slightly before they were set for the
fowl to brood on; how is it possible any sensible effects should
follow from such a superficial application of the electrical power.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote95sym" name="sdendnote95anc"><sup>xcv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
In view of contemporary reports of electrical experiments, one must believe John
Hunter was also experimenting in this direction. As with those
electrified under the direction of the King of Sweden; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
A gentleman of distinction who had been almost deaf a considerable time with a
singing in the ears was cured in three or four minutes. A man 57
years old, deaf for 32 years past, from a wound under the left eye,
and much afflicted with a violent toothache was cured of this last
complaint immediately, and soon afterwards his hearing. ... A young
man of 22 who had almost lost his hearing for six months, by violent
vomitings, which forced blood out at his ears, was cured in as little
time as the former, and continues to hear perfectly well. A girl of
seven, born deaf, who consequently could not speak, began to hear
words spoken very loud in her ear, and could repeat some of them in a
few days. In the year 1744 a young fellow of 19 fell into a well, and
continued there above half an hour for want of help; since which time
his hearing has been very weak; he has found much benefit from being
electrified. ... A stone cutter whose knees and joints of his toes
had been rendered stiff and fingers crooked, was able to go to work
after a few days of electrication. It has been found to recover, or
greatly abate, all rheumatic pains of the muscles. A lad who had a
severe sciatica in the right hip, from a fall from a scaffold, so so
as not to bear being touched, was cured in a few days, so as to be
able to walk without a staff. Another who had used crutches for seven
years, could walk without them in 13 days, and burnt them for joy. A
girl of 13 who had been lame after the smallpox from four years old,
now walks without a staff having been electrified no more than 20
times.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote96sym" name="sdendnote96anc"><sup>xcvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<b>The British Lying-in Hospital in Brownlow Street</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
Soon after William Hunter had established his anatomy school in 1746,
he was active as a founder of the Lying-in Hospital in Brownlow
Street in November 1749, and was one of two surgeon man-midwives on
call. When established it was the only hospital in England solely
employed for lying-in women, but only for those who were married. The
hospital rules of note included;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.32cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
The Committee decreed that women should be received in the last month
of their pregnancy on a letter of recommendation from a subscriber
and on producing an affidavit of their marriage ... In 1751 a
patient, Ann Poole was summarily dismissed from hospital because she
was unmarried and had falsely sworn on affidavit that she had been
married in the Fleet [prison] and had been subsequently deserted. Her
defence that 'necessity obliged her to crave the aid of charity' was
of no avail. … 'the Matron was ordered to examine every woman to
see that she had not the itch or other contagious distemper'. ...
Regarding maternal deaths and stillbirths it was said that 'if
patients or their children die in hospital the Steward must notify
the relations or friends if known. If they did not care to have them
buried then the Steward was instructed to cause them to be buried in
the cheapest manner he could'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote97sym" name="sdendnote97anc"><sup>xcvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br />
The burial instruction 'in the cheapest manner' was a euphemism for
transfer to Hunter's anatomy school. The rules show the bleak
situation for unmarried pregnant women bereft of support, who turned
in desperation to Smellie's free service. One can speculate a reason
for hospitals refusing unwed women, was to ensure Smellie, Hunter,
and other man-midwives retained a steady stream of indigent pregnant
women thereby forced to become teaching subjects. After 1660
magistrates were ruthless in pushing pregnant paupers outside their
borders and policing midwives who might harbour single mothers, this
continuing until the passing of the 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
It abolished the punishment of imprisonment for having an
illegitimate child punishable to a parish; and by causing the child
to follow the settlement of its mother, conferred a boon upon her,
which put a stop to the practice of hunting an unfortunate woman from
parish to parish when in the last stages of helpless pregnancy.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote98sym" name="sdendnote98anc"><sup>xcviii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br />
It was in such an environment that Smellie offered to house and
deliver poor women without charge, provided his students could attend
delivery. In 1759 unmarried women were also excluded from the City of
London Lying-in Hospital and the Middlesex Hospital.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote99sym" name="sdendnote99anc"><sup>xcix</sup></a>
In contrast, 'Felix Macdonough estimated that almost 2,000 of 9,000
patients served at the General Lying-in Hospital from 1752-1768 were
unmarried'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote100sym" name="sdendnote100anc"><sup>c</sup></a>
In their advanced state of pregnancy, unmarried women were vulnerable
to any person with criminal tendencies who might see their pregnancy
as a commercial opportunity.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
The situation in Dublin was also dire, until the opening of a
charitable lying-in hospital in 1745.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
<br />
For some Time before their Lying-in, they are unfit for Labour, and
deprived of the Means of earning any thing to support them in the Day
of their Affliction. Their Lodgings are generally in cold Garrets,
open to every Wind, or in damp Cellars, subject to Floods from
excessive Rains, destitute of Attendance, Medicines, and often proper
Food, by which Hundreds perish with their little Infants, and the
Community is at once robbed of the Mother and Child. These
Distresses, scarce tolerable by human Nature, have, it is to be
feared, induced too many Parents from a Sense of the Miseries they
and their Infants must undergo, to commit that most shocking of all
Crimes, the Murder of their new-born helpless Infants. And this seems
the more probable, if we consider, that, from the first Opening of
this Hospital, not a single Instance of this unnatural Crime hath
been known; whereas before that Time newborn Children were too, too
frequently found murdered in different Parts of this City.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote101sym" name="sdendnote101anc"><sup>ci</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br />
From 25 March 1745 to 1 November, 1750, 1648 women were delivered at
the Dublin Lying-in hospital, of which 15 mothers died several days
after they were safely delivered, mostly from fevers, with no
undelivered deaths. The number of children delivered was 1679, of
which 43 were stillborn and 61 died, mainly of fits. The Maternal
Mortality Rate, MMR, was therefore 0.91% and the Infant Mortality
Rate, IMR, including stillborn deaths was 6.2%. All women admitted
appear to have been wives or widows, so the situation for unmarried
women continued dire as for those in London.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
I<span style="font-style: normal;">n response to the 1751, </span><i>Petition
of the Unborn Babes,</i><span style="font-style: normal;"> which is
discussed in a later chapter and accused the hospital of malpractice,
the British Lying-in announced that 545 women had delivered 550
babies between November 1749 and January 1752, with only two
requiring instruments, and;<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote102sym" name="sdendnote102anc"><sup>cii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
Two experienced midwives constantly reside in the hospital. They
deliver the women in all natural labours and the male midwives are
called in where these cannot deliver them, which does not happen on
the whole above once in 30 to 40 cases: so that the midwifery
business of this hospital is certainly as much in the hands of women
midwives as it can or ought to be.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote103sym" name="sdendnote103anc"><sup>ciii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
The response implied few deaths and none from instruments. In 1755
the Physician and Man-Midwife was Dr G Macaulay and the
Surgeon/Man-Midwives were W Hunter and J Torr. By 1758 it was
reported; 'At a quarterly court held lately of the British lying-in
hospital [as the Brownlow was renamed in 1756] for married women,
London, it appeared that from Dec 7, 1749, the time of first
admitting women, to Jan 18, 1758, 2978 women had received orders of
admission. ... Great part of them were the wives of soldiers and
sailors; the rest were the wives of reduced tradesmen, poor
mechanics, labourers, etc.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote104sym" name="sdendnote104anc"><sup>civ</sup></a>
The hospital did have an epidemic of puerperal fever in 1760, the
first institutional outbreak in England, with more than 20 women
succumbing in a three month period, but it should be noted that
puerperal fever was an infection rarely applicable to undelivered
patients.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Nevertheless, published mortality rates do give rise to concerns
associated with the British Lying-in. From the table it is clear for
1749-1789 the MMR at the hospital was around 2%, compared to closer
to 1% for the whole city. Of 24,360 children born, 978 children were
still-born and 766 died soon after birth.<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote105sym" name="sdendnote105anc"><sup>cv</sup></a>
</span>But, for 1749-1759 the British IMR inclusive of still births
was around 15%, making the British MMR and IMR for 1749-1759, both
more than twice the Dublin rates for 1745-1750, where the MMR was
0.91% and the IMR, including stillborn deaths was 6.2%. The MMR and
IMR for the British hospital, as far worse than Dublin, contradict
the modern view of William Hunter as the ideal man-midwife and a
model of perfection. While William and John Hunter lived, the
survival rate among patients at the hospital was poor, and did not
improve markedly until after the deaths of William in 1783 and John
in 1793. This apparent coincidence invites suspicion, with the
deduction that, at the British Lying-in, still-births and hospital
deaths were not unwelcome between 1749-1789, as a 'legitimate' source
of subjects for transfer and dissection at William Hunter's anatomy
school between 1749 and 1783, and John Hunter's anatomy school from
1764 to 1793.</div>
</div>
</div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
</table>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 646px;">
<colgroup><col width="241"></col>
<col width="175"></col>
<col width="171"></col>
<col width="170"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="201"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">British
Lying-in Hospital </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">compiled
from <span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote106sym" name="sdendnote106anc"><sup>cvi</sup></a>
and <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote107sym" name="sdendnote107anc"><sup>cvii</sup></a></span></span></div>
</td>
<td width="145"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Death
of women & MMR</span></div>
</td>
<td width="141"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Death
of children & IMR excl. still born</span></div>
</td>
<td width="159"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Estimated
IMR </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">incl.
still born</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="201"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">From
1749 to 1759</span></div>
</td>
<td width="145"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1
in 42 = 2.38%</span></div>
</td>
<td width="141"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1
in 15 = 6.67%</span></div>
</td>
<td width="159"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">15.00%</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="201"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">From
1759 to 1769</span></div>
</td>
<td width="145"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1
in 50 = 2.00%</span></div>
</td>
<td width="141"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1
in 20 = 5.00%</span></div>
</td>
<td width="159"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">11.00%</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="201"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">From
1769 to 1779</span></div>
</td>
<td width="145"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1
in 53 = 1.89%</span></div>
</td>
<td width="141"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1
in 42 = 2.38%</span></div>
</td>
<td width="159"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">6.00%</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="201"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">From
1779 to 1789</span></div>
</td>
<td width="145"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1
in 60 = 1.67%</span></div>
</td>
<td width="141"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1
in 44 = 2.27%</span></div>
</td>
<td width="159"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">5.00%</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="201"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">From
1789 to 1799</span></div>
</td>
<td width="145"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1
in 288 = 0.35%</span></div>
</td>
<td width="141"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1
in 77 = 1.30%</span></div>
</td>
<td width="159"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3.00%</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="201"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">From
1799 to 1809</span></div>
</td>
<td width="145"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1
in 216 = 0.46%</span></div>
</td>
<td width="141"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1
in 92 = 1.09%</span></div>
</td>
<td width="159"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2.00%</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
From November 1749 to the end of 1796, the total of women delivered
at the British hospital was 24,079, of whom, '385 died soon after
delivery',<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote108sym" name="sdendnote108anc"><sup>cviii</sup></a></span>
apparently with <u>no</u> undelivered deaths. Although the British
had only been founded in November 1749, bed capacity was soon an
issue. 'In 1751 Mr Hunter suggested that one double and three single
beds should be added to the complement and it is not without interest
that the Steward was asked to find lodgings nearby where undelivered
women could wait to make room for those in labour'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote109sym" name="sdendnote109anc"><sup>cix</sup></a>
Hunter's effort to arrange private lodging houses for undelivered
patients was pioneered by Smellie in
1742, advertising: 'He has houses where poor women with child are
delivered, at which deliveries those who are his pupils may, on
reasonable terms, be present.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote110sym" name="sdendnote110anc"><sup>cx</sup></a>
On 11 July 1751, the British 'resolved also that 4 houses behind the
hospital should be immediately taken and furnished for the reception
of lying-in women'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote111sym" name="sdendnote111anc"><sup>cxi</sup></a>
Any unmarried women accepted into these, or similar
private lodging houses, on a mistaken belief Smellie or Hunter had
charitable intentions towards them as cases for student instruction,
represented a source for the undelivered subjects sought by Smellie
and Hunter.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
In determining the minimum total of undelivered subjects, one needs to
combine the atlases of Smellie, Hunter, and Jenty, the plates
discarded by Hunter and those acquired by Shippen. This totals
between 35 and 40, most being ninth month, with around two dozen
procured in 1750-1754, none between 1755-1763, and another dozen in
1764-1774. Counting mothers and fetuses separately, between 70 and 80
subjects are evidenced, but there were likely many more undelivered
subjects which were not drawn. For example the catalogue of William
Hunter's anatomical collection in Glasgow, refers to over 400
preparations in the obstetric collection, which can still be
inspected by forensic scientists. The collections of Smellie and
Jenty would be additional to this.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
In terms of clear evidential images, the key focus is on 1750-1754
when at least twenty undelivered subjects were procured and
dissected, fifteen by Smellie and five by Hunter. In the most
generous interpretation, during this period 75% were procured by
Smellie, whose work cries out for critical review to reconcile his rapid
accumulation of gravid uterus knowledge, with the 18C techniques and
sources available. The certainty with which Smellie expressed his
opinions is striking, but rings of impossibility had natural
undelivered deaths been his only method of sourcing knowledge. </div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br /></div>
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
<i>Philosophical Transactions,</i> Vol V, London, Royal Society,
1749, p 314-324</span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Camper, P, <i>Itinera in Angliam</i>, in <i>Opuscula Selecta
Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV, Amsterdam, Sum. Soc., 1939, p 31</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Willughby, Percivall, <i>Observations in Midwifery</i>, Wakefield, S
R Publishers, 1972, p 2</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Bellringer, F, <i>The Nutrition of the Foetus in the Womb</i>,
London, Innys, 1717</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Mery, M, in <i>Memoirs of Literature</i>, VolV, London, Knaplock,
1722, p 411-415</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Exton, Brudenell, <i>A New and General System of Midwifery</i>,
London, Owen, 1751, p 7 and p 123</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
McClintock, Alfred, <i>Smellie's Treatise,</i> Vol I, London, New
Sydenham Society, 1876, p 23</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Thomas, K Bryn, <i>James Douglas of the Pouch and his pupil William
Hunter</i>, London, Pitman, 1964, p 23</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
Peachey, George C, <i>A Memoir of William & John Hunter,</i>
Plymouth, 1924, p 14-15,
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
<i>The Present State of the Republick of Letters</i>, London, Innys,
1731, p 378</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
Brock, Helen, <i>James Douglas of the Pouch</i>, Medical History,
1974, p 167</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
<i>The British Observator,</i> London, Penny, 1734, p 157</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Peachey, George C, <i>A Memoir of William & John Hunter,</i>
Plymouth, 1924, p 179</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
Wadd, William, <i>Mems, Maxims, and Memoirs</i>, London, Callow,
1827, p 284</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Cope, Sir Zachary, <i>William Cheselden, Thomas Vicary Lecture</i>,
RCS, 30 October 1952</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
Bailey, James Blake, <i>The Diary of a Resurrectionist,</i> London,
Swan Sonnerschein, 1896, p 88</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
Medical Review quoted in O'Dowd, Michael J, <i>The History of
Medications for Women</i>, Taylor and Francis, 2000</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
<i>The Gentleman's and London Magazine</i>, 1788, p 221</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
Burton, John, <i>A Treatise on the non-naturals</i>, York, A
Staples, 1738,
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
Burton, John, <i>An Essay Towards a New System of Midwifry,</i>
London, James Hodges, 1751</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Morrison, Venetia, <i>The Art of George Stubbs</i>, New York,
Knickerbocker, 1997, p 12</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
Thornton, J L, and Reeves, C, <i>Medical Book Illustration</i>,
Cambridge, Oleander, 1983, p 83</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
Smellie, William, quoted in <i>Archives of Disease in Childhood
Fetal & Neonatal, </i>PM Dunn, 2001 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a><i>
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">Burton, John,</span><i> A
Letter to William Smellie MD</i>, London, W Owen, 1753</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Griffiths, Ralph and G E, <i>The Monthly Review, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">Vol
IX,</span> London, Griffiths, 1753, p 477</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
Bouce, Paul-Gabriel, <i>Sexuality in Eighteenth-Century Britain</i>,
MUP, 1982, p 201</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
Camper, P, quoted in Johnstone, R W, <i>William Smellie</i>, London,
Livingstone, 1952, p 23, p 26</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
Johnstone, R W, <i>William Smellie</i>, London, Livingstone, 1952,
Fig 1, p 24-25</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Radcliffe, Walter, </span><i>Milestones in midwifery, and the Secret
Instrument</i>, San Francisco, Norman, 1989, p 58</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
<i>Pregnancy and Pathology: Picturing Childbirth in
Eighteenth-Century Obstetric Atlases,</i> quoted at
http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/140942/pregnancy_and_pathology_picturing_childbirth_in_eighteenthcentury_obstetric_atlases/
accessed July 2009</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Glaister, John, <i>Dr William Smellie and his Contemporaries</i>,
Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p 182, p 251-252</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
Glaister, John, <i>Dr William Smellie and his Contemporaries</i>,
Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p 173, p 185, p188</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a><i>
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">Smellie, William,</span><i> A
Sett of Anatomical Tables, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
1754, Facsimile AU 1971</span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Thornton, John L, <i>Jan van Rymsdyk,</i> Cambridge, Oleander, 1982,
p 20</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
<span style="font-weight: normal;">McGrath, Roberta,</span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">
Seeing her Sex</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2002, p 67</span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a><i>
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">Smellie, William,</span><i> A
Sett of Anatomical Tables, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
1754, Facsimile AU 1971, preface</span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
Thornton, John L, <i>Jan van Rymsdyk,</i> Cambridge, Oleander, 1982,
p 6-7</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Van Rymsdyk, Jan, <i>Museum Britannicum</i>, London, Moore, 1778, p
v</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
http://www.hetutrechtsarchief.nl/collectie/akten/kwitantie/u195a4-28-0
accessed Novembrr 2009
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
Thornton, John L, <i>Jan van Rymsdyk,</i> Cambridge, Oleander, 1982,
p 7</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
Hunter, William, quoted in <span style="font-weight: normal;">McGrath,
Roberta,</span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">
Seeing her Sex</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
Manchester, MUP, 2002, p 85</span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
Van Rymsdyk, Jan, <i>Museum Britannicum</i>, London, Moore, 1778, p
v</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Roberts, et al, <i>William Smellie and William Hunter, </i>J R Soc
Med. May 2010; 103: p 205</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
Johnstone, R W, <i>William Smellie</i>, London, Livingstone, 1952,
Fig 1, p 85-90</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
Spencer, Herbert R, <i>The History of British Midwifery from
1650-1800</i>, London, John Bale, 1927, p 64-65</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV,
Amsterdam, Sum. Soc., 1939, p XXXV</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV,
Amsterdam, Sum. Soc., 1939, p 121-153</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV,
Amsterdam, Sum. Soc., 1939, p XXXV</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
Thornton, John L, <i>Jan van Rymsdyk,</i> Cambridge, Oleander, 1982,
p 101</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Radcliffe, Walter, </span><i>Milestones in midwifery, and the Secret
Instrument</i>, San Francisco, Norman, 1989, p 57</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 46</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a>
Adams, Joseph, <span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>Memoirs
of the life and doctrines of the late John Hunter,</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
London, J Callow, 1818, p 118</span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
Van Teijlingen, E R, and Lowis, G W,<i> Midwifery and the
Medicalization of Childbirth,</i> Hauppauge, NY, Nova, p 91
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Radcliffe, Walter, </span><i>Milestones in midwifery, and the Secret
Instrument</i>, San Francisco, Norman, 1989, p 57</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
Hibbard, Bryan H, <i>The Obstetrician's Armamentarium</i>, San
Anselmo, Norman, 2000, p 34
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>
</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Hunter,
William, </span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>Two
Introductory Lectures Delivered by Dr. William Hunter,</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
London, J Johnson, 1784, p 108-109</span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 25
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
<i>Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,</i> Edinburgh, A and C
Black, 1848, p 418</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>
</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Hunter,
William, </span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>Two
Introductory Lectures Delivered by Dr. William Hunter,</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
London, J Johnson, 1784, p 109</span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
Peachey, George C,<i> A Memoir of William and John Hunter,</i>
Plymouth, Brendon, 1924, p 129-130</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a>
Peachey, George C, <i>A Memoir of William & John Hunter,</i>
Plymouth, Brendon, 1924, p 95-96</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, Vol XVII, London, 1747, p 591</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 46</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
<i>The Literary Chronicle</i>, London, Davidson, 1823, p 266</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 45</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote66">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66anc" name="sdendnote66sym">lxvi</a>
Moore, Wendy,<i> The Knife Man</i>, London, Bantam, 2006, p 126-127</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote67">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67anc" name="sdendnote67sym">lxvii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Hunter, William,</span><i> The anatomy of the human gravid uterus,
exhibited in figures</i>, Birmingham, 1774 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote68">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68anc" name="sdendnote68sym">lxviii</a>
Moore, Wendy,<i> The Knife Man</i>, London, Bantam, 2006, p 126-131</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote69">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69anc" name="sdendnote69sym">lxix</a>
Baillie, Matthew, <i>On the Embalming of Dead Bodies</i>,
Transactions, Vol III, London, Nicol, 1812, p 13-14</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote70">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70anc" name="sdendnote70sym">lxx</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Hunter, William,</span><i> The anatomy of the human gravid uterus,
exhibited in figures</i>, Birmingham, 1774 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote71">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71anc" name="sdendnote71sym">lxxi</a>
Teacher, J H, in <i>Catalogue of the Anatomical Preparations of Dr
William Hunter</i>, Glasgow, GUP, 1970, p xlix-xl</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote72">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72anc" name="sdendnote72sym">lxxii</a><i>
The Critical Review, or, Annals of literature</i> edited by Tobias
George Smollett, 1774, p 408 </span>
</div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote73">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73anc" name="sdendnote73sym">lxxiii</a><i>
Medical and Philosophical Commentaries</i>, Society of Physicians in
Edinburgh, Edinburgh, 1774, p 227</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote74">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74anc" name="sdendnote74sym">lxxiv</a>
Smollett, Tobias George, <i>The Critical Review,</i> Vol 38, London,
R Baldwin, 1774, p 412</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote75">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75anc" name="sdendnote75sym">lxxv</a>
Shultz, Suzanne M, <i>Body Snatching</i>, Jefferson, NC, McFarland &
Co, c1992. p 21</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote76">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote76anc" name="sdendnote76sym">lxxvi</a>
Bynum, W F, Porter. R, <i>William Hunter and the 18C Medical World,</i>
Cambridge, CUP, 1985, p 23</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote77">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote77anc" name="sdendnote77sym">lxxvii</a>
Bynum, W F, Porter. R, <i>William Hunter and the 18C Medical World,</i>
Cambridge, CUP, 1985, p 1
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote78">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote78anc" name="sdendnote78sym">lxxviii</a>
<i>Gentleman' Magazine</i>, Vol LIII, London, 1783, p 366</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote79">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote79anc" name="sdendnote79sym">lxxix</a>
Schnorrenberg, B, <i>Is Childbirth any Place for a Woman?,</i> in
Midwifery and the Medicalization of Childbirth, Nova, 2004, p 91</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote80">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote80anc" name="sdendnote80sym">lxxx</a>
Morris, W I C, <i>Brotherly Love</i>, Medical History, 1959 January,
p 20–32.
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote81">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote81anc" name="sdendnote81sym">lxxxi</a>
Watt, Robert, <i>Bibliotheca Britannica,</i> Edinburgh, Archibald
Constable, 1824, p 544</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote82">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote82anc" name="sdendnote82sym">lxxxii</a>
Smollett, Tobias George, <i>The Critical Review</i>, London, 1756, p
373</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote83">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote83anc" name="sdendnote83sym">lxxxiii</a>
Jenty, Charles Nicholas, <i>The demonstrations of a pregnant uterus
of a woman, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London, </span>Rivington,,
1757
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote84">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote84anc" name="sdendnote84sym">lxxxiv</a>
Jenty, Charles Nicholas, quoted in <i><span style="font-weight: normal;">
</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">McGrath,
Roberta,</span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">
Seeing her Sex</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
Manchester, MUP, 2002, p 73</span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote85">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote85anc" name="sdendnote85sym">lxxxv</a><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">
</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">McGrath, Roberta,</span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">
Seeing her Sex</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2002, p 76</span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote86">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote86anc" name="sdendnote86sym">lxxxvi</a>
Jenty, Charles Nicholas, quoted in <i><span style="font-weight: normal;">
</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">McGrath,
Roberta,</span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">
Seeing her Sex</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
Manchester, MUP, 2002, p 76</span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote87">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote87anc" name="sdendnote87sym">lxxxvii</a>
Thornton, John L,<i> Jan van Rymsdyk</i>, Cambridge, Oleander, 1982,
p 53-60</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote88">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote88anc" name="sdendnote88sym">lxxxviii</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon</i>,
London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 27-35, 46-47</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote89">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote89anc" name="sdendnote89sym">lxxxix</a>
Jardine, William, <i>The Naturalist's Library</i>, Vol XXII, London,
Henry Bohn, 1866, p 17-83</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote90">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote90anc" name="sdendnote90sym">xc</a>
<span style="font-weight: normal;">Ferchault de Réaumur,
R, </span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">The
art of hatching and bringing up domestick fowls</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
London, C Davis, 1750, p 172</span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote91">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote91anc" name="sdendnote91sym">xci</a>
Norbury, L E C, <i>The Hunterian Era</i>, Hunterian Oration, 13
February, 1953, Ann RCS, 1953, 12(5), p 307</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote92">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote92anc" name="sdendnote92sym">xcii</a>
Knapp, Andrew, and Baldwin, William, <i>The Newgate Calendar</i>,
London, J Robins, 1825, p
</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote93">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote93anc" name="sdendnote93sym">xciii</a>
Chamberlayne, John,<i> Magnae Britanniae Notitia</i>, London, Birt,
Longman, 1748, p 182</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote94">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote94anc" name="sdendnote94sym">xciv</a>
Stephenson, D, <i>The Scots Magazine</i>, Edinburgh,
Sands, Murray, and Cochran, 1747, p 161</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote95">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote95anc" name="sdendnote95sym">xcv</a>
Stephenson, D, <i>The Scots Magazine</i>, Edinburgh, Sands, Murray,
and Cochran, 1747, p 265-269</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote96">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote96anc" name="sdendnote96sym">xcvi</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, E Cave, 1755, p 112-113</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote97">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote97anc" name="sdendnote97sym">xcvii</a>
Vartan, C Keith, <i>The Lying-in Hospital 1747-</i>, London, Proc,
RSM Vol 65, May 1972, p 467-470</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote98">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote98anc" name="sdendnote98sym">xcviii</a>
Head, Edmund, <i>Report on the Law of Bastardy</i>, London, Clowes,
1840, p 5-6</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote99">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote99anc" name="sdendnote99sym">xcix</a>
Martin, Benjamin, <i>The Natural History of England</i>, London,
Owen, 1759, p 285-286</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote100">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote100anc" name="sdendnote100sym">c</a>
Cody, Lisa Forman, <i>Birthing the Nation</i>, New Yorh, OUP, 2005,
p 283</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote101">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote101anc" name="sdendnote101sym">ci</a>
Nelson, Robert, <i>An Address to Persons of Quality and Estate</i>,
Dublin, Wilson, 1752, p 106</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote102">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote102anc" name="sdendnote102sym">cii</a>
Cook, J W, and Cook, B C, <i>Man-midwife, Male Feminist; George
Macaulay</i>, Ann Arbor, UMUL, 2004, p 118</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote103">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote103anc" name="sdendnote103sym">ciii</a>
Evenden, Doreen, <i>The Midwives of Seventeenth Century London</i>,
Cambridge, CUP, 2000, p 191</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote104">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote104anc" name="sdendnote104sym">civ</a><i>
The Scots Magazine</i>, Edinburgh, 1758, p 40</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote105">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote105anc" name="sdendnote105sym">cv</a>
Duncan, Andrew, <i>Annals of Medicine for the Year 1797</i>,
Edinburgh, Mudie & son, 1798, p 416</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote106">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote106anc" name="sdendnote106sym">cvi</a>
Duncan, Andrew, <i>Annals of Medicine for the Year 1797</i>,
Edinburgh, Mudie & son, 1798, p 416</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote107">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote107anc" name="sdendnote107sym">cvii</a>
<i>Leigh's New Picture of London</i>, London, Leight, 1819,
http://www.londonancestor.com/leighs/chr-h-brit.htm</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote108">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote108anc" name="sdendnote108sym">cviii</a>
Duncan, Andrew, <i>Annals of Medicine for the Year 1797</i>, Vol II,
Edinburgh, Mudie & son, 1798, p 416</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote109">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote109anc" name="sdendnote109sym">cix</a>
Vartan, C Keith, <i>The Lying-in Hospital 1747-</i>, London, Proc,
RSM Vol 65, May 1972, p 467-470</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote110">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote110anc" name="sdendnote110sym">cx</a>
Seligman, Stanley A, <i>The Royal Maternity Charity</i>, Medical
History, 1908, 24, p 403-418</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote111">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote111anc" name="sdendnote111sym">cxi</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, 1751, p 329</span></div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-50876837117886090622015-04-07T15:29:00.002-07:002021-11-26T09:41:45.188-08:0010 - The Laws of Probability - Against Impossible Odds ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Undelivered subjects</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
As an indication of an improving midwifery care in mid 18C London, the
maternal mortality rate (MMR), that is from time of birth until
several days afterwards, was about 1.4%.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
Joseph Clarke reported a survey from 1752-1784 showing 229 women had
died in childbirth, out of 19,786 deliveries (1.15%). Years later,
Clarke quoted updated statistics from 1757-1816 showing only 875
women died, out of 84,390 deliveries (1.04%).<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
By definition, these deaths were all child-bed deaths, not only
undelivered women. <br />
<br />
Statistics for Hotel Dieu in Paris showed;<span style="font-style: normal;">
'Women delivered from January 1, 1740 to January 1, 1742 amounted to
3,743, five of whom died, and 29 children were still-born',<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
an even lower child-bed death rate </span>a little over 1:1000, and
none undelivered. It has been observed<span style="font-style: normal;">;
'Pregnancy and birth were not highly regarded objects of study by
anatomists in the centuries leading up to the 1700s. This was clearly
due in part to the scarcity of pregnant corpses for dissection, but
also to the fact that midwifery was largely excluded from medicine
proper'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
We need
to consider the entries in Peter Camper's Journal, discussed earlier,
where in 1752 he and Smellie delivered the fetuses from two pregnant
corpses only six days apart. The procurement of these undelivered
subjects warrants close scrutiny. Progressive images of one of those
dissections appear as Smellie's Tables XII and XVI-XIX. Undelivered
subjects were so rare in the 18C, that an undelivered dissection of 9
June 1730, by John Paisley, a Glasgow surgeon, was detailed in his
1738 paper, <i>Coagulated Blood Extravasated Upon the Uterus</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a>
In 1733 Edmund Chapman published a treatise on midwifery where in 25
years experience he reported only two undelivered deaths, cases 40
and 41.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a><br />
<br />
James Douglas is mentioned in a 30 page paper of 1738, <i>Observations
Concerning the Placenta</i>,
written by Thomas Simson, Professor of Medicine at St Andrews, who
details many examples of the placenta and discusses his opinions of
its nature and purpose, but refers to a single preparation of a
uterus in the possession of Douglas.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
The impression given by the paper is that placentae were readily
available, but a uterus preparation was rare in 1738, and that Simson
had never seen an undelivered subject. Also, in 1737 a 30 page paper
was published by Joseph Gibson, Professor of Medicine at Edinburgh;
<i>An
Essay on the Nutrition of the Foetus in Utero</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
As with Simson's, it appears from his paper that Gibson had never
seen an undelivered subject. Thus we have two experienced Professors
of Medicine, writing specialist papers on the placenta and on the
fetus, neither of whom had ever seen an undelivered subject and
Edmund Chapman had only seen two.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In contrast to such extreme rarity, and Douglas' single uterus in 1738,
Smellie had, by 1754, seen a 'good number of impregnated wombs' and
accumulated a collection of prepared wombs;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Dr
Smellie, Mr Hunter, Mr McKenzie [sic] and others who practise
midwifery here, and have had occasion to see a good number of
impregnated [undelivered] wombs, are of opinion that in general the
uterus does not alter much in its thickness by being distended; tho'
sometimes it is found thicker, and sometimes thinner, than ordinary;
and in a collection of uteri in Dr Smellie's possession, there are
wombs which seem to favour all the three different opinions.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Although almost unknown in 1738, undelivered subjects were readily available
to Smellie, Mackenzie, and Hunter in 1750-1754, before again becoming
extremely rare until 1764.
We earlier noted the British Lying-in Hospital had a high MMR between
1749 and 1789, but reported no undelivered deaths among 24,079
pregnancies. Dublin had none among 1648 pregnancies. An
undelivered death rate of less than 1:10,000 was discussed by Bard in
1819; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
In size and shape,
[the pelvis] is so wonderfully adapted to that of the child's head
and shoulders, that notwithstanding all the variety which occurs in
the size of parents and their offspring, and all the irregularities
of shape, from accident or disease, not one woman in ten thousand
dies undelivered.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Corpses for routine dissection by 18C anatomists came from exhumations, but
random exhumations could not fulfil specific requests. Anatomists
seeking a child-bed death, or even more so, a near full-term
undelivered corpse, faced an impossible task in finding such a corpse
in a random exhumation. This view was endorsed in 1832: 'Painful as
it must be to witness the death of a woman in parturition
<i>undelivered,</i> the calamity would be equally distressing,
(except so far as the child is concerned), immediately after
delivery. The former case is of very rare occurrence; the latter has
very frequently happened'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
The extreme rarity of undelivered corpses, and the difficulty of
concealment of such deaths in normal circumstances, was also conveyed
in 1844;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
It is usually stated
that no woman ought to die undelivered; and wherever a woman does die
undelivered, it produces a very considerable sensation, both in the
neighbourhood and in the mind of every party who may come to a
knowledge of the circumstances. On this account a practitioner dreads
the procrastination of delivery, lest death should occur before it
can be accomplished, and his character be consequently involved in
censure.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1788, William Black commented upon the extreme rarity of deformities
of the pelvis;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
... but, happily,
such instances of deformity very rarely occur. We have but eight
examples on record during the last hundred years in this island,
three of them in London, and five in Edinburgh, wherein it was
thought necessary to have recourse to the dreadful alternative of the
Caesarian operation; that is, of cutting out the infant by an
incision made through the mother's abdomen and womb; and all these
women died. During the above long interval of time, including three
generations, of fifty or sixty puerperal women in London, whose
pelvises were remarkably small and deformed, notwithstanding the
unavoidable necessity of recurring to obstetrical instruments, in
order to diminish and tear away the infant, yet not above five or six
died. We have instances, almost miraculous, where after five days
strong labour, and a pelvis deformed and contracted in all
dimensions, yet, by obstetrical perseverance and skill, the woman has
been delivered, and has recovered. Instructed by these precedents, we
may reasonably expect, that two barbarous and ineffectual operations,
the Caesarian, and the modern attempt at improvement, by fevering the
anterior cartilaginous juncture of the bones of the pelvis, will both
hereafter be forever exploded, at least in this enlightened island.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
This report by Black
indicates the extreme rarity of natural deaths of ninth month
undelivered mothers. In one hundred years, he says there were only
fifty or sixty instances where it was deemed necessary to contemplate
a craniotomy, and in these cases only five or six mothers died. In
addition, in 1788 Black is saying only three Caesareans had been
needed in London in 100 years. Implicitly, undamaged, undelivered
ninth-month subjects were even rarer. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1820
Merriman collated and published several studies of maternal
mortality;<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a></div>
<br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="178*"></col>
<col width="80*"></col>
<col width="80*"></col>
<col width="80*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="26%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"> Table</span></div>
</td>
<td width="17%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Deliveries</span></div>
</td>
<td width="26%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Maternal
mortality</span></div>
</td>
<td width="30%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Described
as undelivered</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="26%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">I
- Baudelocque</span></div>
</td>
<td width="17%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">17308</span></div>
</td>
<td width="26%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">700</span></div>
</td>
<td width="30%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Apparently
none</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="26%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">II
- Bovin</span></div>
</td>
<td width="17%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">20357</span></div>
</td>
<td width="26%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Not
discussed</span></div>
</td>
<td width="30%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Not
discussed</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="26%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">III
- Boer</span></div>
</td>
<td width="17%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">18642</span></div>
</td>
<td width="26%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">211</span></div>
</td>
<td width="30%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">No
analysis</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="26%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">IV
- Assalini</span></div>
</td>
<td width="17%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">296</span></div>
</td>
<td width="26%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">10</span></div>
</td>
<td width="30%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Apparently
none</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="26%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">V
- Clarke</span></div>
</td>
<td width="17%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">10198</span></div>
</td>
<td width="26%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">199</span></div>
</td>
<td width="30%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Apparently
none</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="26%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">VI
- Bland</span></div>
</td>
<td width="17%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1897</span></div>
</td>
<td width="26%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">7</span></div>
</td>
<td width="30%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="26%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">VII
– A Private Practice</span></div>
</td>
<td width="17%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2947</span></div>
</td>
<td width="26%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14</span></div>
</td>
<td width="30%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="26%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">VIII
– A Physician</span></div>
</td>
<td width="17%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2982</span></div>
</td>
<td width="26%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">30</span></div>
</td>
<td width="30%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Apparently
none</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="26%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">IX
– A Physician</span></div>
</td>
<td width="17%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">10190</span></div>
</td>
<td width="26%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">107</span></div>
</td>
<td width="30%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Apparently
none</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Tables I
and IV-IX cover 45,000 deliveries and there appear to be only two
undelivered deaths. As later recommended by Michael Ryan; 'Should the
woman die undelivered, we ought to perform the Cesarean operation
about ten minutes after death, as the infant might be resuscitated,
and even after two days, according to others'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
When aggregated with Schrader, Dublin, and the British Hospital,
there are over 70,000 deliveries and but two or three undelivered
deaths, inferring an undelivered death rate (UDR) even fewer than the
1:10,000 deliveries suggested by Bard. A key reason for rareness was
an attempt to save the life of the unborn child by intervention, but
the mothers and fetuses depicted in the atlases of Smellie and Hunter
show no signs of instrumental damage. Puerperal fever was often a
cause of child-bed deaths, sometimes as an epidemic, as in Lyons and
Paris in 1750, but no epidemic was recorded in London between
1750-1754. Thus the undelivered subjects procured by Smellie and
Hunter during that period were not the result of an epidemic.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Population
changes</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
General
under-nourishment, poor housing, and bad winters killed many people.
Poorhouse deaths were generally old or unhealthy people, and young
children, and unlikely to be healthy women dying and retaining an
intact near-full term fetus. This is demonstrated, in that for male
subjec<span style="font-style: normal;">ts, 'the Bodies from the
Hulks...are most prized at the schools on account of their being for
the most part young subjects, and better adapted for display of human
structure than the aged inmates of the workhouses'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a></span>
In Edinburgh for the year June 1731 to May 1732 deaths of men were
26.5%, of women, 29.7% and children 43.7%,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
with these ratios typical in cities, i.e. nearly half children. In
London, for 1728-1737 deaths of children under five were 47.4% and
for 1768-1777 were 46.2%.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a><br />
<br />
Most 18C deceased were taken direct from their homes to a churchyard,
rather than to an undertaker. There were few death notices in
newspapers. Unless resurrectionists saw a funeral in process, heard
by word of mouth, or saw a burial in a churchyard, they were rarely
aware of a death. They mainly harvested from poorhouse interments,
where there were multiple interments in large grave-pits, left
largely uncovered until the pit was filled. In 1827 London it was
reported;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
By returns obtained by the Parliamentary Committee from 127 parishes
of the metropolis, it appears that out of 3744 persons who died in
the workhouses of these parishes in the year 1827, 3103 were buried
at the parish expense; and that of these about 1108 were not attended
to their graves by any relations. It is likely therefore that in the
metropolis a regular supply of bodies might be obtained of those who
have either no relations, whose feelings would be outraged, or such
only who by not claiming the body evince an indifference to its
future disposal.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
The 1100 unclaimed bodies were obvious targets for resurrectionists,
but all 3100 bodies buried at parish expense were vulnerable, being
those interred in large open pits. Similar targeting prevailed over
the period 1750-1832, with any poorhouse burials lightly covered in
open pits easy to steal.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Early
population statistics for London vary, but Carlisle estimated the
population in 1700 as 626,000 using the limits of the bills of
mortality, explaining why his statistics were higher than some
others;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
Objections may undoubtedly be raised to the limits of the metropolis
above assumed, and therefore it may be as well to add, that the total
population of all the parishes whose churches are situate within
eight English miles rectilinear from St Paul's Cathedral, amounted to
1,031,500 in 1801; to 1,240,200 in 1811; to 1,481,500 in 1821; and in
1831 to 1,776,556; a twenty-fifth part being added, in all these
instances, as a moderate allowance for the immense number of British
seamen belonging to the registered shipping on the Thames, for
soldiers quartered in the Tower and various other barracks, as well
as for the transitory population, always arriving and departing so
irregularly as to prevent the enumeration of the individuals in a
city where no police regulations exist regarding strangers and
temporary sojourners.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Carlisle's
statistics of one death per 31 residents in 1700, and one death per
48 residents in 1800, work out as around 20,000 deaths per year. His
statistics for other years also derive annual death totals of about
20,000, thus as people lived longer, the absolute London death toll
of 20,000 was not dissimilar in 1700 and in 1820, and continually
falling as a proportion of the population. The
population of London grew by 400,000 in the 18C, an average increase
of 4000 per year, but</span> only grew as 8000-12000
country folk moved to London each year<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a>.
That is births of 14,000 plus immigration from the country of 10,000,
less annual deaths of 20,000, equals 4000 annual net increase.
Applying a 1.4% maternal mortality rate<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
to 14,000 live births gives about 200 child-bed deaths in London per
year, with little difference to the figure even if stillbirths are
added. That is, for 20,000 total deaths, there was one child-bed
death in every hundred deaths.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Within
18C London the death rate exceeded the birth rate, as consumption,
dysentery, smallpox, and typhus were prevalent. From 1731 to 1750,
39,115 people died of smallpox in London, about 10% of total deaths
during that period.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
</span>Most affected by smallpox were children, with about 80% of all
deaths occurring in children under five years of age. Consumption led
to slow lingering deaths, with women unlikely to become pregnant
while suffering from consumption. Pregnancy occurs more readily with
healthy, than unhealthy, women and deaths of pregnant women were much
more uncommon than child-bed deaths. A pregnant female's natural line
of defence when affected by disease or bodily stress, is to abort the
fetus to protect the mother. If a pregnant woman was ill with
smallpox, dysentery or typhus, she usually lost the child, as noted
by Lamotte in 1722;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
A miscarriage through any distemper, is more dangerous according to
the malignity of the distemper, as when it is a malignant fever, the
smallpox, etc. almost all women with child that are attacked with any
of these miscarry, and are in great danger of their lives.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
A similar observation was made by William Wright in 1781;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
In the course of many years practice in Jamaica, I have remarked,
that where pregnant women had been seized with the natural smallpox,
or been by mistake inoculated, that they generally miscarried in the
time of, or soon after, the eruptive fever; but I never saw any signs
of small pox on any of their bodies, except on the child's above
mentioned.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
This
reaction to bodily stress is also illustrated by mid 18C experiments
carried out by John Hunter on twenty dogs. Two were pregnant bitches,
one of which Hunter appears to have injected with smallpox or typhus.
In both cases the bitches aborted.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<br />
Experiment 7, An
ounce of vinegar and water in equal proportions was thrown into the
veins of a bitch half gone with pup. This brought on an immediate
disposition for miscarriage, which took place in about six or eight
hours.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
Experiment 20, I threw into the veins of a bitch half gone with pup, a
quantity of serum taken from the blister of a person who was ill of a
putrid fever [probably smallpox] and soon after died. It made [the
bitch] instantaneously sick and she vomited. She soon miscarried, but
in two or three days recovered perfectly.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Deaths of
healthy women occurring undelivered were exceedingly rare. William
Hunter recognised this <span style="font-size: small;">when, after over 35 years
midwifery experience, he</span> wr<span style="font-style: normal;">ote;
'the opportunities for dissecting the human pregnant uterus at
leisure, very rarely occur. Indeed, to most anatomists, if they
happen at all, it has been but once or twice in their whole lives'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
Despite this rarity, by 1791 anatomists such as Hunter had procured
sufficient undelivered subjects to demonstrate the graduation of
fetal size;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">A foetus of four weeks, is near the
size of a common fly; it is soft, mucilaginous, seems to hang by its
belly, and it bowels are only covered by a transparent membrane. At
six weeks, the consistence is still gelatinous, the size about that
of a small bee, the head larger than the rest of the body, and the
extremities then begin to shoot out. At eight weeks, it is about the
size of a field bean, and the extremities project a little from the
body. At twelve weeks, it is near three inches long, and its
formation is pretty distinct. At four months, the foetus measures
above five inches; at five months, between six and seven inches; at
six months, the foetus is perfect in all its external parts, and
commonly, about eight, or between eight and nine inches long; at
seven months it is between eleven and twelve inches; at eight months
about fourteen or fifteen inches; and at full time, from eighteen to
twenty-two and twenty- three inches.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Merriman's
figures suggested 1:10000 or fewer, for ninth-month undelivered
deaths, only one or two per year in London, as intervention took
place to try and save the baby of any woman who died undelivered.
Hence undelivered deaths in hospitals were virtually unknown. This
leaves accidental deaths of women in their ninth month of pregnancy.
To make a benchmark test of this, from a table below, it is seen that
London violent deaths for men, women, and children in 1750-1754
totalled about 320 per year. Most violent deaths were due to
drowning, but also accidents, little street lighting, no effective
policing, rife street crime, and few restrictions on the sale of
alcohol or drugs. They included fire, drowning, falls, murder, road
accidents, accidental shooting and poisoning, and industrial
accidents. The 320 violent deaths were men, women, and children
combined. As nearly 50% of total annual deaths were children, annual
violent deaths comprised about 150 children, and say 85 each of men
and women of all ages. To assume many of the 85 women dying
violently, were accidental deaths in their ninth-month of pregnancy
is patently absurd, zero out of 85 is most likely.
</div>
<div 0cm="" align="JUSTIFY" class="western" margin-bottom:="">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;">The 1828 Anatomy Committee recorded
that in 1826, 592 bodies were dissected by 701 students, say six for
every seven students. The Committee also recorded that at the
outbreak of war with France in the late 18C there were only 200
medical students in London. In the 1750s there were less students
than later in the century but, to provide a benchmark hurdle, the
total number of bodies dissected in London by anatomists, students,
and resurrectionists, in 1750 is estimated at 200-250 per year. </span>The
actual number procured by any one anatomist in 1750 was unlikely to
exceed fifty subjects. For example, in 1746 William Hunter opened the
first school with only twenty students, rising to one hundred
students in 1756,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
implying he had perhaps 50-60 students in 1750.</div>
<div 0cm="" align="JUSTIFY" class="western" margin-bottom:="">
<br /></div>
<div 0cm="" align="JUSTIFY" class="western" margin-bottom:="" styl="">
<b>18C Statistical Analysis and the Bills of Mortality</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The above
factors are broad brush in nature, but a more detailed analysis does
not change the general conclusion. A key source of 18C statistics is
the London Bills of Mortality. In a major review of parish records
undertaken in 1788, William Black calculated the total number of
christenings in London registers from 1700 to 1776, as 1,220,656,
with recorded abortions and stillbirths of 46,831, making total
births of 1,267,487, for which there were 17,057 child-bed deaths,
that is 1.35%.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a>
Child-bed deaths therefore averaged 222 per year, little different to
the earlier figure of 200. Black also published his opinion on the
quality of the information. His summary covered 147 London parishes,
of which there were 97 within the old city walls, 17 outside the
walls, but within the city liberties, 23 parishes in Middlesex and
Surrey, and 10 parishes in the city and liberties of Westminster.
Black expressed his frustration, in opining on the method of
collection of the statistics; 'In collecting and conducting the bills
of these parishes there is a rabble of 294 female searchers and 147
parish clerks'. Black stated in more detail;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
I made it my business to visit, and to converse with a variety of
parish clerks in this metropolis, most of whom agreed with me, that
besides radical defects in the christenings and burials, there were
many other gross omissions. One instance I shall mention and many
more might be collected. The parish clerk of Bethnal-green, in which
are also three private madhouses, made no return to the general hall
during the year 1780, of either births or burials, and in the
preceding year he returned only four burials: whereas in former
years, this parish alone annually returned from three to five hundred
burials. I was assured that the company of parish clerks in their
corporate capacity, even if willing, have no power of compulsion over
any of their refractory and negligent members, to make regular and
correct returns; it seems almost optional. ... there are other
inherent defects in the London registers, both of burials and births.
They comprehend the births alone of those belonging to the
established church, and the burials of such only who are interred in
the registered parochial church yards. Jews, Quakers, Papists,
Protestant Dissenters of various sects, are not included in the
annual christenings; and great numbers of their burials, and of the
burying-places not only of the dissenting, but likewise of the
established church, are omitted … [Black] said very few of the
christenings of the dissenting sects in London were included in the
public registers, but several of them are buried according to the
formalities, or at least in the cemeteries of the established church,
which must unnaturally magnify the comparative list of deaths.
Another defect in the burials is, that numbers are carried into the
country who are not accounted for. It is agreed, that several
hundreds more are annually carried out of than are brought into
London for interment. Most of the nobility and gentry are removed
from London, after death to their family seats. Dr Price calculates
the present annual deficiency in the London burials at 6000; and of
the births somewhat greater; neither of which are brought to account
in the registers.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Black
showed average<span style="font-weight: normal;"> annual London Bills
of Mortality</span>, but with gaps for 1757-1758 and 1769.</div>
<br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="185*"></col>
<col width="185*"></col>
<col width="185*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Period</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Christenings</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Burials</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1671-1681</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">12,325</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">19,144</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1681-1691</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14,439</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">22,363</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1691-1700</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14,938</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">20,770</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1701-1710</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">15,623</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">21,461</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1711-1720</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">17,111</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">23,990</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1721-1730</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">18,203</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">27,522</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1731-1740</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">16,831</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">26,492</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1741-1750</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14,457</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">25,231</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1751-1756</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">15,119</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">21,080</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1759-1768</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">15,710</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">22,956</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1770-1780</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">17,218</span></div>
</td>
<td width="33%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">21,000</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
But, even
to adjust for christenings and deaths at levels of 6000 per year
higher than the Bills of Mortality, would not materially alter the
findings as the base is so large. Thus child-bed deaths are under 300
per year and natural deaths of ninth month undelivered subjects
remain in proportion.</div>
<br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 200%px;">
<colgroup><col width="15*"></col>
<col width="50*"></col>
<col width="50*"></col>
<col width="50*"></col>
<col width="50*"></col>
<col width="50*"></col>
<col width="50*"></col>
<col width="50*"></col>
<col width="50*"></col>
<col width="50*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Year</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Total burials</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Live births
christened</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Born dead abortive/
misc'age/ stillborn</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">MMR - child-bed
deaths</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">UDR - Est.
undelivered at 1% of child-bed</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">UDR - Est.
undelivered at 1:10000 of born live/dead </span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">UDR - Est.
undelivered at 1:15000 of born live/dead</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Casualties &
accidental deaths</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Of which murders</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1729</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">29722</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">17060</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">558</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">244</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">405</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">7</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1730</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">26761</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">17118</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">641</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">266</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">407</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">8</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1731</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">25262</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">17830</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">679</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">251</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">449</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">8</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1732</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">23358</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">17788</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">640</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">219</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">466</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">11</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1733</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">29233</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">17465</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">663</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">292</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">459</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">15</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1734</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">26062</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">17630</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">663</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">271</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">443</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">10</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1735</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">23538</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">16873</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">594</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">192</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">445</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">15</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1736</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">27581</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">16491</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">594</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">202</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">455</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">9</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1737</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">27823</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">16760</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">642</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">284</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">373</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">17</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1738</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">25825</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">16060</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">609</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">261</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">367</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">13</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1739</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">25432</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">16181</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">605</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">260</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">445</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">7</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1740</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">30811</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">15231</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">559</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">227</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">462</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">8</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1741</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">32169</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14957</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">553</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">256</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">466</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">8</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1742</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">27483</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">13751</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">533</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">203</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">426</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">11</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1743</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">25200</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">15050</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">604</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">176</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">404</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">6</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1744</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">20606</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14261</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">533</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">184</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">395</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">7</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1745</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">21296</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14078</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">514</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">197</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">429</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1746</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">28157</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14577</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">544</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">188</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">384</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">7</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1747</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">25494</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14942</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">560</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">207</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">375</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">7</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1748</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">23869</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14153</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">488</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">197</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">371</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1749</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">25516</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14260</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">614</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">187</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">408</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">5</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1750</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>23727</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>14548</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>584</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>228</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>2</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>2</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>363</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>4</b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1751</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>21028</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>14691</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>576</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>172</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>2</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>2</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>294</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>6</b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1752</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>20485</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>15308</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>534</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>156</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>2</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>2</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>316</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>6</b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1753</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>19276</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>15444</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>574</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>169</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>2</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>2</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>331</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>3</b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1754</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>22696</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>14947</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>583</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>213</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>2</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>2</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>298</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>2</b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1755</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">21917</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">15209</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">567</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">208</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">391</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">9</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1756</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">20872</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14830</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">588</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">180</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">329</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">5</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1757</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">21313</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14053</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">575</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">175</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">318</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1758</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">17576</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14209</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">599</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">185</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">282</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">5</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="6%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Total</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>740088</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>465755</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>17570</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>6450</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>11756</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>229</b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
An
analysis of the Bills of Mortality was published in 1759.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a>
The table shows details from that for the years 1729-1758 which
derive an MMR of 1.33%. Available statistics suggest an undelivered
death rate (UDR) no greater than a range of between 1:10000 to
1:15000 of confinements/deliveries, or alternatively, around 1% of
child-bed deaths.<br />
<br />
By applying these UDR to the detailed Annual Bills
of Mortality, it is possible to make a more accurate estimate of
undelivered deaths in greater London for the thirty years 1729 to
1758. In the table, the years of prime interest are 1750-1754, the
period during which Smellie and Hunter procured their undelivered
subjects; with most of 1754 likely occupied by the engraving, and
publishing, of Smellie's atlas. The analysis derives total
undelivered deaths for that period of 5 to 8, of which it is
reasonable to assume, a proportion were buried by their families
without dissection and/or died in areas of London where their corpses
were unavailable by reason of distance or other circumstance. If the
5 to 10 are discounted by 50% for this, the undelivered cadavers
'legitimately' available to Smellie and Hunter totalled only 3 or 5
in 1750-1754, whereas during that period, Smellie and Hunter procured
at least 20 undelivered subjects.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Even
adjusting for christenings at 6000 per year more than shown in the
Bills of Mortality, as noted by Black, barely alters undelivered
deaths as the base sample is so large. The only change being that
years such as 1748 and 1749, at a UDR of 1:10000, move from one
undelivered death to two. The minimal annual undelivered deaths
derived above, of one or two per year, contrast with Smellie who
depicts fifteen undelivered subjects in his atlas, all procured
during the period 1750-1754 when he had around 600 patients in total.
In view of that rarity, a matter
to ponder is; that, if the fifteen undelivered subjects dissected by
Smellie had been procured innocently, their innate rarity should have
led Smellie to write up the full circumstances of each undelivered
death in his Treatise, but they are made both prominent, and
suspicious, by their omission.<br />
<br />
It
is interesting to compare the 18C UDR of less than 1:10000, with UDR
in the 21C. In the four years 2006 - 2009 inclusive, there were 20
antenatal maternal deaths in New Zealand, out of a total of about
250,000 births for those four years, a UDR of a little below 1:10000,
with New Zealand statistics comparable to those of Australia and the
UK. Thus while MMR has fallen markedly, UDR is still far lower.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A
reference to undelivered deaths was made in 1754, when reviewing a
pamphlet titled <i>“Man-Midwifery Analysed”</i>; 'Where this
writer lives we know not; but we can assure him, we have known
several women die, undelivered, at their full reckoning, when they
were left entirely to nature. Several others in labour, and others
after delivery'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a>
However, that passage should be read with caution, as the publishing
date suggests it was written in knowledge of the abundance of
undelivered subjects procured by Smellie and Hunter, but without
contemplating the source of their subjects. One
of the undelivered subjects, or yet another, was copied as a wax
model and publicly displayed in London by Benjamin Rackstrow
(c1710-1772) at his wax museum. 'One of the chief attractions in the
early years was a wax model of a woman eight months pregnant. This
was a dramatic piece indeed, because according to a handbill, “the
Circulation of the Blood is imitated (by Liquors resembling the
Arterial and Veinous Blood, flowing through Glass Vessels whose
Figure and Situation exactly correspond with the natural Blood
Vessels) also the action of the heart and Motion of the Lungs in
Breathing. The whole making a most wonderful and beautiful
appearance.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
So what was the probability of resurrectionists disinterring an
undelivered subject. Natural deaths were spread across the whole
year, with a minor peaking in late winter months, whereas anatomy
dissections were mainly undertaken in October to March. The figures
show the probability of opening a grave to resurrect a child-bed
mother was 200 in 20,000 interments, a chance of only 1%, so in an
annual total of 200-250 resurrections allows the probable harvesting
of two or three child-bed subjects. But the probability of randomly
locating a ninth-month, undelivered, corpse was much lower. At only
one or two undelivered deaths in 20,000 interments, the probability
was closer to 0.01% per exhumation, rising to 2% for 200
resurrections. That is to say, it was 98% certain, during the course
of a year no resurrectionist would find a seventh to ninth month
subject on opening a grave and in the course of five years, it was
over 90% certain not one ninth-month corpse would be found across the
whole of London. It may be suggested the ability to find near
full-term corpses was assisted by word of mouth to resurrectionists.
There was marginally better chance in the 19C, when resurrectionists
had networks of supply, but in 1750 the role of the professional
resurrectionist was minor, with John Hunter undertaking his own
resurrections. Another significant point to note in the table is
that the three years in the series with the lowest number of reported
child-bed deaths were 172 in 1751, 156 in 1752, and 169 in 1753. Thus
proving there was no peak in child-bed deaths, which might have made
innocent procurement of undelivered subjects more likely. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
All
things considered, if an anatomist sought a ninth-month undelivered
corpse, the random probability of resurrecting such a subject was
effectively zero. That is, between 1750-1754, it was over 99% certain
no ninth month undelivered subject would be found in the 200-250
annual resurrections of deceased subjects procured by all London
anatomists. Of that
estimate, only 50-80 subjects of all types were annually procured by
Smellie and Hunter, so the odds of them procuring an undelivered
corpse via a resurrection was zero, especially for Smellie who did
not have an anatomy school. In
view of such rarity, the work of Jenty is also suspicious, in
referring to three undelivered subjects. The 18C undelivered drawings
represent a logical minimum number of the undelivered subjects, not a
maximum; in assuming that not all undelivered subjects were evidenced
by drawings. The analysis prompts great suspicion of the abundance of undelivered ninth month
corpses procured, dissected, and depicted by Smellie, Hunter and
Jenty.
Twenty, mainly ninth month, subjects, within the years 1750-1754 and
without disclosing the source of subjects. A ratio of worse than 1:30
of their patients, and at the very least a sign of gross
man-midwifery incompetence. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The evidence is moving inexorably to an unpleasant conclusion. Taking the
combined Smellie and Hunter atlases there are over thirty subjects,
but initially focusing only on 1750-1754, there are twenty
undelivered subjects, of which seventeen were near full term. Given
the proven impossibility of procurement by random resurrections, and
the need for absolute freshness, there were four options for
procurement of pregnant subjects by Smellie and Hunter:</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
1 - Deceased
patients. Given the prime objective to save a mother, if
necessary at the expense of the fetus; the damaging efforts of any
such attempt to save the mother, and the several days until
interment, the condition of such subjects and the damaged fetus would
have made them unsuitable. In addition there was the awareness of
friends and family.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
2 - Laying-in hospitals or
poor-houses. Much the same argument. If a ninth month mother had
difficulties, a doctor was called to save the mother and perhaps the
child, by intervening, but generally a child was sacrificed to save
the mother. Even if the mother appeared to be dead, an attempt was
made to save the baby and the damaged corpse was then unsuitable as
a subject. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
3 - Caesarean sections on
consenting patients who died during the operation. This is highly
unlikely, with much the same arguments. As patients needed four
people to hold them down, it seems inconceivable such a consenting
operation could be performed in secret. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
4 - Murders to order, by
targeting suitable subjects. Unpleasant as a prospect; this is the
only practical option. Such murders could be undertaken in secret,
ensure the subject was near full-term, provide an absolutely fresh
cadaver, allow for full preparedness before the actual dissection,
and be repeated by claiming each subject was resurrected. With the
heads, arms, and legs, removed and used for dissecting practise, the
torsos were unrecognisable. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Careful analysis of
events proves compelling evidence of murder to order and the Journal
of Camper indicates he was closely involved with Smellie in at least
two of the murders. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
As part of this
research, it is next necessary to consider what possible reason there
could be for Smellie and Hunter to expend the effort, and risk, to
procure so many ninth month subjects, far more than were necessary to
complete their atlases. There had to be a special reason to procure
and then arrange the murder of so many pregnant victims. After
Smellie had resolved the mechanics of fetal descent, with one
exception it is difficult to determine any line of research totally
dependent upon a supply of undelivered, highly pregnant subjects; as
opposed to parturient, or non-parturient, female subjects procured in
a more random manner. That exception implies the research was to save
the life of an unborn child during a difficult delivery and so
requires a digression into the history of the Caesarean operation in
Britain and Ireland. </div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Loudon, Irvine, </span><i>Death in Childbirth,</i> Oxford, OUP,
1992, p 159 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Troehler, Ulrich, <i>Quantification in British Medicine and Surgery
1750-1830</i>, London, UL, 1978/2006
http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/pdf/theses/troehler-1978.pdf
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Adams, M, <i>Eyes for the Blind, Man-Midwifery Exposed! </i> London,
S W Forbes, 1830, p 17</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Massey, Lyle, <i>Dissecting Pregnancy in 18C England</i>,
http://anatomyofgender.northwestern.edu/massey01.html accessed May
2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Paisley, John, <i>Medical Essays and Observations</i>, Vol IV,
Edinburgh, Monro, 1738, p 444-451</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Chapman, Edmund, <i>A Treatise on the Improvement of Midwifery</i>,
London, Brindley, 1735, p 221-230</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Simson, Thomas, <i>Medical Essays and Observations</i>, Vol IV,
Edinburgh, Monro, 1738, p 93-123</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Gibson, Joseph, <i>Medical Essays and Observations</i>, Vol I,
Edinburgh, Monro, 1737, p 171-202</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
Glaister, John, <i>Dr William Smellie and his Contemporaries</i>,
Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p 61</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
Bard, Samuel, <i>A Compendium of the Theory and Practice of
Midwifery</i>, New York, Collins, 1819, p 5</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
Ingleby, John Thomas, <i>A Practical Treatise on Uterine Hemorrage</i>,
London, Longmans ,1832, p 153</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Radford, Thomas, <i>Provincial Medical & Surgical Journal</i>,
10 December 1844, p 603</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Black, William, <i>A Comparative View of the Mortality of the Human
Species</i>, London, Dilly, 1788, p 357-359</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
Merriman, Samuel, <i>A Synopsis of the Various Kinds of Difficult
Parturition</i>, London, Callow, 1820, p 303-321</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Ryan, Michael, <i>London Medical and Surgical Journal</i>, London,
Renshaw, 1831, p 376</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
Richardson, Ruth, <i>Death, Dissection, and the Destitute,</i>
London, CUP, 2000, p 248</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
Philosophical society of Edinburgh, <i>Medical essays and
observations</i>, Edinburgh, 1752, p 41
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
General Board of Health, <i>Papers relating to the history and
practice of vaccination</i>, London, HMSO, 1857, p 30
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
The Cabinet Lawyer, <i>A treatise on the Police and Crimes of the
Metropolis</i>, London, Longmans, 1829, p 199</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Carlisle, Anthony, </span><i>Practical Observations</i>, London,
John Churchill, London 1838, p 13-15</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a><i>
An Oxford Companion to the Romantic Age - British Culture 1776-1832</i>,
McCalman, Oxford, OUP, 2001, p 136 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Loudon, Irvine, </span><i>Death in Childbirth</i>, Oxford, OUP,
1992, p 159 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
Duncan, Andrew, <i>Medical
Commentaries</i>, Vol VIII, London, Dilly, 1783,
p 135</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Lamotte, quoted by Woods, Robert in <i>Death Before Birth</i>,
Oxford, OUP 2009, p 218</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Wright, William, in <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, London, Royal
Society, 1781, p 373</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
Hunter, John, <i>The works of John
Hunter</i>, with notes, Vol I, ed. by J.F.
Palmer, London, Longman, 1835, p 348-351</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Hunter, William, quoted in</span><i> </i>McGrath, Roberta,<i>
Seeing her Sex</i>, Manchester, MUP, 2002, p 82 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a><i>
A System of Anatomy</i>, Edinburgh, Creech, 1791, p 11-12</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
Lassek, A, <i>Human dissection; its drama and struggle</i>,
Springfield, Charles C Thomas, 1958, p 142
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Black, William, <i>A Comparative View of the Mortality of the Human
Species</i>, London, Dilly, 1788, p 340-341</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Black, William, <i>A Comparative View of the Mortality of the Human
Species</i>, London, Dilly, 1788, p 419-422</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
<i>A Collection of Yearly Bills of Mortality, from 1657 to 1758
inclusive, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London, Miller, 1759</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
<i>The Monthly Review,</i> London, R Griffiths, 1754, p 71</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Altick, Richard, <i>The Shows of London</i>, Cambridge, Mass.,
Harvard, 978, p 55</span></div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-44955185889624156532015-04-07T15:02:00.001-07:002021-11-26T09:31:55.972-08:0011 - Caesarean Experiments Upon the Living Subject ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
The universal response to an undelivered death was urgent intervention to save the
baby, as in 1694; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
A Woman big with Child came to Hotel Dieu towards the End of September
1694, to be delivered of a third Child, of which she was pregnant.
Thirteen or Fourteen Days before her Death, she felt excessive Pains
in the umbilical and epigastrick Region, by the different Motions of
the Child, which obliged her to require immediate Relief, and to wish
they would open her Side; but they did not listen to her, judging the
Operation too dangerous. She died the 21st of October following and
Messieurs Colignon and de Jouy, assisted by Madam de Gouey, chief
Midwife, opened the Body instantly, as is commonly practised in such
Cases, to extract the Child either dead or alive By this Operation
they discovered the Child to be dead.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
In 1678 Nathaniel
Wanley recorded the claim of Cornelius Gemma, (1535-1578); 'I myself
saith Cornelius Gemma, have cut out of the Womb six living Children
from six several persons.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
Around 1670, the
man-midwife, Percivall Willughby (1596-1685) wrote of the Caesarean
section; <br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
<br />
It hath proved
unfortunate to several, under whose hands the women have perished,
and it is not used in England. Dr James Primrose holdeth it to be a
rash piece of work, and to do it in a living woman, a practice to be
abhorred. I therefore pass over it with silence, being unwilling to
make a dreadful noise in the ears of women, or to embolden any in the
works of cruelty.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
But it is logical to
assume Caesareans were performed in England in the rare cases it was
necessary, as instructions for a Caesarean were published in England
in 1702, as in this French translation;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
Place the Woman on
her Back, and then make a Longitudinal Incision below the Navel, the
Body of the Womb, and put the Linea Alba, and cut through the
Teguments till you lay the Womb bare; be sure to make the Incision
large enough to extract the Fœtus, and when this is done make an
Incision through the Body, and on one side [of] the Womb put the
forefinger of the left Hand into the Incision to widen it, and guide
the Point of the Scissars or Knife on the Finger, to prevent hurting
the Child; then open the Membranes which contain the Fœtus, and
bring both it and the Burthen away, after having dextrously
disingaged it. Wipe the Blood off the Wound with a Spunge dipt in
Wine warmed, and make a Suture of the Belly as in its proper place
was directed, without stitching the Womb at all.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
And surgeons would
have noted a French Caesarean reported in London in November 1702;
'Mr Mery having perform'd the Cæsarian Operation on a dead Woman,
found the Peristaltick and Vermicular Motions of the Intestines very
sensible, tho' the Heart and Lungs were immovable'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<b>Cutting for the
stone - lithotomy</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
But before considering the 18C Caesarean further, it is relevant to
consider the history of the lithotomy (cutting for the stone), an
operation with surgical parallels to a Caesarean. It was due
to a perceived lesser risk that Caesareans were practised in France,
whereas <span style="font-weight: normal;">it was recognised that
removal of bladder stones was often fatal. More than half of a group
of sixty patients of Frere Jacques (1651-1719) died from the
operation in Paris. In the 18C there was increasing preparedness of
surgeons to experiment with new procedures, even in the recognition
that experiments could result in death. James Douglas wrote of the
high stone operation; </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.3cm; margin-right: 0.3cm;">
<br />
After making some
Experiments on dead Bodies, I was convinced the Stone might be
extracted that way with a great deal of less trouble than commonly,
and I was persuaded that the Wound would heal again, by the great
number of authentic Instances we have of accidental Wounds in the
same place being speedily and firmly cured; and therefore I resolved
to make the Experiment on the first Patient I could meet with, which
I could not procure till December 1719.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.3cm; margin-right: 0.3cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Of the first four
patients Douglas experimented upon, one died, but that was an
improvement on Jacques. Other successes ensued, including by
Cheselden, who by late 1722 had only one death in his first 14
attempts, but these were followed by surgeons with increasing
failures. Cheselden later wrote; 'I lost no more than one in seven …
whereas in the old way even at Paris from a fair calculation of above
800 patients, it appears near two in five died'. As the death rate of
other surgeons was worse than for Cheselden, the high operation fell
from favour until revived in 1819;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
John Douglas [brother of James Douglas], painstaking and industrious though he
was, had not the character to make others follow on what was, in
those times, a dangerous path. Cheselden, who saw the possibilities
of the operation, yet preferred to adapt the old procedure to his own
ways, and was certainly correct in doing so. Among the other surgeons
who practised the high operation, <u>lack of understanding, and
uncertainty of the anatomy of the parts, caused the failures and
tragedies which bought disfavour upon it</u>. [my emphasis]<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The factors
applicable to John Douglas; experiments on dead bodies, fatal
experiments on live bodies, and a 'lack of understanding, and
uncertainty of the anatomy of the parts', were paralleled in
Smellie's research. We have discussed Smellie's pre 1750 experiments
with forceps and other instruments which led to eight deaths. With
his instruments considered perfected, Smellie decided to focus on
gravid uterus research and the Caesarean, in an effort to solve the
remaining fetal problem, the avoidance of fetal death due to a
craniotomy. To gain the requisite knowledge, Smellie procured and
dissected multiple undelivered subjects. But, just as with John
Douglas and his lithotomy experiments, Smellie's search to understand
the anatomy of the female gravid parts, led to the deaths of at least
fifteen pregnant women and their fetuses, although the research
provided sufficient knowledge for his anatomical atlas. However, his
failures and tragedies then brought disfavour on the Caesarean as an
alternative to a craniotomy for another forty years. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1723 Cheselden detailed a comparison of cutting for the stone and the
Caesarean, written by Francis Rousset (1535-1590).
Although written in 1590, it is an important guide to the thinking of
18C anatomists. As Camper records, it also reveals Smellie's line of
thought, as taught to his students about the Caesarean; 'He considers
the Caesarean operation necessary in certain cases. He refers his
listeners to Roussetus, to the Royal Academy of Surgery in Paris, to
the surgery of Heister, etc.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
It is also relevant to remember John Hunter was a student of
Cheselden, and so was influenced by Cheselden, who believed there was
reason to attempt a Caesarean. Rousset conveys that cutting for the
stone has many dangers, whereas from his experience in performing
Caesareans, the latter is a safer operation. In the following long
extract, Rousset's references to the Caesarean are underlined, so his
views on the lesser risks can be compared with those in cutting for
the stone. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
<u>I shall ... compare our way of cutting the uterus</u>, (which
though it be an operation not often practised, yet it is sometimes a
very necessary one) <u>with both ways of cutting for the stone</u> in
the bladder [vesica], namely, the ancient and modern, both of which
are indeed common, but often times not very necessary, and very often
mortal. But both ways are more dangerous than ours for many reasons:
yet some few persons having done well under this operation give us
the greater hopes of the success of ours. For first, in this
operation <u>the uterus is indeed cut, and this is a part in women
not much more necessary to every individual, than perhaps every man's
scrotum is to him</u>. ... But in the other operation, the bladder
(without whose continual service a man cannot live a moment safely)
is to be terribly and mischievously wounded. And that this is truth,
we learn from Galen, in his book De Sectione vulvae. “Since the
bladder, says he, grows bigger in proportion to all the other parts,
it being of equal service to every age,<span style="text-decoration: none;">
</span><u>it not being necessary that the uterus, neither while
animals are growing, nor when they are grown old, should perform its
office; neither does it indeed always rightly perform it in the time
proper for bunging forth young</u>.”
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
Secondly, <u>the uterus being laid open to the sight, after an
incision has been skilfully made in the abdomen of a woman big with
child, and that is not able to bring forth, does immediately so
present itself to the operator, that he has all the opportunity of
observing with his eyes and fingers, and of directing his instrument
with his careful hands to the part that is to be cut; and that most
plainly because the uterus is very turgid and distended in a woman in
labour</u>. But the bladder in both the common methods of operation
(for we intend to introduce another) lying, the abdomen not being
cut, very deep under the os pubis, the urine being discharged by the
catheter (as is to be done before the cutting) out of the bladder,
the bladder lies much lower and becomes lax, so that it often escapes
the perception of the most skilful operator. Whence it happens, that
the stone being often times very large ... that a person cannot hope
to draw out through it the stone or stones; so that the operator must
either altogether forbear extracting it, or the wound must be
enlarged with no small danger, by resuming the knife, or else not
only a great part of the neck of the bladder must be violently
stretched by the dilator, but likewise no small part of the
membranous body,<span style="text-decoration: none;"> as we may see in
great numbers of bodies, which we daily behold torn after that
butcherly manner, </span><u>a thousand times worse than it is
possible to be in all the cutting of the</u><span style="text-decoration: none;">
abdomen, peritoneum, and </span><u>uterus</u>.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
Thirdly, they that are to cut the bladder there, after the common
way, must of necessity cut not only veins, but many arteries, and
those not small ones that are very necessary to the part that is to
be cut, and most of the neighbouring parts, but likewise they must
cut the fibres of the sphincter of the bladder, as likewise of other
muscles and of the perineum, not to mention some other parts of the
body, as the genital vessels of men, reaching almost so far and being
there liable to be hurt; also the rectum intestinum, which is often
troubled with varices, condylomata, and turgid haemorroides. <u>But
he that cuts the uterus, works safely, and without fear of hitting
those parts, if what has been sufficiently proved with relation to
the veins and arteries, in the second treatise, be not again called
into question</u>.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
Fourthly, when by the thrusting in of the hollowed catheter, by the
deep wounding with the knife, and by the cruel tearing of the flesh
by the dilator, a passage is made, with much ado, into the bladder,
obtained by several sorts of instruments, in so dangerous a place,
that through it a way may be forcibly made for extracting large, and
often times very many stones; what great difficulty, what great pain,
what new danger is it found to be, carefully, to lay hold of (as it
becomes one so to do) those stones wandring in their mines, and often
times baffling and envading the uncus and forceps ...
<u>But
our uterus being cut by a line not yet finished, but only begun in
the middle of the incision marked out for the eye, of its own accord
immediately thrusts out the foetus, not only if it be already dead,
being assisted by the hand, but much more briskly, if it be yet
alive, it naturally wanting and struggling for air, and endeavouring
to get out, which way soever it can: as soon as this is done, the
uterus begins immediately to close itself, so that that there is no
need of any stitching and hardly of any external help</u>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
Fifthly, It is then manifest, as well from the membranous pus in the urine of
live persons troubled with the stone, as from the sight of their
bladders when dead, that their bladders are seldom free from ulcers
occasioned by the stones being grown larger; and often times from its
being rough, unequal sharp pointed or prickly: and however the
patients might be free from ulcers before their being cut, it must
needs be that they will have them afterwards, and in that very place,
into which, besides the the pus of the affected part; the sink of the
whole body is brought down as into a common shore: the miserable and
everywhere frequent complaint (of many persons that have been cut for
the stone) of the continual dripping of the urine through the
perineum, do sufficiently demonstrate how hard those ulcers are to be
cured, by reason of that great quantity of filth continually washing
that part: <u>so
that I hope nobody will hereafter upbraid me with the hernias of my
patients who have undergone the Caesarean operation, a slight
misfortune indeed, in comparison of the calamity of ulcers, aid if
not avoidable, yet tolerable. But the uterus of those who undergo the
Caesarean operation being sound and strong as to its internal
situation, cannot receive from the parts placed above the incision,
with respect to its lower situation, any flux of excrements into that
part of itself, where the incision has been made, and is now
hastening to a closure; yea rather it is naturally ready to throw out
quickly, easily, and safely, that filth that would issue from the
wounded part, which is hurtful to ulcers; by the way of the pudenda
of a childbed woman which is near, downward, and under the uterus,
and at that time very much enlarged. </u>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
Sixthly,
<u>since
it is most certain, that the uteri of women in travel, being cut
prudently and in due time, all things in their following teemings
prove safe, unless something else hinders after the cutting</u>;
but it happens very often to persons once cut for the stone, that not
only the perineum, not admitting a coalition, for the above mentioned
reasons, that the urine runs disagreeably through it all their
lifetime. … the wounded membranous part of the bladder, now freed
from urine and the stone; in such a manner, that growing flabby by
reason of that vacuity, it immediately returns to itself, and will
soon naturally coalesce, just after the same manner as the uterus
does, after its being cut: whence it follows that the lips of the
wound meeting together do naturally unite. … Now consider with me.
<u>If
we can do this in the vesica, and even when its inward part hangs
quite out, what may we not hope for ... when the uterus is not hurt
after the Caesarean section</u>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
Rousset
sought approval to experiment with cutting for the stone on several
condemned criminals, but the death of Henry III of France precluded
the king from keeping a promise to release them.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Caesareans in
Britain</b></div>
In September 1787, the <i>European Magazine and London Review</i> reviewed the then current
state of British anatomy and surgery, compared to its situation in the mid 18C.
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.35cm; margin-right: 0.44cm;">
<br />
At no period of time
has the knowledge of anatomy and the science of surgery arrived at so
great perfection as the present. Formerly France boasted the most
skilful anatomists, and it was usual and apparently almost necessary
for those who meant to devote themselves to this profession to travel
to Paris in order to perfect themselves in the art. At present the
reverse is the situation of this country. The abilities of the
professors of this science, their diligence and sagacity and the
result of those qualities by their instructions to their numerous
pupils, have entirely changed the face of affairs in these
particulars, and freed the nation from so very humiliating a fate.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The reasons for the
'great perfection' in Britain are varied, and full detail is beyond
the scope of this book, but it is here concluded a major catalyst for
the rapid British progress in anatomy in 1745-1785, compared to
France, was British access to healthy subjects, obtained by burking.
Perfect, fresh, healthy, subjects were far more suitable for research
and making detailed preparations, than were resurrected bodies, or
subjects dead of disease or old age, as obtained from Paris
hospitals. With the French having similar training, skills, and
methods, the only way for Britain to make rapid progress was a form
of competitive advantage. Access to fresher cadavers is seen as that
advantage, something the French did not need to pursue, as plentiful
supplies of cadavers were available in Paris without criminal
involvement. It has been commented; 'In the fields of surgery and
midwifery, where Parisian superiority had been taken for granted
until about 1750, the British developed an impressive reputation of
their own, ultimately eclipsing their neighbours across the
Channel'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
One
then wonders why <i>apparent</i> British progress in any area of anatomy might remain forty years
behind French anatomy of 1785, rather than be forty years ahead. To
illustrate, a prime example of British of progress is the Caesarean. The history is covered in many sources, but brief comments set the scene, with a reputed Scottish case
involving Lady Marjory Bruce in 1316 and her son Robert II of
Scotland discussed earlier. Pierre Dionis (1643-1718) stated that
under no circumstances should the operation be performed unless the
woman was dead, and that anyone who would operate on a living person
deserved to be punished for their butchery.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
But he also wrote; 'Two principle motives urge the chirurgeon to
perform the Caesarean section on a pregnant woman as soon as she is
dead; the one, to endeavour the saving of the life of the child; the
other, in order to procure its baptisement'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
An English dictionary of 1720 defined; 'Caesarian section or
operation the cutting open of the Mother's Belly or Womb to make way
for the Child to be taken out and Cæsarian Birth is that of a Child
brought into the World that way'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
Seven pages of instructions for performing a Caesarean on 'a
big-bellied woman', are included in the 1727 English edition of the
French textbook,<i>“Diseases
of Women with Child”</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
Ethical concerns were voiced in 1735; 'It is indeed possible to save
a Child by the Cæsarian Operation, or Cutting it out of the Womb of
its Mother just expired; but what Man in his Senses would put his
Character upon this Footing? It would be natural for the malicious
World to say, that, to save the Child, he killed the Mother; and the
Friends and Others about about the Deceased, either out of Fondness
or Ignorance, might possibly imagine, that she was not quite dead
before the Operation was Performed'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
An Scottish incident of 1736, although not strictly a Caesarean, would
have been known to Smellie and Hunter, as Scots, and an indication to
them that a Caesarean birth could be survived.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
In April 1736,
Elspet Grant, in the parish of Moy, being with child took her
labour-pains. After they had continued three days with the child in
the birth, two cracks, as if the rafters of the house had broke, were
heard about the sick wife, and her belly was rent from near the
navel, with a squaint downwards and to the left side near the
share-bone. At this rent the child came into the world, the
after-burthen was brought away, and the intrails were seen. The rent
was cured without any other application, than that of butter mixed
with white sugar, and its scar was only as the scratch of a big pin.
These facts are attested by the judicial oaths of Anna Kennedy a
midwife, and Mary Ogilvie a neighbour, who were present when the rent
was made and the child came out of it; of Margaret Dallas who
assisted to bring bring away the after-burthen; of Robert Smith who
saw the rent and intrails immediately after this; and of Isabel
Tarrel who afterwards examined the scar.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
An unsuccessful
Caesarean was performed in Edinburgh in 1737 by Smith, with the child
stillborn and mother dying. Noteworthy, is the comment;
'Her friends would not allow her body to be opened.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
Contemporary records show two Caesareans in Ireland around 1738.
Phil. Trans. records a letter from John Copping dated 16 March
1737-1738 detailing a case taking place within the two previous
years, where the patient, who survived, was named Sarah McKinna of
Brentram, Co Tyrone, and a dead fetus was removed via Caesarean by
Turlogh O'Neill (aka Terrence O'Neill), a local butcher.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
This case appears to be different to, and earlier than, the commonly
cited case of 1738, when midwife Mary Donally of Charlemont, Ireland,
performed a successful caesarean to remove a dead fetus from Alice
O'Neal. The mother lived, although the medical profession found it
hard to accept a midwife as successful. Accordingly, the case was
omitted from publications.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a>
In 1746 Rowland Jackson wrote; 'Now, as these Propositions cannot be
proved, so it cannot be evinced, that the Death of the Mother is
necessarily succeeded by that of the Fœtus; so that 'tis certain we
commit manifest Homicide, by interring pregnant Women near their
Time, without performing the Cæsarian Operation upon them.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A rarely noticed, but successful, Caesarean operation on a deceased
corpse in England, was reported by James Boswell in 1747; 'Wednesday
15 July. At Eddescastle, Staffordshire, the wife of Mr Prestcott, an
exciseman, being killed by a flash of lightening was opened, and a
living male child taken out, which was immediately christened Jonah,
and is like to live.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
This case appears genuine, but even if more rumour than fact, Smellie
and Hunter likely believed it. It was not an isolated example, as in
1748 <i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i> reported, as a note, a Caesarean in
Birmingham;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
M Spoering was an
eye-witness of the happy success of the Cesarean operation [in
Finland] ... The first opening did not succeed, a second was then
attempted ... by which was extracted the entire body of a fœtus,
which had lain there 15 years and the wound or section was perfectly
healed up, only there remained a small fistula. (The like operation,
in like circumstances, was successfully performed by Dr Altree, now
of Norfolk-street, late of Wolverhampton, on a young woman of
Birmingham, whose case will soon be laid before the Royal Society.)<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The five British
examples, together with the three attempts by Smellie in 1747-1748,
reveal eight Caesareans were reported between 1737-1748. No doubt
there were other unreported cases during that period, so it was a
recognised and necessary technique. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<b>Calls for
experimental surgery</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
France
was a Catholic country, and mid 18C interest in the Caesarean
operation was sparked in Catholic countries, by the 1745 publication
of <i>Embriologia
Scara”</i> by the Sicilian theologian Francesco Emanuele Cangiamila. He called
for baptism of the unborn and the Caesarean operation to be carried
out as a matter of course, even by a midwife or the local priest if
no surgeon was available. This had followed an earlier call for
baptism by injection in cases of danger. In Protestant Britain, that
Catholic urging was satirised by Laurence Sterne in <i>“Tristram
Shandy”</i><span style="font-style: normal;">;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.62cm;">
<br />
Then, madam, be pleased to ponder well the last line but one of the chapter
where I take upon me to say, “It was <i>necessary</i>
I should be born before I was christened.” Had my mother, madam,
been a Papist, that consequence did not follow. … The Romish
Rituals direct the baptizing of the child, in cases of danger, <i>before</i> it is born; but upon this proviso, that some part or other of the
child's body be seen by the baptizer. But the Doctors of the
Sorbonne, by a deliberation held amongst them, April 10, 1733, have
enlarged the powers of the midwives, by determining, that though no
part of the child's body should appear, that baptism shall,
nevertheless, be administered to it by injection.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The French call for saving the souls of the unborn was quickly reflected
in calls for experimental surgery by French anatomists, as it
provided religious backing for their experiments. Paris was where
many British anatomists had trained. Indeed, both Smellie and William
Hunter had worked in France. A book republished in London in 1750, is rarely commented upon by
British medical historians, as it refers to events in France, but it
was recommended by Smellie to Camper. <i>Memoires
of the Royal Academy of Surgery</i>
was originally published in Paris in 1743, with volume II of the
English translation published in 1750, as part of five volumes
between 1743 and 1774. When published in English, it was a key source
in summarising the current state of French research, including a
detailed history of the Caesarean operation in France by M Simon.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
Simon's paper, <i>An Enquiry into the Advantages, Safety, & etc. of the Caesarean
Operation</i> devoted twenty-five pages to the French history of the operation,
including some seventy<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
successful cases, many taking place in the ten years prior to 1750.
In his 1750 preface to<i> Memoires</i>, the famous French surgeon Francois de
la Peyronie (1678-1747), commented on experimental surgery;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
The question then
is, what method Surgeons ought to take to bring their art to
perfection? Should they wait the progress of that experience which is
acquired by practice alone, which so often renders the Surgeon
intolerably vain, and imposes on the vulgar? No. If the knowledge to
be gained by such experience could have brought Surgery to
perfection, the art would have been perfected some centuries ago. ...
we must have recourse, therefore, to physical Experiments, in order
to penetrate into the sensible principles of nature; or in other
words we must be before hand with her, examine, and force her to
discover herself. ... Observation and physical Experiments, do not
separately lead us to those hidden truths which improve our art; for
Observations strengthen Experiments, and these again confirm
Observations; so that they mutually support each other. Thus, if it
is necessary to observe exactly the subjects which we examine by
physical Experiments, we must afterwards compare these Experiments
with Observations, and consider them together. Hence it appears that
Observation and Experiments are, as it were the two lights which
ought to re-unite, to dissipate the obscurity of our art. …
Continual study is as necessary in practice, as in anatomy. Now if an
anatomist be not at all solicitous to inform himself of new
discoveries in his art, his labours will be no more than a servile
task, an imitation, a repetition of the labours of his predecessors.
In vain would he flatter himself that he should be able to make new
discoveries with relation to the structure of the parts. He might
indeed discover something by chance, which had escaped other
anatomists; but for want of being guided by the improvements that are
daily made, his progress would be very slow, and perhaps he might
discover nothing more than he had seen in his first dissections.
There are some, who in a course of thirty years have incessantly
employed themselves in dissections; and though, during that time
considerable improvements have been made in their art, yet they have
remained shamefully ignorant of them.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
De
la Peyronie was a major influence in passing a 1743 French law that
had banned barbers from practising surgery. The passage above, taken
with another of 1750 by Jean Louis Petit (1674-1750)
inventor of the tourniquet, and Director of the Royal Academy when it
was created by the king in 1731, is seen as a spur encouraging Smellie and Hunter to experiment on pregnant women; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
For this reason the
greatest anatomists do not become skilful operators, till after
having often dissected indisposed parts, and especially those
affected with a bad conformation. Besides, an anatomist who has only
dissected men, is not in a condition to operate equally safely on
women, when they labour under disorders of the parts which
distinguish their sex. <u>In
order to be sure of our procedure, we must have dissected women who
have died both before and after delivery</u> [my emphasis].
In a word, those who have only dissected adults, may be deceived in
the diseases of new born children.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Smellie and Hunter, noting French religion favoured the Caesarean,
interpreted that experimentation in London should be equally
acceptable. <i>Memoires</i>, representing the state of play across the range
of French surgery, was matched in 1750 by its British counterpart, <i>A
Critical Enquiry into the Present State of Surgery</i>
by Samuel Sharp FRS. His comments on cutting for the stone are
relevant;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
The great Violence done ... in Cutting for the Stone ... having been
often attended with dreadful Consequences ... several ingenious Men
have since the Beginning of the present Century, apply'd themselves
... Amongst other Contrivances, one was by an Incision into the
Bladder above the Os Pubis; and the first Essays made in this way of
Cutting, gave the greatest Expectation that it would prove an easy
unexceptionable means of Cure; but future Experiments shew'd its
Fallibility; and some of the Difficulties which occurr'd in the
execution of it, appear'd so frightful, that it was suddenly disused
... The Objections to this Method are to be found in several Books
... But it may be observed, that they are too indiscriminately
applied; because there are certain Instances where we may be sure
that some of the most important ones do not take place; and though
they have absolutely discredited this way of Cutting, <u><span style="font-weight: normal;">with
the present Age I should not be surprised, if hereafter on particular
Occasions, it should be revived and practised with Success</span></u>.[my
emphasis]<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Sharp thereby
anticipated a revival of the high operation. In 1750 he gave 20 pages
of instructions for cutting for the stone. Man-midwives were also
surgeons, so required to attempt cutting for the stone, as well as
difficult births. Given the favourable prognosis for a Caesarean by
Rousset and the encouragement of mid 18C authors for experimental
surgery, the Caesarean, using techniques similar to those for a
lithotomy, was seen to represent a viable alternative to a
craniotomy. In 1750 the Fourth Edition of Heister's <i>“General
System of Surgery” </i>was published in London in English and
recommended to Camper by Smellie. In it Heister discussed the
Caesarean Section; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
[T]he Surgeon should
carefully distinguish whether the Mother be dead or only in a
Deliquium, lest he perform the Operation rashly, as we are told
happened to Vesalius. He should be rather well satisfied that the
Mother is dead, from observing whether there be any Motion of the
Heart, Arteries, and Lungs, and have the Consent of the By-standers,
in his Opinion, before he enters the Knife, though we do not know of
any Instances of the Operation being performed when the Subject has
been mistakenly supposed dead, but really alive, and even if the Case
should be so, the Surgeon ought not to be much terrified thereat,
because he is not committing Murder, but does it with a good Intent
to preserve the Foetus to which he is obliged, as well by religious
as national Laws ... Others condemn the Operation, because we are not
certain the Foetus is yet living, in which Case they never fail to be
treated with Reflections from the common People; but in my Opinion,
admitting this to be true, it is better to open ten, nay a hundred
dead Women in vain, than to lose the Life of one Foetus for want of
the Operation.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Smellie and the Caesarean</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
A point made earlier
was that, in the mid 18C, there were different approaches to the
Caesarean in France and Britain. In France the Caesarean was normally
used to try and save the life of the mother and child. Whereas in
Britain, the aim of the Caesarean was to save the life of the child
if the mother had died, the converse requiring a craniotomy. Smellie
wrote at length about his use of forceps, the techniques for a
craniotomy, and the extraction of a deceased fetus from a living
mother;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Midwifery is now so
much improved, that the necessity of destroying the child does not
occur so often as formerly. Indeed it never should be done, except
when it is impossible to turn or deliver with the forceps; and this
is seldom the case when the pelvis is too narrow, or the head too
large to pass, and therefore rests above the brim. For this reason,
it is not so necessary for the operator to puzzle himself about
dubious signs; because, in these two cases there is no room for
hesitation: for if the woman cannot possibly be delivered in any
other way, and is in imminent danger of her life, the best practice
is undoubtedly to have recourse to that method which alone can be
used for her preservation, namely, to diminish the bulk of the head.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
By 1750 Smellie
regarded his instruments as perfected, having resolved instrumental
treatment for the less than 1:100 of deliveries where exceptional
assistance was necessary. F<span style="font-weight: normal;">orceps
provided a means for treating most difficult births, but still
unresolved were the craniotomy and the Caesarean. </span>Smellie's
later opinion of the Caesarean operation is recorded in his treatise;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br />
If the woman is
strong, and of a good habit of body, the Caesarian operation is
certainly advisable, and ought to be performed; because the mother
and child have no other chance to be saved, and it is better to have
recourse to an operation which hath sometimes succeeded, than leave
them both to inevitable death. Nevertheless, if the woman is weak,
exhausted with fruitless labour, violent floodings, or any other
evacuation, which renders her recovery doubtful, even if she were
delivered in the natural way: in these circumstances it would be
rashness and presumption to attempt an operation of this kind, which
ought to be delayed until the woman expires, and then immediately
performed with a view to save the child. The operation hath been
performed both in this and the last century, and sometimes which such
success, that the mother has recovered, and the child survived.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Smellie is contradictory; on the one hand he says the operation should be
performed to save the mother and child, but on the other hand, he
proposes it be delayed until the woman expires. In 1747/1748 Smellie
recorded failing with three Caesarean attempts, when he had been
assisted for some years by Colin Mackenzie, a man keen to research
the placenta. As noted above, in 1750 surveys of both French and
British surgery were published in London. The French wrote positively
of the Caesarean and encouraged experimental surgery, including on
women who had died both before and after delivery. The British survey
anticipated the revival of, and gave detailed instructions for, the
high operation for cutting of the stone, an operation that Rousset
regarded as far more risky than a Caesarean. In the first edition of
his treatise, dated 1751, Smellie refers to the operation being
carried out with success, but the first widely reported, successful
case in England was not until 1769. Hence he was referring to French
successes, or to unreported Caesarean operations in England. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Despite
the French successes, there is a surprising absence in the written
record of the Caesarean being attempted in England between 1747 and
1769. There were French translations into English, but in 1751 Burton
was the first British man-midwife to write in support of the
operation; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br />
My chief view is, to convince the world of the necessity of opening
pregnant women, who die in the last month or six weeks of their time,
in order to preserve the child. ... These facts are sufficient to
support my argument for always opening a pregnant woman, when she
dies in the two or three last months of her time. ... That the mother
sometimes (if not the child also) be saved by the operation, is
confirmed both by reason and experience. .... Since, therefore, both
reason and experience confirm the possibility of success in this
operation, nothing should deter a skilful operator from performing
it, when it is absolutely necessary.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Burton
gives detailed instructions for performing the operation. A
significant element, there be<span style="font-style: normal;">ing no
anaesthetics, was the first step, 'the patient being held by four
persons strong enough'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
Burton'</span>s references do not confirm he performed a Caesarean
operation on a live patient, perhaps more the contrary, as the
necessity of several people in the room, and the awareness of the
husband and family of a patient, infers he was unlikely to be able
conceal an operation. But, having written so strongly in favour of
Caesareans in 1751, it is noteworthy that Burton ceased all research
in 1754.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
viewing ethical influences, it can be noted Smellie sailed as a naval
surgeon, so recognising the inevitability of 'battle casualties' and
valid to experiment on destitute pregnant patients. The analysis of
Black's figures shows an embriotomy (craniotomy) was only needed once
in every 25,000 births.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
The alternative was a Caesarean, but Smellie had failed three times
in 1747-1748 with Caesareans. He was urged by his students to advise
how to succeed with a Caesarean, if they should encounter one. He
needed to approach this in the same manner he had for the forceps and
crotchet, by intense anatomical study of cadavers, followed by
trials. Smellie and Hunter knew the first successful Caesarean in
Britain would enhance their reputations. Smellie owned the 1747 book
by Andre Levret<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
who urged more study of the Caesarean in listing 64 successful
operations; 'In this last case, only Caesarean operation is
practicable to save the life of the infant, and to attempt to save
that of the mother. This operation has succeeded many times, and yet
is of such great consequence, that it deserves more study to bring it
to perfection'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a>
This together with the Eddescastle Caesarean, the French views in
Memoires in 1750, and Sharp's comments in his 1750 book, were the
spur. A Caesarean as a means to avoid a craniotomy therefore
represented Smellie's Holy Grail. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
To
determine a better chance of success required more knowledge of the
gravid uterus and the birth process, which could only be learned by
studying undelivered subjects. Additionally, it was desirable to have
access to further undelivered subjects, immediately upon death, for
experimental trials, to determine how to extract a living child from
a deceased mother. But Smellie had a
major and critical complication. Lithotomy experiments were on
consenting patients in pain, some of whom died. Forceps experiments
were on pregnant patients who might believe an assisted delivery was
essential. But where and how could Smellie find pregnant patients
with birth difficulties, willing to submit to Caesareans? He turned
to his ongoing source of healthy pregnant patients, conditioned to
being used for teaching purposes. For this even bolder strategy
Smellie, or Mackenzie on his behalf, experimented on pregnant women
whose condition did not warrant the experimental treatment proposed.
However, consent was not an issue in this instance, as the victims
were murdered before, or during labour, in order to study the birth
process, before trying to revive the fetus. Those selected for the
experiments were mainly pregnant prostitutes without London family;
Smellie and Mackenzie having a fall-back explanation for anyone who
might later enquire about a patient, 'that they had died in
childbirth'. The truth, albeit not a natural death! </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Smellie detailed
three unsuccessful Caesareans. Case 430 is dated 1747 when he wrote;
'All the bystanders being fully convinced of her death, I immediately
made a large opening in the abdomen, with a view to save the child.
... but had no signs of life and seemed to have been dead several
hours by the stiffness of the joints.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a>
Smellie was criticised by Douglas for opening a body himself, instead
of asking a different man-midwife. In another case; 'you was
Operator, in which the Woman and Child both died before you could get
out of the room. Here you offered to excuse the People your Fee, if
they would let you open the Woman'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
Case 431 was in 1748 and case 432 in April 1747, with the attempt
made less than four minutes after the mother expired. In each case he
operated to save the baby, but without success.<br />
<br />
Smellie's success
with forceps is well covered in his writings, but the lack of further
references to attempted Caesareans is suspicious. It is inconceivable
three patients should die in 1747-1748 and be recorded in his
Treatise, but he have no more in the next ten years. The signs are
that Smellie experimented with Caesareans and sanitised his Treatise.
The paucity of reported 18C Caesarean research is a red flag for
historians, especially as they were discussed in detail in a
dictionary of 1766, implying they were regularly practised.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkFEOhld_-d9_ViWCZzEGVPARkK9oa3-cXQrZvkffJG6Qu4wKgFYaF6APBXnrRIFwGyX1WZlYtgSlfmZXVAhfX22kMmeu1KcDfYMGmWxdH9lr9VYofAvahfqKjTpWU857jtCk-Jw_zEkQ/s1600/Smollett+letter.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkFEOhld_-d9_ViWCZzEGVPARkK9oa3-cXQrZvkffJG6Qu4wKgFYaF6APBXnrRIFwGyX1WZlYtgSlfmZXVAhfX22kMmeu1KcDfYMGmWxdH9lr9VYofAvahfqKjTpWU857jtCk-Jw_zEkQ/s640/Smollett+letter.jpg" width="428" /></a></div>
Although the author Tobias Smollett (1721-1771) does not feature widely in this section of the research, the Wellcome Library holds an important letter written by Smollett to William Hunter and dated 25 July 1749. Smollett acted as editor for the three volumes of Smellie's <i>Treatise on Midwifery</i>. Smollett was also a slave owner via the estate his wife had inherited in Jamacia. In the letter Smollett advises that he is going to Paris and asks "where I shall find Van Camper". Smollett is travelling with a Matthew Mackaill and seeks "introduction to any Honest fellow in Paris who can direct us in our Inquiries." Mackaill was a surgeon, as indicated by a 1753 reference at <a href="https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=y_wRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA482&dq=matthew+mackaill&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KyVOVYS9DIbEmwXJlIH4DQ&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAQ">The General Index as to Twenty-seven Volumes of the London ...</a><br />
<br />
The significance of this letter is that both William Hunter and Tobias Smollett were in contact with Peter Camper prior to Camper's Caesarian experiments with Smellie. Also that Smollett and Mackaill, both being surgeons and both connected to the slave trade, were making enquiries in Paris. From a reference at <a href="https://books.google.co.nz/books?id=M-8yYMpw4RkC&pg=PA127&lpg=PA127&dq=%22matthew+mackaill%22&source=bl&ots=nTiLRGgyHv&sig=GjW42xmlX0uVZ1xUjpIOtnClMlg&hl=en&sa=X&ei=zyZOVZj_KdHc8AXak4D4Dw&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAzgK">Citizens of the World: London Merchants and the ...</a> it is seen that by the 1750's Mackaill and his associates were supplying services to the slave trade. Elsewhere, it has been noted that Peter Camper had collections of black and white embryos from soon after conception up to birth. As black pregnant women were rare in Europe, the implication is that Camper acquired his set of black embryos by murdering black pregnant women, brought back by slave traders and sold to Camper in Holland, in the same way that they brought him live orangutans to dissect.<br />
<br />
All this acts as further evidence to show Hunter, Smellie, and Camper were well known to each other and in close contact around the time of their murders of pregnant women; which Hunter and Smellie conducted in London in order to study the womb, the birth process, and to conduct experimental Caesareans. The addition of Mackaill and Smellie to the mix, and the innuendo of their seeking of "an Honest fellow" (i.e. one who could keep a secret) in Paris suggests they were investigating, on behalf of William Hunter and William Smellie, the procurement of live black subjects for Caesarean and other experiments, as were being supplied by slave traders to Camper. The probability is however, that most slaves were found to be far too valuable to be used as experiments, and it was only that Camper was a wealthy man which enabled him to accumulate his collection of black embryos.<br />
<br />
Fleetwood Churchill compiled lists of British and American Caesareans
in 1866, which omit Smellie's three attempts, hinting that Churchill
regarded them as experiments without patient consent, thus implying
his knowledge they were murders-to-order, not genuine attempts.
Churchill lists 23 successful Caesarean attempts, but none between
1739 and 1793, and 56 unsuccessful attempts, but none between 1737
and 1773.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>
Samuel Merriman (1771-1853) also omitted Smellie from his own,
earlier, list of British Caesareans, despite Smellie's Treatise being
readily available as a source. The impression conveyed is that the
British medical profession of the 18C and early 19C had knowledge of,
and wished to disassociate themselves from, Smellie's and Hunter's
activities. But by 1870, the knowledge of their actions was
forgotten, or discounted, so the obstetrics profession became anxious
to claim Smellie and Hunter as 'founding fathers' of obstetrics, and
future biographers of Smellie and Hunter could write effusively. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Smellie's
dissections not only enabled study towards a Caesarean as substitute
for a craniotomy, but allowed study of how a baby moved during
labour, measurement of the various stages, and providing previously
unknown anatomical detail of pregnant females. Prompting both Smellie
and Hunter to commence preparation of anatomical atlases. The plates
in their atlases demonstrating the new detail of the anatomy of the
gravid uterus are forensic proof of their experiments to obtain
information unavailable in the atlases of anatomists such as Heister
and Burton as recently as 1750.<br />
<br />
If a servant or prostitute was to
murder her child at birth, as many did, she was guilty of infanticide
and, legally, should be convicted and executed. Thus, if Smellie and
Mackenzie, or the Hunters, undertook Caesarean experiments to save a
baby, they could pass the baby to the Foundling Hospital. Telling
themselves, they had acted to save the life of a baby, which would
otherwise be murdered by its mother. Also saving the Courts the
trouble of a trial, by advancing a sentence of death on a mother who
would have killed her baby if they had not intervened. Experimental,
but non-consensual, Caesareans appear the only reason for Smellie and
Hunter to procure so many undelivered subjects. With the aim being
revival of the baby,<u>not</u> the
revival of the mother, although a moment's reflection can see the
logic. If a mother survived a non-consensual Caesarean, with or
without survival of her baby, there was a living witness to the
experiment and risk of prosecution. The mother could not be permitted
to survive. But, should an unborn baby survive, it could be placed in
the Foundling Hospital, or more likely used for John Hunter's
experiments. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In 1793 it was reported; 'In London, Dr Hunter, in thirty-nine years
extensive practice never met but one instance, where it was necessary
to have recourse to the Caesarian operation, and that case proved
fatal'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
As he died in 1783, that meant only one Caesarean was deemed
necessary between
1744 and 1783, presumably that of 1769. If this is taken at face
value, the three attempts referred to by Smellie were unnecessary.
This should not be surprising. In our discussion about Smellie's
experiments with forceps we showed his Treatise can not be fully
replied upon. Hence his three Caesareans in 1747-1748 were either
unnecessary or, more likely, were instrument experiments which were
fatal, and reported as Caesareans in his case book; especially as the
details of these cases were held back and only published after his
1764 death. In either event, Hunter's statement shows the rarity of
cases necessitating Caesareans. Smellie
was not alone in experimenting on parturient women. Hunter's
readiness to follow de la Peyronie and Petit, in experimenting on
parturient women, sometimes leading to the death of the patient
involved, is indicated by Denman.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
[In late] 1746 Dr William Hunter began to give lectures in anatomy;
as an appendage to which, he added a certain number of lectures on
the anatomy and physiology of the gravid uterus, interspersed with
many practical observations. … Being an associate with Dr Sandys
for the care of the lying-in department in the Middlesex Hospital, he
proposed to Dr Sandys that they should try the event of leaving the
placenta to be expelled by the action of the uterus, without
attempting to give any assistance. After much consideration and some
delay, from the dread of censure, they agreed upon the trial; and in
the first instance, the placenta remained twenty four hours. No ill
consequence however followed; and the trials being repeated with
success, it became a very frequent, and almost general rule, to leave
the placenta to be expelled without any assistance. <u>Several
untoward and some fatal accidents</u> [my emphasis] having followed
this practice, was altered; at least it became necessary to admit
many exceptions; and after a variety of changes and observations, I
believe we are at length arrived at a state of practice, with regard
to the management of the placenta, that will with difficulty be
improved; a practice founded on common sense and observation, that
the placenta ought to be, and is generally expelled by the action of
the uterus, in the same manner as the child; feeling ourselves at
liberty, and called upon to assist, only when this action is not
equal to the purpose, or when a haemorrhage or other dangerous
circumstances demand our assistance.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
As Hunter resigned from the Middlesex to found the British Lying-in Hospital in 1749, it
appears these experiments took place in 1747-1748. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Events after 1755</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Caesareans
are barely mentioned in Hunter biographies, a large and suspicious
gap in their research. From a situation in 1750-1754, where Smellie
and Hunter were at the forefront of gravid uterus research, they
suddenly applied brakes in 1755 and became ultra-cautious. Given
the urging by de la Peyronie, Petit, Burton, Levret, Simon, Sharp,
and Stephenson, the 1747 Eddescastle Caesarean, Smellie's three
attempted Caesareans, together with the man-midwifery stature of
Smellie and Hunter, and their intense interest in anatomical
discovery in 1750-1754, as indicated by their atlases; the lack of
reports of Caesareans in England in the 1750's is a major red flag.
Equally remarkable is that the publishing of William Hunter's
detailed text to accompany his plates, <i>An
Anatomical Description of the Human Gravid Uterus, and Its Contents</i><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
did not occur until 1794, the year after John Hunter's death, ten
years after William Hunter's death, twenty years after his atlas was
published, and over forty years after completion of the first
drawings, definitely a 'red flag 'delay. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
References
to Caesareans after 1748 are absent for many years, excepting one in
Ireland on Elenor Noon in 1757, by Dr Bell who recorded;
'I made an incision in the most prominent part of the abdomen,
extending about two inches above and as far below the navel. At this
incision I extracted the bones of two full grown foetus's. She
recovered and 'became pregnant in two months after; went to her full
time; and had an easy natural labour and healthful child'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
This can be counted as a success, but no more Caesareans were
reported, implying whatever caused Smellie and Hunter to halt their
research, heralded a reversal of attitude towards intervention;
'Smellie was now opposed to the forceps'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
and William Hunter spoke against Caesareans;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
The
results of the Caesarean operation have been so unfavourable, and the
character of the process so frightful, as to have rendered it a
measure of peculiar dread to practitioners, and in different times
and countries the strongest feelings have been excited against it. By
many of the celebrated authors of former times, …. it was looked
upon as altogether unjustifiable and a similar opinion was
entertained by many of our own countrymen ... <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
After 1755 Smellie and Hunter adopted a 'holier than thou' stance, or
'poacher turned gamekeeper', with Hunter's reluctance to intervene
resulting in criticism for the resulting and unnecessary deaths. The
medical effect being that British Caesarean skills lagged well behind
those of France.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.33cm;">
<br />
[Hunter]
added to his anatomical lectures a few on midwifery, which it is much
to be feared have done essential injury to the profession and the
community. Patience was his advice in most cases, and an almost
unbounded reliance on the power of nature formed the basis of his
practice. That much good sprung from his admonitions to avoid
irritation and the use of stimulants in natural labour, is
unquestionable. But it is equally true, that when assistance is
necessary, patience becomes another name for negligent
procrastination. It is not to be credited how many women and children
are lost by too great reliance on the power of nature, and a
reprehensible delay in having recourse to the assistance of art; and
with the highest respect for the memory of Dr Hunter, the writer of
this article remains convinced that his authority contributed greatly
to introduce and support that passive conduct which is too often
pursued in protracted labour.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
In
1769, John Hunter assisted with an unsuccessful Caesarean operation
in England, on Martha Rhodes.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
Doctors consulted included; Heineken, Wathen, Mackenzie, Orme and
surgeons; Thomson, Hunter, Hewson, Maclaurin, and Lowder. William
Cooper wrote;
'As far as I can learn, the Caesarean section has not been performed
before, <u>upon
the living subject</u> [my
emphasis] in this great metropolis for more than a century past; and
yet similar emergencies must at least have sometimes occurred'.
As both Cooper and John Hunter were present during the operation,
there is significance in Cooper's term "upon
the living subject", implying he knew of earlier experiments 'upon
the deceased subject'.
In 1774, another Caesarean attempt was made, with John Hunter
undertaking the operation.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
Elizabeth Foster died, but her baby survived. Other references to
Caesareans are rare but do occur. At Leicester in 1778, 'a Cæsarian
section was performed on a poor woman about the age of forty who
survived the operation but a short time, though the child taken from
her proved a healthy fine boy and in all appearance likely to live'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A 1769 Caesarean where the mother survived, was reported by James
Boswell in 1786; 'Case of negro woman who performed the Caesarean operation on herself. …
The negro woman who is the subject of the case, being impatient of
the pains of labour, tore open the uterus with a blunt knife, and let
out her intestines with the foetus. The latter died soon after its
birth; but the mother recovered, and has since been delivered of a
live child at the full term'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
Another report added the woman was a slave, with the baby dying after
five days, but the mother still alive in 1780.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
[T]ired out with the
pains of labour, took a broken butcher knife, about two inches and a
half of which remained attached to the handle, and with this made an
incision in her left side, near the linea alba, and so deeply as to
wound the right thigh of the child, who escaped through the abdominal
opening by its struggles, followed by a considerable of the
intestines, which were pushed back by a negro midwife ... After a few
hours had elapsed the surgeon of the plantation, supposing the old
woman had left some dirt in the wound, cut open the stitches that had
been made, carefully washed the parts clean, extracted the placenta
at the wound, and then stitched it up again. This woman was able to
attend to her work in six weeks'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
That almost no Caesareans attempts were reported in the fifty years after
1747 highlights, as puzzlement leading to concern, the actions of Smellie and Hunter in
dissecting undelivered subjects. But, there must have been unreported
Caesareans, as they were expressly provided for and referenced in the laws of
inheritance by 1777;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
The issue also must
be born during the live of the mother; for if the mother dies in
labour, and the cæfarian operation is performed, the husband in that
case shall not be tenant by the curtesy; because at the instant of
the mother's death, he was clearly not entitled, as having had no
issue born, but the land descended to the child while yet in its
mother's womb; and the estate being once vested shall not afterwards
be taken away.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Caesarean
Success</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Reports usually suggest the first Caesarean in England where the life of the
mother was saved, was performed by James Barlow (1769-1839) of
Lancashire, in 1793.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a>
Her name was Jane Foster, with her name a coincidence with the case
of Elizabeth Foster. This was forty years after Simon’s 1750
reference to French successes. She had suffered a fractured pelvic
bone as the result of a fall from a cart, and later become pregnant.
The forty year delay, is a staggering time lag, given the midwifery
stature of Smellie and the Hunters, with "There
is every reason to suppose that the chief cause of [the Caesarean]
want of success in this country has been the delay in performing
it."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
The phrase 'want of success in this country' implies unrecorded failures
were well known. Another Caesarean (the pelvis is depicted in The Lancet,
16 August 1856) was recorded at Blackburn on 23 October 1794 by Dr
Hull; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
At Blackburn,
Isabella Redman Wife of Thomas Redman, a poor man of that town. The
Cæfarean operation was performed upon her the day before, about 11
in the forenoon and a male child was extracted, which is very likely
to live. She bore the operation with great fortitude, and did not
complain of much pain afterwards. Her spirits and strength were such
in the evening as to afford some hopes of a recovery. This poor woman
had been lame several months, was in a very bad state of health and
so extremely deformed as to render it impossible to effect her
delivery in any other way, even by sacrificing the child.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
positive Continental experience, further highlights the strange
absence from the obstetric record of mid 18C British attempts at
Caesarean sections. In an account of 1780, there is an implied
reference to unreported and unsuccessful British attempts at
Caesareans prior to that date; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
Where there is a
physical impossibility to deliver a woman naturally, the obstetrical
art has only offered us ....the Caesarean operation. In spite of the
success this operation has met with, the greatest advocates for it
cannot but acknowledge the misfortunes that have almost always
attended the wretched that have had the courage to submit to it;
these dangers alone have been sufficient to intimidate the most
skilful hand. How little surprising is it then so few are willing to
submit to it, considering how few practitioners will venture to
undertake it?<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
This was echoed in
1783 by William Dease of Dublin who condemned the Caesarean
operation, saying in twenty years he had never heard of any Irish
attempts at the operation;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
This operation seems
in general to have been <u>only performed by ignorant and rash men,
who had no reputation to lose, and were anxious to establish one,
although their fellow creature's life should be the purchase</u> [my
emphasis; his comment implies burked or live subjects].<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
As
there were almost no reported English attempts between 1748 and 1783,
Dease is conveying knowledge of unreported cases. </div>
<br />
A later
comment was made in 1850 by Frederic Skey (1798-1872), who was of
sufficient age to have conversed with medical men known to William
and John Hunter. The intriguing part of the quotation is; 'nor indeed
was it in the earlier period of our country', inferring embryotomy
was not the preferred course of action for difficult deliveries by
early British man-midwives, as if Skey aware of English Caesareans,
prior to the 'first' recorded attempt in 1769;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
The first and most
important consideration relates to the possibility of extracting the
foetus piecemeal, by the operation of embryotomy, for the life of the
mother is our first consideration. Such is the moral law that guides
our British practice. Not so imperative, however, is this law on the
continent;<u> nor indeed was it in the earlier period of our own
country</u>, [my emphasis] and hence the more frequent recurrence to
the Caesarean operation in foreign countries. This, however, is the
just and prevailing law of England, in which we have recourse to this
large and dangerous operation so rarely; and such, perhaps, is the
explanation of the fatality that attends it, inasmuch as the
disinclination to resort to its agency may explain its unnecessary
postponement, until the strength of the patient is too far
exhausted.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Induction
and The Symphysis Pubis Operation</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Indication of
ethical concern after 1755 is seen in 1756, when George Macaulay was
among those instrumental in convening a conference of eminent London
surgeons and physicians who met;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
“to consider”, as Munk puts it, “the moral rectitude of, and
advantages which might be expected from the induction of premature
labour in certain cases of contracted pelvis; when the plan received
their general approval, and it was decided to adopt it for the
future. The first case in which it was considered necessary was
undertaken by Dr Macaulay in 1756”.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The conference
timing suggests there was political concern in case Smellie's
experiments became public knowledge. Given the Royal appointments
held by man-midwives, it seems likely the establishment encouraged
the man-midwives to act quickly and secretly, to censure Smellie and
Hunter. The Caesarean was intended as an alternative to craniotomy,
and given the 1756 timing, so soon after the events of 1755,
discussion must have included Smellie's atlas and the multiple
subjects procured by Smellie and Hunter for their experiments. They
were likely required to agree to suspend any gravid research of a
Caesarean nature. With the meeting agreeing to promote induction as
alternative to the Caesarean, and so explaining their subsequent
non-interventionist stance. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The
Dutch anatomist Peter Camper (1722-1789) drew some of the images for
Smellie's atlas and was later noted for his research into comparative
anatomy. Camper was a wealthy man, as in 1756 he married the young
and rich widow of a burgomaster from Harlingen and was able to
purchase any kind of rare specimen he wished. Camper was also a
man-midwife, having trained under Smellie and Cornelis Trioen.
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Despite his expertise, Camper claimed obstetrics was
merely a hobby, saying he only accepted payment on one occasion for
obstetrical services, regardless of the wealth of the patient. He
attempted Caesareans and other experiments in Holland prior to 1780.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a>
In 1770, some years
after the ethical concerns of 1755 receded, Camper followed in
Holland, the lead of John Hunter in seeking permission in 1777 to
experiment on a condemned murderer. In Camper's case a woman named
Sierte Jacobs. It is unclear if she was pregnant, but permission was
not granted.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.61cm;">
<br />
Mr Louis of the
French academy of surgery wrote to his friend Professor Camper, then
at Groningen, that a young surgeon had proposed a new operation to
the Academy in cases of narrow pelvis, by dividing the symphysis
pubis, in preference to the Caesarean operation. The academy
considered this as an extraordinary project, rather than as a
practicable operation. Professor Camper was of a different opinion,
and began by trying the experiment on a female cadaver, in which he
found that without any material injury to the parts, he could
considerably enlarge the cavity of the pelvis; he observed, that it
would be required to separate only one of the crura clitoridis, and
that the other might be easily stretched. ... The ingenious Professor
made some attempts to procure a trial of this method on a young woman
condemned to death at Groningen; but not being able to succeed in his
request, published the letters that passed on the occasion, together
with many ingenious and satisfactory arguments to prove the
practicability of the operation, and the preference it seems, on many
accounts, to claim over the Caesarian section; the almost certain
fatality of which is well known.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
The symphysis pubis
operation was successfully trialled in Europe by Sigault in 1777 on a
patient named Souchot who was delivered of a live child. The
experiment was regarded as such a triumph, a medal was struck to
commemorate the event and he was awarded a royal pension. However, in
subsequent years about one-third of mothers died and only one-third
of children survived, with many of the surviving mothers maimed for
life. In 1778 Sarah Davies died at Westminster Lying-In Hospital 19
days after delivery; Leake and Poingnan then performed a symphysis
pubis in front of sixteen gentlemen of the faculty.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66sym" name="sdendnote66anc"><sup>lxvi</sup></a>
Despite the interest on this occasion, it lapsed. Then in 1785, two
years after the death of William Hunter, Camper made his third visit
to London. He made contact with the prominent medical men and
attempted to change the views of his British colleagues on the
symphysis pubis operation. He met John Hunter, Denman, and others,
writing in his Journal; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
Blaud [sic] quite
agreed with me about the vectis and employs it in the same way.
Denman was against the sectio ossis pubis, but agreed with me that it
could be useful in the case I mentioned, but maintained that this
operation would never be adopted in London, because of the aversion
people have to an instrument and that husbands would not permit it. …
Wednesday 12 October: I visited Dr Blaud [sic - Robert Bland, Phil.
Trans. 1781], whom I presented with the solution of the question, as
he did with me his calculations of the number of accidents or deaths,
happening in consequence of parturition etc. … Tuesday 25<sup>th</sup>
… At Denmans' I met a certain ….. teacher of midwifery, who, of
all absurdities, maintained that his Phantom was more suitable to
demonstrate deliveries upon than a corpse upon which I proposed to
make the trials. … but in this country they prefer to sacrifice the
child.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67sym" name="sdendnote67anc"><sup>lxvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
After a long
discussion about the use of forceps, lever, and hook, Camper wrote;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
Seeing that Dr
Osborne, Denman, and I differed of opinion, I requested to be allowed
to learn their method upon the body of a dead woman and a dead child,
and then at the same time I would demonstrate how easy it is to
perform the sectio ossis pubis. This was accepted ... The gentlemen
were invited, but did not arrive. We postponed the experiments until
the next day, but they did not come then either. Mr Cruikshank and a
lively young man, Dr Osborne's assistant, I think Clarke, were there
and several others, all pupils of Mr Baillie, and a Spanish
professor. I showed them the proper way to place the lever and the
mistakes of the first makers and especially of van Swieten. … This
lesson passed to my great satisfaction.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68sym" name="sdendnote68anc"><sup>lxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Camper's passage
merits analysis as opportunities to view research were rarely passed
up. This is another instance where an undelivered subject was
arranged in advance of a demonstration of how to deliver a fetus
using instruments. Such an undelivered subject could only be obtained
by murder. This would have been raised by Denman and Osborne and
explains the absence of senior English anatomists. For them there was
a lingering fear of association with the murder of an undelivered
subject, with those invited were still sensitive to the events of
1755 and Camper's earlier connection to Smellie. A pertinent
observation is made by Nuyens; 'One thing surprises us: Why did not
Camper who was then still a professor in obstetrics in Groningen,
himself carry out this operation upon a woman giving birth? Did he
perhaps lack the courage of his convictions?'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69sym" name="sdendnote69anc"><sup>lxix</sup></a>
Nuyens is probably correct as, to perform the experiment, a live
pregnant subject was required who might die as a result. What
pregnant woman would consent to such an experiment? Procurement of a
suitable subject was possible in London, with its history of medical
murders, but not in Holland. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Also
significant, is that in 1778 van Rymsdyk had published his Museum
Britannicum, containing a threat to expose William Hunter. By 1785
Hunter was dead, but the threat by van Rymsdyk, meant risk of a new
accusation of murder-to-order. Camper knew the source of Smellie and
Hunter's undelivered subjects, and seems responsible for a series of
murders-to-order of pregnant women as; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.62cm;">
<br />
[Camper's] interest
in foetus development led him to collect throughout his life a series
of white and black embryos, from the time of first conception until
the term of pregnancy, for his personal museum. This collection
helped prove that racial characteristics manifested themselves early
in the womb and were not postnatally derived, a popular belief Camper
referred to as the 'artifice thesis'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70sym" name="sdendnote70anc"><sup>lxx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
It
will be obvious that pregnant black mothers were very rare in 18C
Holland. The thought process associated with Camper obtaining black
fetuses, from black pregnant mothers, for his 'black' set leads to
sinister conclusions and it must be doubted Camper's sets comprised
only naturally aborted fetuses. Logically, there were few Africans in
18C Holland, so it seems that Camper, as a wealthy man, arranged for
the captains of Dutch slave ships on the triangular route,
Holland-Africa-South America, to sell him any pregnant mothers among
the slave cargo, and return them to Holland for him to study and
dissect. As Camper did with the live orang-utans that he had sent to
himself in Holland for study and dissection. Undelivered subjects
were as rare in Holland as in England, hence it was only via aborted
fetuses that it could be marginally easier to collect 'black and
white' sets of fetuses, than for Smellie and Hunter to procure their
'white' sets of undelivered subjects. Further indication of Camper's
medical ethics, or his lapses therein, is indicated in this story;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br />
On the Klein-Lankum
estate, near Franeker, lived Jan Vosma, the burgomaster of Harlingen,
who was under Camper's treatment during a long illness. Even then
Camper was not insensitive to the charms of the burgomaster's wife,
who was to become his wife later, and after visiting his patient he
often stayed for a little chat with Mrs Vosma. On one of these
occasions, Jan Pieters van der Bildt, a well-known instrument maker
to the University of Franeker, happened to point a telescope he had
made towards Klein-Lankum. Meeting Prof. Camper soon afterwards, he
advised him to lower the curtains when next he paid a visit to Mrs
Vosma. In 1756, after Vosma's death, he married his widow, Johanna
Bourboom.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71sym" name="sdendnote71anc"><sup>lxxi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
As with Hunter, the
adverse reaction on publication of Smellie's atlas, was a spur
prompting Camper instead towards comparative anatomy. Dissection of
apes was less controversial, with Camper the first to research the
true orang-outang, in studying live specimens brought back by Dutch
sailors. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Statistical
reliability</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Despite the absence
of reported Caesareans in England, William Osborn wrote in 1795;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
The women of Great
Britain are therefore under considerable obligation to the late Dr
William Hunter; who from an <u>accurate measuration of those pelves
where the Caesarean operation had actually been performed in this
country</u>, [my emphasis] and of others still smaller preserved in
his museum, has demonstrated the futility of the section of the
symphysis, as a succedaneum for that operation or as a certain means
of preserving both mother and child.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72sym" name="sdendnote72anc"><sup>lxxii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
The statement shows Hunter was involved with more Caesarean operations
than the solitary case he reported. How else could he measure 'those
pelves where the Caesarean had actually been performed in this
country'? Logic reveals he was referring to his and Smellie's
experiments of 1740-1754. </div>
A telling statement on the
unreliability of reported statistics, via unreported failures, was
made in 1863;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
Kayser ... mentions the fact, which of itself affords strong evidence on this point, that
while the total maternal mortality amongst the cases which he had
collected was 63 per cent; the mortality of cases occurring in
lying-in hospitals, in which institutions failures must of necessity
be reported as well as successes amounting to 79 per cent. The
results here stated were admitted to be unfair, he would say wholly
destitute of truth, and utterly unworthy of credit. Did any one
person there present believe that of these 409 cases the mortality
was not greater than 63 per cent? <u>It was known that numerous fatal
cases of Caesarean section had occurred on the Continent of which no
report had ever been permitted to see the light</u>. [my emphasis]
This applied forcibly to the statistics of ovariotomy, ... It was
notorious that numerous fatal cases of ovariotomy had occurred, of
which no report had ever been published and all attempts to remove
the veil which concealed them had been fruitless … Mr Walne was not
the only ovariotomist to whom he (Dr Lee) applied for information on
the occasion without success.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73sym" name="sdendnote73anc"><sup>lxxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The high MMR at the
British Lying-in Hospital suggested deaths there were not unwelcome,
as a 'legitimate' source of subjects. Similar suspiciously high MMR
applied elsewhere in 1751-1755;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.39cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
Epidemiological
sleuthing by Margaret DeLacy has shown quite contrarily that in the
eighteenth century, “hospital epidemics of puerperal fever were in
fact unusual events in Britain and did not account for a large number
of deaths.” ... according to DeLacy, eighteenth-century women fared
reasonably well in Georgian maternity hospitals: even though these
institutions, with a 3.3 percent mortality rate between 1751-1755,
had death rates nearly three times as high as the citywide average of
1.3, during other intervals – say, between 1756-1759 – the
hospital's rate at 1.26 percent compared favorably with the
metropolitan rate of 1.30.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74sym" name="sdendnote74anc"><sup>lxxiv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
It is too much of a
coincidence that the lower MMR between 1756-1759 applied immediately
after the publishing of Smellie's atlas, when the activities of
Smellie and Hunter attracted scrutiny. </div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Saviard, Barthelemy, <i>Observations in Surgery</i>, London, Hodges,
1740, p 136</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Wanley, Nathaniel, <i>The Wonders of the Little World</i>, London,
Basset, 1678, p 5</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Willughby, Percivall, <i>Observations in Midwifery</i>, London, S R
Publishers, 1972, p 340</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
De la Vauguion, <i>A Compleat Body of Surgical Operations</i>,
London, Bonwick, 1702, p 280</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
<i>The History of the works of the learned</i>, Vol 4, London,
Rhodes, 1702, p 651</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, Vol 32, London, Royal Society,
1722, p 83</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Thomas, K Bryn, <i>James Douglas of the Pouch and his pupil William
Hunter</i>, London, Pitman, 1964, p 49</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta
Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV, Amsterdam, Sum.
Soc., 1939, p 63</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
Cheselden, W, <i>A Treatise on the High Operation for the Stone</i>,
London, Osborn, 1723, p 39-57, p 80, p 96-97</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
Riches, Eric, <i>The History of Lithotomy and Lithotrity,</i> Arnott
Demonstration, London, RSC, 1967, p 193</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
<i>The European Magazine and London Review,</i> London, Philological
Society, 1787, p 172</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Gelfand, T, in <i>William Hunter and the 18C Medical World</i>,
Cambridge, CUP, 1985, p 129</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Dionis, Pierre, <i>Course on Surgical Operations, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">1708
</span></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Radcliffe, Walter, </span><i>Milestones in midwifery, and the Secret
Instrument</i>, San Francisco, Norman, 1989, p 52</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Phillips, Edward, <i>The new world of words or universal English
Dictionary</i>, London, J Philips, 1720</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
Mauriceau, Francis, Chamberlen, Hugh,<i> The Diseases of Women with
Child</i>, London, T Cox, 1727, p 233-240</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
Chapman, Edmund, <i>A Treatise on the Improvement of Midwifery</i>,
London, Brindley, 1735, p viii</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
<i>Essays and Observations</i>, Vol II,, Edinburgh, Hamilton, 1756,
p 338-339</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
Ricci, James Vincent, <i>The Development of Gynaecological Surgery
and Instruments,</i> Norman, 1990, p 187
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, Vol 41, London, J Martin, 1744, p
814-818</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Bradley, T and Willich, A F M, <i>The Medical and Physical Journal,</i>
Vol I, London, R Phillips, 1799, p 309
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
Jackson, Rowland, <i>A Physical Dissertation on Drowning</i>,
London, Robinson, 1746, p 77</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
Boswell, James, <i>The Scots Magazine</i>, Edinburgh, W Sands, 1747,
p 350 & <i>The Gentleman's Magazine,</i> London, Vol XVII, 1747,
p 342</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i> Vol XVIII, London, 1748, p 110</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Sterne, Laurence, <i>The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy,</i>
London, Walker and Edwards, 1817, p 51</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
Simon, M, </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>Memoires of
the Royal Academy of Surgery</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">,
Vol II,</span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i> </i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">London,
E Cave, 1750, p 507-534</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
Tweedie, A, <i>The Library of Medicine, Midwifery, </i>London,
Whittaker, 1841, p 153
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">de la Peyronie, M,
</span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>Memoires
of the Royal Academy of Surgery,</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
Vol II, London, E Cave, 1750, pi - p ix</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
Petit, Jean Louis, </span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>Memoires
of the Royal Academy of Surgery,</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
Vol II, London, E Cave, 1750, p 247</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Sharp, Samuel, <span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">A
Critical Enquiry into the Present State of Surgery, </span></i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Third
ed. London, Tonson, 1754, p 197-198</span></span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Heister, Lawrence, <i>A General System of Surgery,</i> London,
Innys, 1750, p 206-224 and Part II, p26</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
Smellie, W, in McClintock, A, <i>Smellie's Treatise,</i> Vol I,
London, New Sydenham Society, 1876-1878, p 292</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Smellie, William, <i>A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of
Midwifery</i>, London, Wilson, 1766, p 375-376</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="DDE_LINK1"></a><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Burton, John, <i>An Essay Towards a New System of Midwifry,</i>
London, James Hodges, 1751, p 71-272</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="DDE_LINK11"></a><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Burton, John, <i>An Essay Towards a New System of Midwifry,</i>
London, James Hodges, 1751, p 273</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
Black, William, <i>A Comparative View of the Mortality of the Human
Species</i>, London, Dilly, 1788, p 357-359</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Radcliffe, Walter,
</span><i>Milestones in midwifery,</i>
San Francisco, Norman, 1989, p 9</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Levret, Andre, quoted in <span style="font-style: normal;">Radcliffe,
Walter, </span><i>Milestones in midwifery,</i>
San Francisco, Norman, 1989, p 41 & p 56</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
Smellie, William quoted in Woods, Robert, <i>Death Before Birth,
</i>OUP, 2009, p 252-254</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
Glaister, John, <i>Dr William Smellie and his Contemporaries</i>,
Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p 83</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
Coker, T H, Williams, T, Clark, S, <i>The Complete Dictionary of
Arts and Sciences</i>, London, Coker, 1766</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
Churchill, Fleetwood, <i>On the Theory and Practice of Midwifery</i>,
London, Renshaw, 1866, p 419-423</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Dease, William,<i> Observations in Midwifery</i>, Dublin, Williams,
1793, p 71</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
Denman, Thomas, <i>An Introduction to the Practice of Midwifery</i>,
Brattleborough, Fessenden, 1807, p 345</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
Hunter, William, <i>An Anatomical Description of the Human Gravid
Uterus</i>, ed M Baillie, London, J Johnson, 1794 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
Bell, Thomas, <i>Medical and Philosophical Commentaries,</i> London,
J Murray, 1774, p 72-77</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
Wilson, Adrian, <i>The Making of Man-Midwifery</i>, London, UCL,
1995, p 126</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
Tweedie, A, <i>The Library of Medicine, Midwifery, </i>London,
Whittaker, 1841, p 153
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
Brewster, D, <i>The Edinburgh Encylopaedia</i>, Vol XIV, Edinburgh,
Willaim Blackood, 1830, p 239</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
<i>Medical Observations and Inquiries</i>, Vol IV, London, Cadell,
1772, p 261-271</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
<i>Medical Observations and Inquiries</i>, Vol V, London, Cadell,
1779, p 217-232</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a>
Kenrick, William, <i>London Review of English and Foreign
Literature</i>, London, Kenrick, 1778, p 149</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
Boswell, James, <i>The Scot's Magazine</i>, February, 1786, p 487
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
<i>The European Magazine</i>, London, Sewell, 1787, p 101</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
<i>The Medical Examiner,</i> Philadelphia, 1841, p 170</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a>
Chudleigh, Elizabeth, <i>The Laws Respecting Women</i>, London,
Johnson, 1777, p 165</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
<i>Boston medical and surgical journal</i>, Boston, Clapp, 1834, p
169</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
Tweedie, A, <i>The Library of Medicine, Midwifery, </i>London,
Whittaker, 1841, p 154</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine,</i> London, Nichols, 1794, p 960</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
Duncan, Andrew, <i>Medical Commentaries for the Year 1780,</i>
London, Charles Dilly, 1783, p 420</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a>
Dease, William, <i>Observations in Midwifery</i>, Dublin, J
Williams, 1783, p 64</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a>
Skey, Frederic Carpenter, <i>Operative Surgery,</i> London, John
Churchill, 1850, p 603</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a><i>
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">Glaister, John,</span><i>
William Smellie and his Contemporaries, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">Glasgow,
Maclehose, 1894, p 291</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
Duncan, Andrew, <i>Medical Commentaries for the year 1780,</i> Vol
VII, London, Charles Dilly, 1783, p 423</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
Society of Physicians, <i>Medical and Philosophical Commentaries,</i>
London, Murray, 1777, p 212</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote66">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66anc" name="sdendnote66sym">lxvi</a>
Leake, John, <i>Practical Observations on the Child-bed Fever</i>,
London, Baldwin, 1781, p 240</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote67">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67anc" name="sdendnote67sym">lxvii</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV,
Amsterdam, Sum. Soc., 1939, p 173-177, p 191-209</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote68">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68anc" name="sdendnote68sym">lxviii</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta
Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV, Amsterdam, Sum.
Soc., 1939, p 215-217</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote69">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69anc" name="sdendnote69sym">lxix</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta
Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV, Amsterdam, Sum.
Soc., 1939, p VLVII</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote70">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70anc" name="sdendnote70sym">lxx</a>
Meijer, Miriam Claude, <i>Race and Aesthetics in the Anthropology of
Petrus Camper</i>, Rodopi, 1999, p 9</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote71">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71anc" name="sdendnote71sym">lxxi</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV,
Amsterdam, Sum. Soc., 1939, p XLI</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote72">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72anc" name="sdendnote72sym">lxxii</a>
Osborn, William, <i>Essays on the Practice of Midwifery</i>, London,
Cadell, 1795, p 282-283</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote73">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73anc" name="sdendnote73sym">lxxiii</a>
Braithwaite, W and J, <span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>The
Retrospect of Practical Medicine and Surgery,</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
New York, Townsend, 1863, p 229-230 </span></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote74">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74anc" name="sdendnote74sym">lxxiv</a>
Cody, Lisa Forman, <i>Living and Dying in Georgian London's Lying-in
Hospitals</i>,
http://130.102.44.245/login?uri=/journals/bulletin_of_the_history_of_medicine/v078/78.2cody.pdf
accessed August 2010</span></div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-75592127473541332652015-04-07T14:06:00.001-07:002021-11-26T09:32:24.771-08:0012 - If Prostitutes are Punished? ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<b>Premature Signs of Death</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
In considering
murders as the source, it is relevant to note a clear and general
warning to anatomists on the risk of committing murder made in 1745.
The <i>Gentleman's Magazine</i> reported at length on the two volumes of a
<i>Dissertation on the Uncertainty of the Signs of Death</i> by
a Danish born Frenchman, Jacques Benigne Winslow (1669-1760), and
translated into English [it is currently believed the translation was made by Tobias Smollet] with extra comments by Jacques Jean Bruhier.
He mentioned 180 cases in which persons still living were treated as
dead; of these 52 were buried alive, likely in catacombs, 53 revived
spontaneously after being placed in their coffins, and 78 were
supposed to have died when they really had not.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
Most
of the paper concerns the risks of premature interment, but Bruhier
also warned anatomists; <br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
Mr Bruhier hence concludes that imbalment is rash and unjustifiable, when death is not
ascertained by a putrefaction begun. ... It is then demonstrated,
that imbalment is an operation insufficient to produce signs of life
in the subject time enough to improve them. It is also plain, that,
when a surgeon is desired to perform this operation, he runs the
hazard of becoming a murderer, if he begins the work before he is
sure of the death of the party; and therefore he ought not to proceed
to this operation, till signs of a putrefaction are discovered, or
till the corpse gives a cadaverous smell.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The mid 18C
difficulties in determining whether a patient was actually dead were
discussed;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
Bruhier, a French
Physician, who wrote on the uncertainty of the signs of death in
1742, relates an instance of a young woman, upon whose supposed
corpse an anatomical examination was about to be made, when the first
stroke of the scalpel revealed the truth: she recovered, and lived
many years afterwards. The case related by Philippe Pue is somewhat
similar. He proceeded to perform the Caesarean section upon a woman
who had to all appearance died undelivered, when the first incision
betrayed the awful fallacy under which he acted. A remarkable
instance of resuscitation after apparent death occurred in France, in
the neighbourhood of Douai, in the year 1745, and is related by
Rigaudeaux ... On his arrival, he was informed that she had died in a
convulsive fit two hours previously. The body was already prepared
for interment, and on examination he could discover no indications of
life. The os uteri was sufficiently dilated to enable him to turn the
child, and deliver by the feet. The child appeared dead also; but by
persevering in the means of resuscitation for three hours, they
excited some signs of vitality, which encouraged them to proceed; and
their endeavours were ultimately crowned with complete success.
Rigaudeaux again carefully examined the mother, and was confirmed in
the belief of her death; but he found that although she had been in
that state for seven hours, her limbs retained their flexibility.
Stimulants were applied in vain; and <u>he took his leave
recommending that the interment should be deferred until the
flexibility was lost</u>. [my emphasis – did Smellie and Hunter
adhere to this precedent?] At five pm a messenger came to inform him
that she had revived at half past three. The mother and child were
both alive three years after. There is scarcely a dissecting room
that has not some traditional story handed down of subjects restored
to life after being deposited within its walls.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm; text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The
warning by Bruhier was repeated in September 1747; '[Bruhier] easily
makes it appear that <span style="font-style: normal;"><u>dissections
may become murders</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;">
</span></span><span style="font-style: normal;">[my emphasis] if the
death of the subject be not absolutely certain. He observes, on this
occasion, how inconsistent men are in their practice, since in the
[French] country they suffer none to be interred till after three
days decease, lest there should be any remains of life during that
time, whereas at Paris, dissections are permitted as soon as the body
is cold.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
Although written about France, there was no reason for Bruhier's
warning to be any less relevant in his English translation. He
evidenced the risk by relaying an incident involving Vesalius, the
great anatomist, who killed a person by opening him to discover the
cause of his supposed death; not perceiving his error until he saw
the palpitation of the heart. Bruhier observed; 'this proved, in a
manner equal to a mathematical demonstration, the uncertainty of the
signs of death, the inefficacy of chirurgical experiments, their
danger when mortal in their nature, and the possibility of a total
absence of sensation which, without instances, would be incredible.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a>
A new English edition appeared in 1751, as part of the ongoing
debate. In a later instance, the body of a woman was exhumed and a
living child, which actually survived and grew up, was rescued from
the coffin.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
These
cases were known to Smellie and Hunter, so the undelivered subjects
depicted in their atlases at the very least infer a lack of due care
on their part, compared to that taken by French physicians. John
Hunter's dissection of an undelivered subject is described without
evidence of any attempt to save the baby. The date of the dissection
is unclear, but as the subjects depicted in Gravid Uterus relate to
1750-1754, it seems the dissection dates from then; 'I may here give
a summary. The body of a woman who died in labour undelivered was
injected from the aorta first, and then from the vena cava by wax
injection of yellow and red colours.<span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"> After this was cold</span></span><span style="font-style: normal;">
the uterus was taken out and dissected.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
In 1755 there was yet further public discussion on the difficulties
in ascertaining death;</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm; margin-right: 0.47cm;">
<br />
The complexion of
the face, the warmth of the body, the softness of the flexible parts,
are uncertain signs of a life yet subsisting; as the paleness of the
face, the coldness of the body, the stiffness of the extremities, the
cessation of motion, and the abolition of the external senses, are
very idle signs of a certain death. It is the same with respect to
the apparent cessation of the pulse and the breath; these motions are
often so heavy and languid, that it is not possible to perceive them;
we draw near with a looking-glass or a light to the mouth of the sick
person; if the looking glass is tarnished, or if the light staggers
or shakes, it is concluded that the person breathes still; but
sometimes these effects happen from other causes, even when the
person is really dead; and sometimes they do not happen tho' they are
yet living; these are then very trifling. ... Since then the signs of
death are so very precarious, surely nothing is more reasonable, and
at the same time more agreeable to humanity, than to defer
pronouncing the death of a person for some time; we should wait more
than ten, twenty, or twenty-four hours, since that time is not
sufficient to distinguish a really dead person from one that is but
apparently so. Nor should we, after this, too precipitately bury
them; since experience has sufficiently shewn the fatal consequences
that have often attended such interments. ... Both charity and
religion therefore require that a sufficient time be allowed that if
life yet subsists, it may render itself apparent by some symptoms,
otherwise we are liable to become homicides by burying living
persons. We should therefore wait the space of three natural days, or
seventy-two hours; but if in that time there appears no sign of life,
and the body exhales a cadaverous smell, it is an infallible proof of
death and consequently ought to be interred.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In view of the
warning it is clear, at the most charitable, that Smellie and Hunter
were acting against advice, in seeking fresh subjects with risk of
premature declaration of death. One can readily believe some were
prematurely declared dead, with anatomists quickly extinguishing any
signs of life during dissection. Anatomists were not the only ones to
contemplate such action, as in 1763;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
<br />
An infant being
carried to a church at Parma [Italy] as dead and exposed in a
confessional till the office had been performed, and the moment
arrived when it was to be put into the ground; the beadle had
entertained the strange notion, that, if a body supposed to be dead
should discover any signs of life after the burial service had been
performed over it, such body ought immediately to be killed outright,
by knocking it at head with the cross, which in those countries they
use as a bier. It happened that this sagacious servant of the church,
found to his great astonishment, that the poor infant which he was
about to bury was not dead. Happy was it for the child that a doubt
that moment came into his head, whether it ought to be knocked at
head with the great cross on which adults were carried, or with the
little one on which they carried children; in this dilemma he had
recourse to the priest and the good father fortunately prevented the
murder which would otherwise have been certainly committed.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
While Smellie's
atlas was unpublished, there was no evidence to support any
allegations the subjects may have been murdered. However, when
Smellie published, showing perfectly drawn and 'lifelike' subjects,
stunned readers wondered if the subjects depicted had been truly
dead. Even in 1812, RCS anatomists continued to ignore Bruhier's
warning for bodies of executed, or murdered, subjects;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
Still interested in
animation and the dead, the College men wished to explore how long a
heart could be made to move after the moment of death. ... Sometimes
the men who were present were content to observe a heart pulsating of
its own accord. At others, they artificially stimulated it. Some
hearts were cut out of bodies, placed in a saucer and watched. When
they finally lay still, they were nudged with a scalpel to see if
they would begin to move again. The motion of Bellingham's right
auricle was observed with care. ... The surgeons experienced one of
their greatest triumphs with this man's heart, for its right auricle
continued to move 'without the application of any Stimulus, during
the period of nearly four Hours from the Time of Execution, and for
about an Hour Longer, upon being touched with a Scalpel'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In contrast to
Britain, French practice allowed time to pass to give certainty of
death; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
A person dying (in a
Paris hospital) is attended by the pastor or priest; after death,
certain religious ceremonies are performed by the priest connected
with the hospital; and after that the body remains, until the
expiration of twenty-four hours, in the hospital. There is a dead
room, into which they are removed from the chapel altar. At the
expiration of twenty-four hours, if the friends do not claim the
body, it is then enveloped in clothing, and conveyed in a covered
cart to one or other of the great dissecting establishments. The rule
is that the covered cart only pass at night; but occasionally the
bodies were brought during the day time.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<b>The extraction of
such children from the womb</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The casual 18C attitude toward pregnant prostitutes is discussed in a
remarkable letter of 18 April 1768, from John Cook MD (1704-1777) of
Leigh; with its timing and content, too closely connected to the
Hunters to be coincidental. Cook's 1768 letter, discussing the
extraction of children by Caesarean, was written 18 months before
John Hunter assisted with the first 'reported' Caesarean in England,
but implies knowledge of a search for Caesarean success. In summary,
it included;.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
Firstly, the belief the death of a mother did not mean the immediate
death of her unborn child.<br />
Secondly, the risk a resultant unborn
child might be buried alive.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
Thirdly, a belief pregnant prostitutes killed their babies, (in
order to resume their occupation).
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
Fourthly, that pregnant prostitutes should be punished by extraction
of their babies from the womb, via Caesarean operation, to preserve
the lives of their babies; and as a warning to other mothers who
might seek to kill a new born baby, (providing moral justification
for burking).
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Thus, in his April 1768 letter,
John Cook wrote;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
Among the many causes of the great mortality of babes I sent you in
my last account [see his 31 March letter as below], there is another,
a secret one, but little thought of: that is, the cruel stifling them
in their dark prison, and not suffering them once to see the light.
It it therefore greatly to be regretted, that the prevention of this
crying mischief should be so much disregarded in all places; for the
pregnant women are in all parts buried with their fruit, which
frequently are alive, without the least remorse, or scruple of
conscience. Reason and example prove that the <i>foetus in utero</i>
has its own distinct life; and experience teaches, that although the
mother be dead, the child may frequently live several hours in the
womb. <u>The extraction and preservation of children by the Cæsarian
operation, timely performed, after the decease of the mother proves
the same.</u> [my emphasis] If the fœtus indeed remains a long time
in utero, of the dead mother, it must needs at length die: but if not
buried alive, which is a shocking reflection, the loss of its life
may be often imputed to the bad neglect of opening the mother.
Harvey, <i>de generatione animalium</i>, I think tells us of a child
taken out of the secundines alive, (which a wench had brought forth
entire, and concealed in the cold) several hours after birth.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<u>And if prostitutes are punished, as an example to others</u>, who
destroy the fruit of their body, born at a proper time, by neglecting
the ligature of the umbilical chord (though that does not always
prove fatal) or other necessary care, by which neglect the infant
perishes, <span style="text-decoration: none;">it surely appears that
great care ought to be taken that such an impious neglect, </span>as
now complained of, <span style="text-decoration: none;">should be
provided against, as </span><u>the extraction of such children from
the womb may easily be performed, and the infant thereby be happily
snatched out of the jaws of death</u>.[my emphasis]<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Cook's letter amounted to a call for compulsory Caesareans on
pregnant prostitutes, and illustrates the insensitivity of 18C
experimental anatomists. Cook published <i>“An Anatomical and
Mechanical Essay Vol I & II”</i> in 1730, and wrote on medical
matters in various journals, including 85 letters to The London
Magazine and others.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
From a review of Cook's writing it is clear it represented serious
comment and the 1768
letter was not intended as satire. The April 1768 letter followed an
earlier one where Cook discussed infant mortality, having himself
lost eleven of sixteen children.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
Cook demonstrated his pragmatism in his will; 'Testator to be buried
as cheaply and privately as possible, none to be invited, late at
night, in an oak coffin, without a peal or toll of bells'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Cook married his second wife Elizabeth Bradley in
November 1732.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
Two sons, George (1737-1793) and Lemuel (27 Dec 1744-?) became
surgeons, with George likely a student under the Hunters c1755 and
Lemuel c1764, both positioned to have knowledge of Hunter's 1764 resumption of burking of pregnant
subjects. The letter appears to speculate on the purpose and
direction of Hunter's research. But the more one studies Cook's
letter, the more one senses the Hunters influenced Cook to write the
letter, with a view to sounding out attitudes for a possible law
change. Laws adopting Cook's proposal would have been a godsend for
the Hunters. Providing them with an ongoing and legal supply of
pregnant prostitutes for use as Caesarean experiments without risk of
prosecution.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>The
Freshness of Subjects</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1737 Monro I discussed why fresh young subjects were preferred when making
preparations; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
The younger the
creature to be injected is, the injection will <i>ceteris paribus</i>,
go farthest, and <i>vice versa</i>. The more the creature's fluids
have been dissolved and exhausted in life, the success of the
operation will be greater. The less solid the part designed to be
injected is, the more vessels will be filled. <span style="text-decoration: none;">The
more membranous and transparent parts are, the injection shows
better. Whereas in the solid very hard parts of a rigid old creature,
that has died with its vessels full of thick strong blood, it is
scarce possible to inject great numbers of small vessels. … </span>In
this Way I have frequently injected the cortical Part of the Brain,
Tunica Choroides, and Vasculosa of the Eye, Periosteum of the Bones
of the Ear, Vessels of the Teeth, of the Skin, Bones, and Viscera.<span style="text-decoration: none;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The modern view is
that; 'decomposition begins at the moment of death caused by
autolysis (break-down of tissue by the body's own internal chemicals
and enzymes or self-digestion) and putrefaction (breakdown of tissue)
by bacteria. Autolysis begins about four minutes after death. ...
Brain cells die without oxygen in about three minutes. Muscle cells
live for several more hours. Bone and skin cells live for several
days. It takes about 12 hours for a body to cool to the touch and 24
hours to cool through the core. Rigor mortis commences after three
hours and lasts until 36 hours after death. These clues help forensic
scientists to estimate the time of death.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
When the heart stops beating, gravity causes the heavier red cells to
sink through the lighter serum and settle, and livor mortis causes a
purplish red discolouration on the lower side. This commences twenty
minutes to three hours after death, with congealing in the
capillaries in four to five hours, and maximum lividity in six to
twelve hours. The combination of these factors shows that, to
successfully inject coloured wax into minute blood vessels, Smellie
and Hunter needed cadavers less than one hour old. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Relevant to the
fresh appearance of subjects in the atlases, is a study by Johann
Peter Heyman, who in 1832 collected 18C German statistics on causes
of death of mothers from Caesarean sections and; 'The devastating
outcome led the author to believe that as many pregnant women, who
had only seemed to be dead, died because of this operation, as
children were saved'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
Indication of subject freshness in the atlases, compared to the
normal resurrected state, is seen in rare accounts of dead fetuses
spontaneously expelled from bodies of women who died undelivered, as
a result of pressure build up from decomposing stomach gases. One in
1813, 36 hours after the mother's death, where presumably no attempt
was made to save the baby as it was also believed to be dead; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
An inquisition was
taken on the body of Hannah Homer, wife of Mr Homer of 65 Turnmill
Street, Clerkenwell. She was in the eighth month of her pregnancy;
and was in good health and spirits on the Saturday night, when she
went to bed without any complaint. On Sunday morning between six and
seven o'clock she awoke, and complained of the cramp in her legs; but
she got better in a few minutes by having them rubbed. At seven
o'clock she arose and was in the act of getting out of bed, when she
exclaimed 'Oh! my stomach,' and fell on the bed and expired. Mr
Austin, surgeon of Red Lion Street, came directly and bled her, and
other means to recover her were used, but without success. About the
middle of the day of Monday the body was seen, and was then
undelivered, nor were there any signs of it. Between six and seven
o'clock on Monday night, Ann Terry was walking on the side of the bed
on which the deceased lay, and observed the body move and the clothes
lifted up. She was so terrified that she fell into a chair almost
insensible; she was taken out of the room and told that what she said
she saw was only her fancy. No one went to see the deceased until the
next morning, when she and another person took the clothes off the
deceased, and found she was delivered of a child, which was lying on
the right side of her quite dead and cold. On Tuesday the body of the
deceased and child were quite black, and so changed that the features
of the face of the former were scarcely distinguishable.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
<br />
A noble lady died
undelivered. On the third day the whole belly being marked with spots
and streaks of putrefaction, a dead foetus was expelled. …
Winckler's aunt, living at Olaw, was attacked with puerperal
convulsions and died. On the following day while the attendants were
washing the corpse a dead child passed from her womb. … <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Forty-four similar
examples of post-mortem parturition over several centuries were
collected by J Aveling in 1872, many found in catacombs.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
More rare examples were discussed in 1896 by Gould and Pyle, who also
write; 'Aveling states that in 1820 the Council of Cologne sanctioned
the placing of a gag in the mouth of a dead pregnant woman, thereby
hoping to prevent suffocation of the infant.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
Plate 15 of Hunter's Gravid Uterus depicts 'one of a woman who died
two hours after giving birth'. Given the circumstances we have been
outlining, there is a suspicion this subject was also murdered, but
so close to the time of birth that labour and delivery could not be
halted. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
18C/19C subjects removed from graves were normally several days old when they reached
an anatomist. A body remained in its home for one or two days after
death, it was then buried, the fact of burial needed to become known
to the resurrectionists via their watchers, the corpse to be exhumed
by night, and then delivered to the anatomist for dissection. This
could take a week, as in 1828, when Jane
Fairclough died on Tuesday, 25 September, but her grave was not
robbed until Tuesday 2 October, a whole week later.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
Samuel Fairclough
said, I ... had a sister named Jane, who died on 25 September; she
was interred on 28th at Hill Cliff ... I afterwards saw the body on
3 October, in Dr Moss's back yard in Warrington. I knew the body to
be that of my sister. ... Thomas Swinton … said I am a farmer at
Appleton and remember the funeral on Friday. I passed the grave on
Monday and all appeared safe. On Tuesday, on account of a report I
went and found the soil spread about, the coffin torn to pieces, and
the body gone. ... On the Tuesday night, about half past eleven
o'clock, I had been having my supper and was called up stairs by my
wife, when I saw three men carrying a package or hamper towards Dr
Moss's back premises.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
In comparison with
the pristine nature of the subjects depicted by Smellie and Hunter,
it is relevant to note what a medical student wrote of the normal
condition of subjects delivered for dissection. This damaged
condition is impossible to innocently reconcile with the subjects in
the atlases; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.43cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br />
Let it be considered how the usual supply of material from the burying
ground is obtained, that the coffin lid is knocked in, and a rope
fastened round the neck of the corpse by which it is dragged from its
resting place, ... it is then disfigured about the face to prevent
recognition, the teeth are generally broken out as perquisites of
these human wolves, and the stiff carcass is tied with ropes and beat
into shape for package in a small box or trunk; let these usual
appearances of a subject, I say, be considered and it must cease to
be a wonder that external signs of violence pass unnoticed.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
William Hunter
said he believed that he could do greater good to the world by
'publicly teaching his art than by practising it', he also expressed
impatience of contradiction, which he averred to be a characteristic
of anatomists and once indicated he was able to avoid it as, 'the
passive submission of dead bodies' made it harder for them to
contradict him and express dissent.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
This 'passive submission of dead bodies' is conveyed in Hunter's
atlas, where he said;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The art of engraving supplies us,
upon many occasions, with what has been the great desideratum of the
lovers of science, an universal language. Nay, it conveys clearer
ideas of most natural object, than words can express; makes stronger
impressions upon the mind; and to every person conversant with the
subject, gives an immediate comprehension of what it represents. …
A very essential advantage of the first is, that it represents what
was actually seen, it carries the work of truth, and becomes almost
as infallible as the object itself. … Every part is represented
just as it was found; not so much as one joint of a finger having
been moved to show any part more distinctly, or to give a more
picturesque effect. [Plate VI] … The convex surface of the
transparent membranes, reflected a distinct miniature picture of the
window which gave light. [Plate XXVI].<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
But such a clear reflected image in Plate XXVI could only be reflected
from moist and fresh membranes in a pregnant corpse immediately
after death, not from a resurrected cadaver. In his comments, Hunter
unwittingly anticipates the way photography is used as a record of
autopsies two hundred years later. It being fair to interpret the
plates as pictorial evidence of the events, and state of the
subjects, viewable in the same manner as modern forensic autopsy
images. The reflection in Plate XXVI on the chorion (outermost membrane) covering a fetus has
been commented upon by various authors, but without addressing the
reason for such absolute freshness of the subject; Lyle Massey wrote; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
He
pursued a direct graphic translation of what he imagined to be the
unadulterated perceptions of sight. He tells the reader that the
engravings exactly reflect actual dissections and he insists that
nothing has been changed or idealized in any of the images. In one
instance, he points out the reflection of a window that appears on
the transparent chorion (outermost membrane) over the fetus’s head.
This reflected window acts as a temporal signifier that testifies to
the artist’s presence in the dissection theater and thus to the
reality on which the image is based. Hunter invests everything in the
truth of these images, stating in his preface that the picture is
'almost as infallible as the object itself'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In another instance, Hunter pointed out the reflection of a window
that appears on the transparent chorion over the fetus's head in
table XXVI.<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.51cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Like the fly in Bidloo's preparation, the window acts as
a temporal signifier that testifies to the artist's presence in the
dissection theater and therefore to the reality on which the image is
based".<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a> "Effects
of artistic suggestiveness or sleight-of-hand are to be strictly
avoided .... In one instance, the observation of 'accidents' is taken
so far as to record the reflection of a twelve pane window on the
moist membrane over the foetus's head."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a> We can take the analogy with meat further, in that the human flesh of anatomical images is, like meat, between the full vitality of life and the total decay of death. <u>The body was captured in visual form as it would have been at the moment of death;</u> [my emphasis] fresh as we desire the flesh we eat to be safely dead without being decomposed.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a>
By rendering the dissected foetus in rich, three-dimensional, lifelike form, Smellie showed the experience of pregnancy and delivery also from the child's vantage point. The sequential images showing each stage as the foetus turned in the pelvis offered a series suggestive of movement and change over time.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">In
</span>response to an inquiry, an author in the area of obstetric
history forwarded to me a view expressed by her colleague, a trained midwife. The midwife
commented on the plates in Hunter's atlas; 'that, in looking at the images, they make the dissected uteri and contents look alive, but uterine tone would decrease after death and tissues
would decompose quickly'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a>
In seeking some explanation for the unusual effect, the midwife
added; 'this suggests the use of artistic license to portray the
ideal rather than basing the work entirely on observations'. But this
cannot be so, artists using 'artistic license' need to be familiar
with an object to be able to use that 'artistic license'. [The views of this midwife and the author involved were later demonstrated as a false premise by several internationally respected obstetric surgeons who confirmed the images depicted fresh corpses.]
In 1750 there were no previous engravings of in utero or pregnant corpses with this degree
of accuracy for van Rymsdyk to copy. Indeed, throughout his career he
always made drawings without embellishment, as he later recorded;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
Now Concerning Mine and my Son's Drawings, all the Objects we have truly
imitated without adding or diminishing, an established solemn Law, I
had formed from my Cradle, for my future Conduct as a Painter,
Professing it to be the Principal and favourite Article of my
Pictorial Creed, and declaring myself an Enemy to Nature-Menders,
Mannerists, or Antiques etc.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The rigid pursuit of forensic quality by van Rymsdyk, was confirmed by
none other than William Hunter himself, in commenting upon the freshness of bodies and need for immediate observation
<class style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm; text-align: justify;" western="">(E)ven when attended with the most favourable circumstances, the anatomist must fix upon a plan, without loss of time, and at once carry on two schemes which are hardly compatible; that is to say, he must dissect for his own information, in the first place, and yet conduct the inquiry so as to have good drawings made of the principle appearances: and it is more than probable that he must alter any plan that he might have proposed, and adapt it to a variety of circumstances in the subject that could not have been foreseen; and much time must be lost, and the parts must be considerably injured by long exposure to the air before the painter; especially if the work be conducted by an anatomist who will not allow the artist to paint from memory or imagination, but <u>only from immediate observation</u></class></div>
</div>
<span style="font-style: normal;"> [my emphasis].<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a> </span><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Remember Hunter's comment about plate VI - '<u>Every part is represented just as it was found; not so much as one joint of a finger having been moved to show any part more distinctly, or to give a more picturesque effect</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;"> [my emphasis].' </span>Hunter's comments on freshness are illuminating. <span style="font-style: normal;">His comment 'every hour that it is kept' is telling, being a need to start before rigor mortis complicated the work. Hunter seeks preparations 'of the pregnant uterus'. NB pregnant! - not from a child-bed death; </span>
The dead body cannot be too fresh for dissection; <u>every hour that it is kept</u> [my emphasis], it is losing something of its fitness for anatomical demonstrations, the blood is transuding, and bringing all the parts nearer to one colour, which takes off the natural and distinct appearance; and putrefaction is advancing, which makes all the fleshy parts tender and indistinct. A subject is commonly of little use for demonstration after eight or ten days, though the circumstances of habit, disease, and weather, will sometimes make a great deal of difference. ... Besides dead bodies, we said that a professor of Anatomy should have a competent stock of preparations. These are parts of the body artfully prepared by dissection or some other methods, and preserved from putrefaction so that they may be ready to be consulted; occasionally preparations serve two purposes, chiefly to wit the preservation of uncommon things, and the preservation of such things as required considerable labour to anatomize them. so as to shew their structure distinctly. Of the first sort are <u>the pregnant uterus</u> [my emphasis], diseased parts of singular conformation &c.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Evidence of the speed with which certain body parts decay is further illustrated in an observation made in 1834. Given the adjacency of the womb and stomach, this is evidence of freshness;
To John Hunter we are indebted for the first notice of what must be considered a very important fact, that in the body of an individual dead soon after digestion has commenced, the mucous membrane of the stomach, the great end especially, may be found dissolved, and even the wall of that viscus perforated, and this through the solvent power of the gastric juice 'that menstruum which the stomach itself has formed for the digestion of food'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a><b> </b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<b>Contemporary comment</b><br />
In 1735 Edmund Chapman published his treatise on midwifery where, in twenty-five years experience, he reported only two undelivered deaths, cases 40 and 41, with those being the only cases he was able to measure the thickness of the uterus.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a> But in discussing the thickness of the uterus, Hunter discusses multiple observations made in the hours before the anticipated time of a delivery, not after delivery, inferring observations made on freshly deceased undelivered subjects;
Those who say that the uterus grows thicker in the same proportion that its bulk is increased have probably been deceived by examining the uterus of a woman who died some hours or days after delivery. In that contracted state the uterus is often found even two inches thick; but <u>in all those which I have examined, in the natural distended state</u>, [i.e. with a fetus still within the cadaver] though there was some difference, the thickness of the uterus was but a little more considerable than before impregnation.<br />
<br />
In his opening paragraph Hunter discusses the stage of pregnancy of the subjects depicted; The pregnant uterus undergoes such gradual changes from the time of conception to the hour of delivery, that in giving the anatomy of this part it will be necessary to fix upon some one time in the wide period of nine months. The latter part of that period appears to be the fittest for our purpose, on many accounts, but especially because the fruit of the womb is then come to its full perfection, bears examination better, and all the minute organization is become more the object of sense and experiment. We shall therefore be supposed to be speaking of the uterus as it is in the ninth month, except the contrary be particularly expressed.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Analysis of Hunter's statements adds to one's despair over the legitimacy of his
undelivered subjects, and his focus on the ninth month. Note the
expression, 'gradual changes, from the time of conception to the hour
of delivery'. To notice gradual changes over say, the twelve hours to
'the hour preceding delivery', not 'the day preceding delivery', nor
'after delivery', implies multiple observations prior to delivery, on
deceased subjects containing unborn fetuses. To achieve the range of
observations, one has to believe Smellie and Hunter offered succour
to homeless women in advanced stages of pregnancy, and then arranged
their murders at various stages of labour, in the hours preceding
delivery, so as to make observations estimated at designated hours
before the expected delivery. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
An indication of the stress for grieving families, due to Hunter
guaranteeing bodies for dissection, is conveyed in an April 1754
letter to the Gentleman's Magazine. Apart from the gruesome account
of a dissection, written by someone drawing attention to the process
of dissection, there is an inference the writer knew of experiments
on live subjects. The letter, supposedly from the soul of a
resurrected corpse and overlapping other media comment of 1751-1755,
cannot be coincidental; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.47cm;">
<br />
A letter from Miss
Keppal, whose corpse was stolen out of the family vault by Surgeons,
to her Mother. Extracted from admonitions of the Dead to the Living.
I dread to enter on my story, but I must. O madam! Hear, without too
much emotion, what I have suffered without all feeling, except of
indignation. I hung about the lead in which your care had wrapped the
body I once animated, preferring the dark vault where that was
lodged, to the free air and cheerful daylight. At midnight, a strange
noise broke in upon the holy silence of the place, the key turned
softly in the lock, the heavy gate opened, and I heard the tread of
feet along the isle. The vault door was torn open, and one entered
with looks of desperation and of terror, yet resolute and guilty. I
trembled as if yet within the power of hurt. I was all suspense, to
know whither his errand led him. Alas 'twas to my little corner: he
seized the small repository of my body, and tearing open the first
covering, took out the lead. and carried it with him. I feared,
indeed, the touch of his unhallowed hands, but I was reserved to more
pollution. He took the little load to a mean cottage, such as I never
entered living, he now unloosed the joints, took my body out, and
laid it carelessly in an obscure corner. A fire was made, and the
lead was melted, that it might be sold, the perquisite of his theft.
Me he carried, while it was yet night, tumbled in to a basket, to
another house. I was received by an ill-looking wretch, a woman:
shame to her sex and nature! I was laid once more in a cold corner,
naked, and unregarded. This spirit, who now tells you the event,
still watched the corpse. I was, at early daylight, removed into an
upper room, and stretched indecently upon a bloody table. Knives,
saws, and scissors, with many horrid instruments besides, were spread
upon the board; and all I feared, and even more than I could fear,
happened. Every one was employed on me. O could your eyes have looked
upon the spectacle; and have seen the body of your daughter stretched
out like that of some forfeit criminal to more than hangman's
butchery, how would you have torn the skies in calls for justice?
They quickly began the horrible work, the shining knife was plunged
into my breast, and my whole body was laid open, my entrails were
taken out, and mangled, my head was cut asunder, with my brain, the
rest of sense, and in some degree of understanding: my eyes were
taken out, and mangled: but what is worse after they had served the
base purpose, the brutes had not the decency to put them again into
their places. O shame! O horror! </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.38cm;">
Will you suppose
that any thing remained to crown the scene of butchery? Alas! The
greatest part remained. The scene continued many days. O that some
friendly eye had seen and told you of it, to have prevented part, if
not the whole. When all, I thought, was over; when all had been done
that I have told you of; I did suppose I should have been returned,
if not into the vault, at least somewhere to the earth. Alas, no!
They now began, with a new sort of instruments, to sever all the
flesh from off the bones, and this they did slowly and by piecemeal.
<u>Never let torturers of inquisitions be held in horror: these are worse.
What if they exercise their butchery on the dead? And who knows that
they exercise it only on the dead! The living would not escape, could
they come at them. Nay, let it be lawful to tell you what I heard, I
was a witness to their wishes on several occasions, that this had
been a living subject. </u>[my
emphasis] The
bloated butcher stood over my fair body, and stripping, with a two
edged knife, the skin, he listed piece by piece, the flesh under it.
He took it not away at once, but held each piece. to explain some
speech. and severed it at leisure. Thus I was cut into a thousand
pieces, stripped to the bones, nay and those bones preserved, boiled,
scraped, and tied with wires, for you, perhaps unknowing that they
were formed within your own chaste body, to gaze upon. The flesh that
covered them, no sacred earth received again. No offices interred. No
tear was paid to all the undeserved sufferings: but piece by piece.
as it bad served the purpose, 'twas thrown into a basket, offal, and
useless, and what dogs spared, was thrown into the Thames, the food
of rats and fishes. Of fishes, O impiety! Which you, perhaps, may
taste. Thus, madam, is that daughter, whom you doted on, disposed of.
Thus are those limbs, which you used to kiss, severed from one
another, nay parted from themselves, and scattered about different
places.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The letter was
followed by a second, ostensibly also from the soul of Miss Keppal,
but written by another hand, presenting the counter arguments from
anatomists. Both were republished in 1761;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.41cm;">
<br />
You
have represented me as complaining to a mother, that my body was
dissected; as shocked at the apparatus of knives, and saws, which I
could no longer feel, and disgusted at the treatment of that clay
with which I had no more connection, than with the dust in which it
had been buried … If the departed spirit be supposed to consider
with regret any of the circumstances which you have related, with
what anguish must it reflect on the gradual putrefaction of the
carcass, which living was rendered loathsome by disease, and dead is
rotting in the grave? How pathetically might I have been represented
to complain that my body was not preserved by spirits and gums, and
how cruelly might I have tormented a tender parent, by representing
the cheeks which she had so often pressed to her bosom, as clammy and
livid, and covered with the most odious vermin, which they
contributed to propagate and to feed; the lips which she had been
used to kiss in a transport of parental affection, as giving passage
to the most hateful reptiles, and admitting the hideous length of the
worm that rioted in their destruction; the body and limbs as half
rotted and half devoured, crawled over by the newt and the toad, and
avoided by every human being with loathing and abhorrence? … I was
grieved that it became necessary to violate the laws for the benefit
of society, and that the dead were withheld when they might benefit
the living. I was grieved too, that those who appeared still to
believe that they perpetrated an injury on the dead, should persist
from no motive but pecuniary reward; but, as I knew the purpose of
their errand, I rejoiced that, as my life was short, my usefulness
was not limited by its duration; and I anticipated the pleasure which
I might hereafter enjoy, upon the recovery of some useful member of
society from a disease which might have been fatal, but from the
knowledge which my remains were now about to afford.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
That William Hunter
remained active in carrying out resurrections is inferred in a 1773
print, where a watchman on the left with a rattle, has discovered a
resurrectionist and on the right, William Hunter (note his profile
and he has dropped a copy of his lecture notes) in the act of
stealing the body of a young woman. The description below of a
resurrection from the point of view of the deceased was written in
1761. The account infers Dr ___ was present, together with a medical
student wearing silk stockings and a large tie wig, rather than a
workman in labourer's clothes. This indicates that, in 1761,
anatomists themselves were still undertaking resurrections. The term
Dr ____ probably refers to Dr Hewson who by 1760 had taken over from
John Hunter as assistant to brother William. The account also draws
attention to the damage inflicted on a corpse during a resurrection.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
At
twelve I heard the mattocks spade busily employed over my head, and
could distinguish several above. At length by the light of a lanthorn
I beheld (for I could see, tho' dead, as well as hear) a little
dapper fellow in silk stockings, and a large tie wig, breaking open
the lid of my coffin. As soon as he had divested my body of its
incumbrances, he cried out, 'On my life, an excellent subject, as
lean as a rat. Hand down the rope, and let Dr ___ pull me and the
corps up together. I'll tie the cord round us both, 'twill save time
and trouble. Upon this, my little companion bound me to himself, and
we were together delivered from the grave. … Oh Mr Seeker! I dare
not tell you how inhumanly Squire Finch was then used. The basket
which was prepared for my body being too small, I was ___' “Hold,
hold, Mr Finch”, replied. “let me hear no reflections against the
surgeons, they are an honourable and worthy set of men, of excellent
use to society; they are as I may term it, the engineers of mortality
___” “Mr Seeker,” replied the ghost, “I am perfectly of your
opinion; I confess indeed when first they lugged me out of the grave
in that ungenteel manner, I was somewhat prejudiced against them, but
all my scruples with regard to the legality and humanity of cutting
up the body of a Christian solemnly committed to the grave, vanished
in an instant when I heard the ingenious Mr ___ (in a lecture which
he read over me, while his myrmidons were scalping my skull) declare
the necessity of such operations; when he so learnedly displayed the
longevity of mankind since the time that such public dissections were
permitted and encouraged.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a></div>
<br />
In William Hunter's 1794 <i>An Anatomical Description</i> written to accompany Gravid Uterus; he comments on various cases, and the conclusions drawn, showing he was a willing observer;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
The same plastic state of the uterus makes it adapt its figure to the circumstances of the child within, and vary as those change. We not only in dead bodies see the parts of the child making a variety of different projections on the outside of the uterus; but in the living body, all the same variety is frequently manifest to the touch in examining the outside of the abdomen The round projecting ball made by the child's head or buttocks, is commonly very perceptible, and in many instances smaller projecting parts are so distinctly felt through the containing parts of the abdomen, as to leave no room to doubt of their being knees or elbows. The most extraordinary instance which has come to my knowledge, of the uterus shaping itself to its contents, was a case of twins which Dr Mackenzie shewed to me, and which, with many other curious and useful observations, which an indefatigable diligence in his profession had furnished him with, it is to be feared are already in some measure lost to the public.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a> </div>
<br />
<b>More on murder</b><br />
Burking by Smellie and Hunter was a form of human experimentation. There was
a precedent for medical experimentation in London, as a result of
encouragement by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1772), grandmother
of the Earl of Sandwich. She had seen smallpox inoculations in the
Eastern Mediterranean and in 1721 during a serious outbreak of
smallpox, she encouraged Caroline, Princess of Wales,
to persuade George I to arrange a public experiment with prisoners.
The logic being that, in a monarchy, the king was said to own the
lives and bodies not only of prisoners, but of orphan children living
in parishes under his control. Thus, a king could command
experimentation without seeking the consent of his subjects. Caroline
suggested that variolation [inoculation] be tested on six condemned
criminals in Newgate Prison; if they lived, the criminals would
receive a Royal pardon. In addition, 11 charity children in St.
James’ parish were arbitrarily selected as 'volunteers'. All but
one of the 17 subjects came down with a mild case of smallpox, and
all of the infected subjects fully recovered from the experiment.<span style="color: black;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
Aware of this royal precedent, Smellie and the Hunters could see it
as justifying their own actions. </span></span>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; text-decoration: none;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The word burked, as coined in the 19C, means victims murdered for
dissection, but the word burked does not quite describe the 18C
circumstance. Burke and Hare murdered victims at random. For Smellie
and Hunter, the probability of locating undelivered cadavers was so
low, they needed to specifically target and procure ninth-month
pregnant subjects. Hence 'murder to order' is a more precise
description than burking, although for convenience the latter term is
used. It is an uneasy coincidence to think of 'Hunter, the hunter'. A
claim of burking by 18C medical men is controversial, but there is
compelling evidence to show the deaths were not from natural
causes.<br />
<br />
With 'random' natural deaths, one would expect a spread of
pregnancy durations, not a preponderance in the ninth month. That is,
for 32 undelivered subjects in the atlases, one might randomly expect
three or four ninth-month subjects, not seventeen. It is more
credible to conclude the victims were vulnerable pregnant servants,
prostitutes, or other unfortunates. John
Hunter and Mackenzie being keen to dissect the subjects, were the
last to complain of any signs of unnatural death. In considering the
source of subjects, it has rightly been observed that one could not
kill to order in order to demonstrate rare fetal complications, since
these may not be known about until labour or birth. This
observation would be serious if all the plates showed fetal
complications. However the ninth month subjects depicted are not
rare conditions, mainly a range of normal pregnancies. A
general comment on 18C society, is conveyed by Daniel Defoe, himself
medically qualified;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
The mention of this leads me to exclaim against the vile practice now
so much in vogue among the better sort as they are called, but the
worst sort in fact; namely, the sending their wives to madhouses, at
every whim or dislike, that they may be more secure and undisturbed
in their debaucheries; which wicked custom is got to such a head,
that the number of private madhouses in and about London are
considerably increased within these few years.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In reviewing
Hogarth's Stages of Cruelty, we will see visual evidence of the
method of murdering the undelivered subjects. The purpose of
Caesarean experiments was to save the baby, so it was vital the fetus
not be killed in the process of murdering the mother. Thus poison
could not be used. Similarly, it was believed a fetus could only
breathe via the mother, so smothering needed to be avoided. In
Hogarth's Stage Three it is noteworthy the body has a slit wrist and
her throat is cut. This suggests a mother had her wrists slit so as
to slowly bleed to death, as the method of least risk to the fetus,
with a coup de grace to the mother's throat when the anatomist was
ready to attempt his Caesarean experiment. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
To recap, in 1750,
the legal allowance of executed corpses was six per year, pregnant
women were never executed, the Corporation of Surgeons was in
disarray and there was only one anatomical school guaranteeing
subjects. In William Hunter's own words, 'the opportunities for
dissecting the human pregnant uterus at leisure, very rarely occur.
Indeed, to most anatomists, if they happen at all, it has been but
once or twice in their whole lives'. The probability of finding ninth
month corpses in random resurrections was effectively nil. But in the
space of five years, 1750-1754 twenty, mainly ninth month, subjects
were procured by Smellie, Hunter, and their assistants, with another
dozen pregnant subjects later. Their unfeeling mindset is inferred in
the words of Roberta McGrath, with the undelivered mother being only
a package, or a means to an end, which could be discarded; 'What
mattered in Hunter's work was the integrity of the fetus. The body of
the mother had no such integrity; she was disembodied, dismembered,
dislocated. She was sliced open, propped up'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Who was the Catalyst
for the Gravid Uterus Research?</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
So which
anatomist was the prime catalyst for this research? Evidence of
murder is more clear than who actually performed the murders. It is
obvious that William Smellie, Colin Mackenzie, William Hunter, and
John Hunter, had to be fully cognisant of the murders. Smellie and
William Hunter bear overall responsibility, as the murders were
committed to supply material for research initiated under their
management. It is tempting to suggest John Hunter, but in 1750 he was
too junior to initiate research without the approval of his brother.
John had arrived in London in late 1748, off the family farm where
animals were killed for the table and many of his siblings had died
young, so he was used to death.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
John had no training in medical ethics, but showed an ability for
dissection and he was keen to explore how the human body worked.
William Hunter did have a passion for dissection as a means to
knowledge, but seems un<span style="font-style: normal;">likely; 'Who
then are the men in the profession, that would persuade students that
a little of Anatomy is enough for a physician, and a little more, too
much for a surgeon? God help them! They have it not themselves, and
are afraid that others should get it'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Smellie
was probably the instigator, but </span>suspicion also falls upon his
ex-navy surgeon assistant Colin Mackenzie, with John Hunter as a
ready disciple. John had made friends with Smellie's assistant, Colin
Mackenzie, an ex-navy man and helped him with his injections and
dissections. Responsibility has to be borne by Smellie and William
Hunter. They held positions of authority and the anatomical
atlases were published over their names. In procuring subjects, there
was a quandary, how to obtain pregnant corpses? Random exhumations
were too rare, so to procure suitable subjects they needed to involve
third parties. Mackenzie and John drank in taverns with demobbed
soldiers and sailors accustomed to battle deaths.<br />
<br />
Mackenzie's naval
experience perhaps introduced him to the active resurrectionists,
James Thomas and Charles Pretty, who emerged from prison in mid 1748,
after serving six months for body-snatching a baby. Murder was
logical, as it avoided spending winter nights exhuming multiple graves; seeking
impossibly rare undelivered subjects. Freshness
in 18C cases suggests the unqualified term 'died' was a euphemism for
murder-to-order, here presumably a prostitute; Mr W[alter] ...
relates his examination of the body of a female who died immediately
after coition, in whom the fringes of the fallopian tubes were found
embracing the ovaries, while the tubes contained semen, and their
vessels were distended with blood, as if injected.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a>
Murder presented options. If the madame at a local brothel offered to 'sell'
them a pregnant prostitute, no longer of use in her brothel, the
choices of action were;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
1 - to ignore the opportunity for an undelivered subject.<br />
2 - to offer her a bed, then wait for several days or weeks, praying she would be the
one in ten thousand who died before delivering her baby, so she could
be sold as an undelivered cadaver.<br />
3 – to offer a bed, kill her, and sell her pregnant body to Smellie or Hunter. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In Camper's Journal there is evidence of this practice. Pages 3 and 4 of
the first volume are filled with the names and addresses of
Englishmen he met in London. The list includes the names of fourteen
doctors, a sculptor, a painter, and an engraver. Apart from these,
the only other entry is; 'The Swan Inn in the Strand, opposite
Somerset House and the Fountain in Catherine Street, on the left
hand, where girls can be obtained.' One should remember Camper never
expected his Journal to be published. Nuyens, editor of the Journal,
observes; 'Is it by chance that it says in pencil behind this last
address: Mis Jackson at the Fallon Chandlers, Charles Street, Covent
Garden”.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
At a quick glance, one might assume 'where girls can be obtained' is
where Camper could locate a prostitute for company. The reference is
not to artist's models, as Camper wrote they were separately
available;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.51cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
January 2, 1749 I was introduced at the Painters' Academy in London by Mr
Roubiliac, sculptor, and was accepted as a member of this Academy at
a contribution of two guineas. The Academy is supported by
subscribers. There are a man and a woman for models. The man poses
three days, the woman two.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
The reference to obtaining girls, as the only entry among his list of
doctors and artists, is likely a contact point to arrange procurement
of unmarried pregnant girls to be used as undelivered subjects. This
interpretation is given further credence by the reference to Fallon
Chandlers. Ships chandlers were traders supplying ships with nautical
stores and equipment. A chandler was a logical contact for ex-sailors
familiar with press-gangs, which kidnapped men to become sailors in
the Royal Navy, and were prevalent after 1664. Prior to 1700 the
brothel madame Demaris Page was noted for agreeing to press-gang her
dock worker clientele in building her fortune. She worked with such
officers as Sir William Spragg, and it was said that as long as
Damaris Page lived he was sure he should not lack men. She was
charged with killing one Eleanor Pooley on whom she had tried to
perform an abortion with a two-pronged-fork. For this she was
convicted of manslaughter and would have been hanged, however she was
pregnant at the time of trial (she "pleased her belly") and
so saw out a three-year sentence in Newgate Gaol. Page became rich
offering services as a prostitute to the burgeoning population of
seafaring workers of the docks and later through running brothels.
She drew many of her prostitutes from the women whose husbands had
been recruited to fight in naval battles or had been killed there,
leaving their wives without any means of support. </div>
<br />
The
Navy recruitment figures presented to Parliament for the years 1755 -
1757 list 70,566 men of which 33,243 were volunteers (47%), 16,953
pressed men (24%) while another 20,370 were also listed as
volunteers, but separately (29%), likely press-ganged men who then
agreed to volunteer. Members
of the press-gang were the ideal men to be asked to snatch an
obviously pregnant woman from the street, or from the rear of a
brothel, or indeed males to become subjects.
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Apart
from this option, Smellie had a more ready source of supply. In her
<i>Midwives
and Medical Men</i>,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
Jean Donnison draws attention to 'Mother Midnight' in Daniel Defoe's
<i>Moll
Flanders</i>.
Mother Midnight was a brothel keeper who also ran a private lying-in
home, as did some men-midwives, where 'ladies of pleasure' or others
anxious to keep their pregnancy hidden, might be aborted, or wait the
birth of their child in secret. Lying-in
hospitals generally accepted only married women, so those unmarried
were desperate. Pregnant
prostitutes seeking out laying-in homes included country girls with
no relations in London. In 1742
Smellie advertised: 'He has houses where poor women with child are
delivered, at which deliveries those who are his pupils may, on
reasonable terms, be present.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
Lodgings
at private establishments were perfect 'holding pens' for pregnant
women for Smellie and Hunter, as a source of their undelivered
subjects. When a delivery was close, and the woman had no relations
in London, she was easily murdered and dissected. If a friend of the
woman then missed her and inquired her whereabouts, it was easily
claimed by the anatomists that she had died during childbirth. Nihell
described these lodgings;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
But if I was to add here my having been credibly informed, that there are
novices who watch the distress of poor pregnant women, even in
private lodgings, where, under a notion of learning the business,
they make those poor wretches, hired for their purpose, undergo the
most inhuman vexation, and where those scenes must be rather a school
of brutality than of art.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Concern from parish
officers was unlikely for any rumour of the murder of a pregnant
woman, as babies born of destitute mothers were a charge on the
parish of their birth. Parishes were keen to avoid babies as
continuing charges, even to expelling unmarried pregnant women from
their parish. As recorded in 1726 when sixpence was paid at Taynton,
Oxfordshire, not to one of the poor, but to 'Goody Hearn for
conducting a Great Belly'd woman back to the town'. [i.e. to
Burford]<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Experiments
on pregnant women commenced before 1750. John Arbuthnot FRS
(1667-1735), a surgeon who wrote as Martinus Scriblerous, satirized
abuses of learning. His work is little regarded by literary
historians but a theme in researching this book has been how much
social truth is contained in little regarded works. Arbuthnot's views
are valuable, as Johnson wrote; 'Dr Arbuthnot was the first man among
them. He being the most universal genius, an excellent physician, a
man of deep learning, and a man of much humour'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Arbuthnot was
an influence on Lawrence Sterne's </span><i>“Tristram Shandy”</i><span style="font-style: normal;">.
In an early fictional reference to anatomists, but likely based on a
true report of events, Arbuthnot has a professor discuss historical
anatomy, before relaying a story;</span>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">As he was softly stalking up stairs
in the dark, with the dead man in his arms, his burthen had like to
have slipped from him, which he (to save from falling), grasped so
hard about the belly, that it forced the wind through the Anus, with
a noise exactly like the Crepitus of a living man. Crambe (who did
not comprehend how this part of the Animal Oeconomy could remain in a
dead man) was so terrified that he threw down the body, ran up to his
master, and had scarce breath to tell him what had happened. … The
wife ran into the street and cried out, Murder! The Watch ran in,
while Martin and Crambe, hearing all this uproar, were coming down
stairs. The Watch imagined they were making their escape, seized them
immediately, and carried them to a neighbouring Justice; where upon
searching them, several kind of knives and dreadful weapons were
found upon them. The Justice first examined Crambe, What is your
Name? says the Justice. … they call me Crambe or Crambo. What is
yours and your Master's profession? </span><span style="font-style: normal;"><u>It
is our business to imbrue our hands in blood; we cut off the heads,
and pull out the hearts of those that never injured us; we rip up big
belly'd women, and tear children limb from limb.</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;">
[my emphasis] Martin endeavoured to interrupt him; but the justice,
being strangely astonished with the frankness of Crambe's Confession,
ordered him to proceed.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
The reference to
'rip up big-belly'd women' is to undelivered subjects, and probably
dates pre 1714. A reference to
London living circumstances, c1750, noted;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
[T]hat in the parish
of St Giles's, there were great numbers of idle persons and
vagabonds, who have their lodging there for two pence a night. That
in the above parish and in St Georges's Bloomsbury, one woman alone
occupies seven of these houses, all properly accommodated with
miserable beds, from the cellar to the garret, for such two-penny
lodgers. That in these beds, several of which are in the same room,
men and women often strangers to each other, lie promiscuously, the
price of a double bed being no more than three pence, as an
encouragement for them to lie together. That as these places are
adapted to whoredom, so are they no less provided with drunkenness,
gin being sold in them all at a penny a quartern, so that the
smallest sum of money serves for intoxication. That in the execution
of search warrants, Mr Welch rarely finds less than twenty of these
houses open for the receipt of all comers at the latest hours; and
that in one of these houses, and that not a large one, he hath
numbered fifty-eight persons of both sexes, the stench of whom was so
intolerable that it soon compelled him to quit the place.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
The
disappearance of any of these unfortunates, to emerge as as murdered
subjects, excited little comment. </div>
It is
conjecture where Smellie's first body came from, perhaps a servant
girl. Although servants were in theory protected by law from summary
dismissal, there are numerous examples of women dismissed from
service on account of their pregnancies.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a>
These women might end up in a poorhouse to have their baby, but
sought to avoid that if someone would take them in. If a servant did
end up in a poorhouse, there was midwife assistance for the actual
birth; but the evidence of Nihell suggests any such infants were
quickly killed by the poorhouse staff.
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<b>Mackenzie, John
Hunter, and the Twins</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Undelivered dissections by Smellie and Mackenzie pioneered the
process, but the smooth way dissection and drawings went for John
Hunter's first undelivered subject, shows he and van Rymsdyk had
planned that arrival. If
a rare pregnant corpse arrived unexpectedly from an accident, one
would expect cadaver damage, a lack of organisation, some materials
unavailable or in short supply, mistakes over the preparations, and
the corpse decaying before the drawings were complete. That van
Rymsdyk commenced a series of ten detailed drawings on the arrival of
the first corpse, implies prior knowledge. Special preparations could
not be hurried, as observed in
1874; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br />
Dissections
having for their object such permanent preparations cannot be made in
haste. They require considerable time. So too dissections for a
series of lectures on various systems, such as the muscular, the
vascular, etc., require that we shall be able to preserve the body
unless we go back to the short courses of bygone days. Thus, in
Edinburgh, in 1697, in the first course of public lectures, as the
felon's body by law had to be buried in ten days, ten lectures were
delivered on successive days by as many different lecturers, in which
the entire subject was treated. How hurried the course was we may
judge, seeing that on one day the brain, spinal cord, and all the
nerves were finished, and on another, all of the five senses.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.1cm;">
The
charge of murder to order in 1750-1754 is based upon the twenty
undelivered corpses depicted in the atlases of Smellie and Hunter,
i.e. four or five per year, when the probability of randomly
resurrecting a ninth month subject was effectively nil. Smellie knew
the victims were burked, even if he delegated dissection to his
assistants, Mackenzie and John Harvie. John Hunter and Camper were
involved in the dissection of Smellie's subjects and van Rymsdyk drew
for both anatomists. One dissection recorded as a joint effort is the
rare subject containing twins.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a>
In 1755 Smellie published his atlas and gave credit to Mackenzie for
the twins in Plate X; 'With respect to the position of twins it is
often different in different cases; but was thus in a late dissection
of a gravid uterus by Mr Mackenzie'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a>
John Hunter assisted Mackenzie with this dissection; a salient comment referring
to his success in injecting the veins and arteries, showing the
freshness. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
The
late indefatigable Dr MacKenzie, about the month of May 1754, [cf.
the Keppal letter dated April 1754] when assistant to Dr Smellie,
having procured the body of a pregnant woman who died undelivered at
the full term, had injected both the veins and arteries with
particular success, the veins being filled with yellow, the arteries
with red.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
In 1818 Joseph Adams wrote with reference to the twins; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.35cm;">
<br />
Mr
Hunter's note appended to this passage. 'Dr MacKenzie being then an
assistant to the late Dr Smellie, the procuring and dissecting this
woman without Dr Smellie's knowledge, was the cause of a separation
between them, for<span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">the leading steps to such a discovery could not be kept a secret. The
winter fo</span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;">llowing, Dr
MacKenzie began to teach midwifery in the Borough of Southwark'. This
paper was not published till after Dr Hunter's death.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br />
This passage and the
words 'the leading steps' are an implied admission in John Hunter's
own words the woman was murdered. 'The leading steps' has to refer to
the source of the undelivered subjects, and 'could not be kept a
secret' implies questions over their source and the type of
experiment. There was no other reason to keep 'the leading steps' a
secret. The method of anatomical preparation was not a secret, being
taught to students. The reason for secrecy had to be a criminal
element in the leading steps, but the only criminal aspect of
significance in 18C anatomy, was murder, as we have seen how the
authorities turned a blind eye to anatomists. Normal resurrections
were condoned and resurrected subjects continued to be available to
students at William Hunter's anatomy lectures. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Experiments on
Unborn Babies</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
nature of John Hunter's Caesarean experiments is inferred in
discussing an experiment on a dog in 1755, where he made an aside
about a fetus, 'when too much time has intervened between the
interruption of that life which is peculiar to the fetus and that
which depends on breathing'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a>
This, taken together with his experiments on the lungs, and on the
heart of a dog, is an allusion to the interruption of the life of a
mother during a Caesarean experiment. For Hunter to be ready and
organised to make experiments on a baby at birth, in conjunction with
a dog, again shows planning, and knowledge a live undelivered subject
was available for the experiment. A stillbirth could not be planned,
so he knew to expect to revive a baby available from a Caesarean
experiment; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
What makes it very
probable that in recovering persons drowned, the principal effect
depends upon air being thrown into the lungs, is what happens at the
birth of children, <u>when too much time has intervened
between the interruption of that life which is peculiar to the foetus
and that which depends on breathing</u>[my
emphasis]; they then lose altogether the disposition for this new
life; and in such cases there being a total suspension of the actions
of life, and by such means the first principle of action restored. To
put this in a still clearer light, I
will give the result of some experiments which I made in the year
1755 upon a dog [my emphasis]. A
pair of double bellows were provided, constructed in such a manner as
by one action to throw fresh air into the lungs, and by another to
suck out again the air which had been thrown in by the former,
without mixing them together. The muzzle of these bellows was fixed
into the trachea of a dog, and by working them he was kept perfectly
alive. While this artificial breathing was going on I took off the
sternum of the dog, and exposed the lungs and heart; the heart
continued to act as before, only the frequency of its action was
considerably increased. When I stopped the motion of the bellows the
heart became gradually weaker, and less frequent in its contractions,
till it entirely ceased to move. By renewing the action of the
bellows the heart again began to move, at first very faintly, and
with long intermissions; but by continuing the artificial breathing,
its motion became as frequent and as strong as at first. This process
I repeated upon the same dog ten times, sometimes stopping for five,
eight, or ten minutes, and observed that every time I left off
working the bellows the heart became extremely turgid with blood, the
blood in the left side becoming as dark as that in the right, which
was not the case when the bellows were working. These situations of
the animal appeared to me exactly similar to drowning.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
Death in persons
drowned has been accounted for by supposing that the blood, rendered
unfit for the purposes of life by being deprived of the action of the
air in respiration, is sent in a vitiated state to the brain and
other vital parts, by which means the nerves lose their effect upon
the heart, and the heart in consequence its motion. <u>This,
however, I am fully convinced is false; first, from the experiments
on the dog, in which a large column of blood so vitiated ... was
again pushed forward without any ill effect having been produced; and
next, from the return to life of persons drowned and children
still-born</u>,
[my emphasis] which were such a supposition true, could never happen unless we
imagine a change of the blood to take place in the brain, prior to
the restoration of the heart's motion.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66sym" name="sdendnote66anc"><sup>lxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Apart
from the bellows; 'When other methods had failed, Hunter advocated
the use of electricity, which he claimed provided the only means
available of directly stimulating the heart'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67sym" name="sdendnote67anc"><sup>lxvii</sup></a>
With
John referred to dissecting dogs in 1755, in the same paragraph as he
spoke of a human fetus, it shows he considered the matters closely
linked. In reading his references to interrupting the breathing of a
dog for five, eight, or ten minutes, and the 'extremely fresh' nature
of such a subject, it is logical to deduce Hunter was experimenting
to revive unborn babies of deceased subjects. From the various
references it seems that the three most likely methods tried being:</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm;">
<br />
- bellows connected to an open chest, and </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm;">
- blood transfusions from a live dog. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm;">
- use of electricity, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
That
is, seeking to determine a method for Caesarean deliveries, when a
subject had just died, but the fetus still lived. Hunter's continuing
experiments to revive the life of a fetus between 'interruption of in
utero life' and 'breathed life after birth', then explain why
Mackenzie and Hunter sought so many ninth month subjects for their
experiments, with the subjects as fresh as possible. Although
referring to a cat instead of a dog, it is clear rumours of similar
radical experiments circulated and reached the ears of Eliza Fowler
Haywood (1693-1756), writing<span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> in
1754;</span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
I think some
virtuosos of the Royal Society some time ago had the curiosity to try
the experiment whether, by transferring the blood of one animal into
another, the nature of the creature would be transmigrated also: how
far they were satisfied in this point, I either never heard, or have
forgot; but what occasioned my making mention of the whim was, that
reaching the ears of a young surgeon, who had a great ambition of
being talked of, put it into his head<u> to make the same essay
between a man and a cat</u><span style="text-decoration: none;"> [my
emphasis</span><u>]</u>: the project so much pleased him, that he
talked of nothing else in all companies where he was admitted; and
either being of that opinion, or pretending to be so, that the human
and animal soul were of the same nature, and lodged in the blood,
became very entertaining among the looser part of his acquaintance,
by describing to them how his <i>cat-man</i> would sit purring in the
chimney-corner, how he would fly at a mouse, play with it, and then
growl over it while devouring it: nay, to such a height did his
arrogant prophaneness carry him, that happening one day to be in
company, among whom was a clergyman, and talking in this manner, he
directed his discourse particularly to him, and closed his boastings
with a; <i>What will become of your trade now doctor? When once 1
have made my experiment, where will be the immortal soul? Egad, you
must leave off preaching!</i> and such like impious and impudent
sneers: to all which, as I was informed, the good gentleman returned
only a smile of pity and contempt. … This vain-glorious young
fellow was however so much in earnest, that <u>he was indefatigable
in making interest for a condemned criminal, in order to carry his
scheme into execution</u>; [my emphasis] but whether his request was
thought improper to be granted, or that the fellows themselves chose
rather to suffer death at Tyburn, than to forego their human nature,
I am not positive; but this <u>I know, that several sessions passed
over, without his being able to procure a person on whom he might
make his experiment</u>.[my emphasis]<span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68sym" name="sdendnote68anc"><sup>lxviii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The use of dogs for
practising operations and other experiments was common. Astley Cooper
was well known for it in the early 19C. Prior
to his great operation of tying the aorta, Cooper repeatedly
ligatured the principal arteries of the pointer dogs he kept for
sporting purposes. As a result, the animals were perfectly willing to
'point' or do any other part of canine duty, except be near their
master, by whom any approach was carefully shunned. A similar story
was related by Sir Charles Bell who commented Cooper never
spared his own domestic animals: 'I remember having remarked, one day
when breakfasting with him, that a dog received with respectful fear
the morsels of bread offered to him by his master. "The
ungrateful brute," said Sir Astley, "owes me a perpetual
grudge for having trepanned him, and you see what superb health he
enjoys ever since'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69sym" name="sdendnote69anc"><sup>lxix</sup></a>
John Hunter carried out many experiments on dogs; in one example he
injected the blood veins of twenty living dogs with various liquids
to see the effect on the dogs. The liquids included solutions
containing; salt, tartar, nitric, borax, vinegar, rhubarb, opium, gin
and laurel water.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70sym" name="sdendnote70anc"><sup>lxx</sup></a>
Hunter's uncompromising attitude, even towards human subjects, was
conveyed by him;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
However wounds have
been made into the cavity of the thorax, suppuration has taken place,
and yet the patient has got well; but how this has been brought about
I cannot tell. General Murray, to whom I have often expressed a wish
to peep into his chest, has been twice wounded in this way. I tried
the experiment by shooting a dog; but both Nature and the dog cheated
me, for I intended to keep open the wound until the whole surface of
the pleura had taken on suppuration, when I meant to let Nature have
her way and cure the dog as she pleased, and then I intended to kill
the dog and see what she had done. But the dog would always lie on
the wounded side; and when after death I examined it, I found the
lungs had adhered to the wound and prevented the inflammation
spreading over the surface of the lungs.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71sym" name="sdendnote71anc"><sup>lxxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The number of
Hunter's dog experiments is illustrated by his answer at the 1781
trial of John Donellan, which infers he had poisoned at least two or
three animals a week, for over thirty years. By further inference,
some of his human subjects were
murdered by using poison. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Question - Is any
certain analogy to be drawn from the effects of any given species of
poison upon an animal of the brute creation, to that it may have upon
a human subject? </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
Answer - As far as
my experience goes which is not a very confined one, because I have
poisoned some thousands of animals, they are very nearly the same;
opium, for instance will poison a dog similar to a man; arsenic will
have very near the same effect upon a dog as it would have, I take
for granted, upon a man. <u>I know something of the effects of them
and I believe their operations will be nearly similar</u>.[my
emphasis]<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72sym" name="sdendnote72anc"><sup>lxxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Fear of Public Discovery</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The <i>General
Evening Post</i> records the issue of Smellie's atlas on 22 July 1755, although it was
first advertised in 1754. Circumstances changed rapidly around
publication. Smellie's
action in publishing his atlas, together with the money he was
earning, initiated public comment and envy. In January 1755, an epilogue was recited at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, at a performance of the <i>Conscious Lovers</i>.
Spoken by a Mr Shuter in the character of a man-midwife, the
reference to the grateful poor links it to Smellie;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Tho' some snug jobs from surgery may spring,
Man-midwifry, man-midwifry's the thing.
Lean should I be, e'en as my own anatomy,
By mere catharticks and by plain phlebotomy,
Well, besides gain, besides the pow'r to please,
Besides the musick (shakes a purse) of such birds as these,
It is a joy refin'd, unmix'd, and pure,
To hear the praises of the grateful poor.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73sym" name="sdendnote73anc"><sup>lxxiii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The publishing of Smellie's atlas caused a stir in medical circles. Scots
such as Alexander Monro I, were professionally jealous of Smellie. In
1754 Edinburgh, Monro I recommended Alexander Monro II (1733-1817) be
confirmed as a professor.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74sym" name="sdendnote74anc"><sup>lxxiv</sup></a>
The petition was granted and Monro II was appointed, with his father,
as Professor of Anatomy. Aware of Smellie's atlas, Monro I arranged
for Monro II to study in London. There are conflicting dates as to
when Monro II arrived in London, but it seems it was in the second
half of 1755, when described as, 'but perhaps over jealous of his
professional reputation',<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75sym" name="sdendnote75anc"><sup>lxxv</sup></a><br />
<br />
Monro II went to London, before proceeding to Paris and returning to
Edinburgh. Monro II was eager to determine where Smellie had obtained
his subjects as, in 1753, his brother Dr Donald Monro had undertaken
in Edinburgh, the dissection of a subject six months pregnant.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote76sym" name="sdendnote76anc"><sup>lxxvi</sup></a>
Donald refers to two other undelivered subjects of seven and four
months in his paper which, together with its illustrations, outlines
the dissection in great detail. Monro I also referred to these
subjects in commenting upon his forty year career; 'I have now
dissected five Women who died each with a Child in the Womb ... One
of them was said by the Friends to have been between three and four
Months gone with Child, three others were about six or seven Months,
and the fifth was past eight Months with Child'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote77sym" name="sdendnote77anc"><sup>lxxvii</sup></a>
There is insufficient evidence to prove these subjects were burked,
but given the 1747 Torrance and Waldie case in Edinburgh, murder is
probable. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
But
as knowledge circulated among competing anatomists, the London
anatomists were at risk. As was emphasised later by Jeremy Bentham
(1748-1832) with respect to the increasing reluctance of juries to
reach verdicts requiring the death penalty; 'There is however a
single exception in which capital punishment is popular, namely in
the case of murder'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote78sym" name="sdendnote78anc"><sup>lxxviii</sup></a>
A public challenge over undelivered subjects would have led to a
sensational Old Bailey trial. If it had, Smellie had no defence, with
his atlas already published and depicting multiple subjects, he was
extremely vulnerable. So much so he realised he needed to distance
himself. He did so by setting up Mackenzie as a potential scapegoat,
asking him to leave, and claiming his actions were unauthorised. That
this fear arose in 1755, after publication of the atlas, rather than
at the time of dissection of the twins in May 1754, is supported by
the comment; 'The winter following Dr MacKenzie began to teach
midwifery in the Borough of Southwark'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote79sym" name="sdendnote79anc"><sup>lxxix</sup></a><br />
<br />
Mackenzie commenced teaching in 1755, thus the 'winter following' was
1755-1756; eighteen months after the May 1754 dissection of the
twins. If a dispute between Smellie and Mackenzie had arisen at the
time the subject containing the twins was dissected, Mackenzie would
have commenced his teaching in winter 1754. Instead it was soon after
Smellie's publication. Hunter's comment that Mackenzie procured and
dissected the body without Smellie's knowledge and 'this led to a
separation between them',<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote80sym" name="sdendnote80anc"><sup>lxxx</sup></a>
resulting in Mackenzie being dismissed, can be discounted as Smellie
gave Mackenzie credit for Plate X. With more than a dozen dissections
undertaken for Smellie, and the kudos associated with the twins, the
claimed reason for leaving Smellie is weak.<br />
<br />
Logically, the
procurement and dissection of the pregnant subject containing twins
did not cause a problem, but the wider medical debate did. On being
asked to leave in 1755, Mackenzie taught midwifery in London until
1772. Smellie retired at the age of 62 in 1759 and if there had been
an undisturbed relationship, Mackenzie would have taken over
Smellie's practice. Instead, it was continued by John Harvie.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote81sym" name="sdendnote81anc"><sup>lxxxi</sup></a>
Despite continuing Smellie's school, when in 1767 Harvie published a
book on difficult cases; <i>Practical
Directions</i>,
he dedicated the volume to William Hunter instead of Smellie, an
indication that Smellie's reputation was, at this time, not viewed
positively.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote82sym" name="sdendnote82anc"><sup>lxxxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1755, John Hunter went to Oxford reportedly to study, but likely to
remove him from the London debate. The sojourn was unsuccessful, and
John returned to London where he was appointed sole house-surgeon at
St George's Hospital, but he held this office for five months only.
Stephen Paget wrote; 'We do not know the reason of his resignation,
and not even Jesse Foot can find any evidence that it was Hunter's
fault. Probably he could not bear to be away from his work at the
school.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote83sym" name="sdendnote83anc"><sup>lxxxiii</sup></a>
Jesse Foot wrote; 'To my own knowledge I can speak it, that the
period of five months' duration at the hospital in the office of
house-surgeon is the shortest which can be found in the unerring
journals of hospitals. The usual time for the residence of a
house-surgeon is generally twelve months, but sometimes it has been
extended to two years.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote84sym" name="sdendnote84anc"><sup>lxxxiv</sup></a>
More likely, John's resignation was requested by St George's due to
rumours of burking. The plates in Smellie's atlas caused such concern
among man-midwives, it led to an urgent discussion on ethics in 1756,
with Denman recording ready acceptance of an alternative induction
procedure, designed to avoid the need for craniotomies or Caesareans;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
But
the first account of any artificial method of bringing on premature
labour was given to me by Dr C Kelly. He informed me, that about the
year 1756, there was a consultation of the most eminent men in London
at that time, to consider of the moral rectitude of, and advantages
which might be expected from, this practice, which met with their
general approbation. The first case in which it was considered
necessary and proper fell under the care of the late Dr Macaulay, and
it terminated successfully.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote85sym" name="sdendnote85anc"><sup>lxxxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Until June 1755 William Hunter remained as man-midwife at the British
Lying-in Hospital, and in July 1756, he was disenfranchised by the
Corporation of Surgeons after paying a fee of forty guineas.
Ostensibly to join the College of Physicians, but one cannot help
thinking both resignations were forced. The Physicians accepted him
as a Licentiate in September 1756, but denied him a Fellowship. Two
reasons were given for this; his degree was not from Oxbridge and he
was a man-midwife. However, there is suspicion he was rejected
because of burking. His rejection was later followed by a disgraceful
scene on 24 September 1767, when Hunter and a number of fellow
Licentiates broke into a meeting of the College to state their case
with the help of a blacksmith and several hooligans.<br />
<br />
Hunter then gave
up any further connection with gynaecological surgery. It is clear
the risk of a criminal trial brought Smellie and Hunter to their
senses, with fear of execution foremost in their minds. They, along
with Mackenzie, Burton, Harvie, John Hunter, and Jenty all abandoned
gravid research. The two younger anatomists, John Hunter and Jenty,
both joined the army and went with it to Portugal, in the knowledge
that being serving army officers they were safe from prosecution.
Additionally van Rymsdyk left London, as rumours of burking made it
impossible for him to find work in London. As earlier indicated, he
may have returned to Holland c1755-1757, but by 1758 was in Bristol,
where he was employed as a scene and sign painter. Thornton observes,
'Why he went to Bristol we can only speculate upon (unless he had
previously been there), but he was obviously dissatisfied with London
as the centre of his activities'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote86sym" name="sdendnote86anc"><sup>lxxxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1760 Elizabeth
Nihell published her Treatise, which included criticism of Smellie.
As a midwife, and wife of an apothecary, she was aware of untoward
behaviour;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.38cm; margin-right: 0.38cm;">
<br />
I still had a
repugnance to the entering into a discussion of abuses, that could
not be lain open without exposing truths, that might have an air of
invidiousness or detraction. Some friends of mine, to who I
communicated my doubt, agreed with me, that <u>there are faults which
cannot innocently be revealed, where their manifestation may be
attended with some greater evil</u><span style="text-decoration: none;">
</span>[my emphasis] but that it could not be right to rank among the
faults to be spared any error in an art, where one single false idea,
suffered to subsist, may prove the occasion of wounds or tortuous
deaths to thousands.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote87sym" name="sdendnote87anc"><sup>lxxxvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
Nihell made an
accusation of murder, targeting William Hunter as a “Herod of
Society”; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
It will appear, in
the Sequel of this Work, that it were to be wished, ... to expel and
exclude from the Art all ignorant Pretenders of either Sex, who are
in fact, worse than the Herods of Society. The cruelty of Herod
extended to no more than the infants; not to the mothers, that of
such pretenders to both. … I had almost said, at the mercy of these
executioners: but have they any? All their handywork is conducted in
private, remains buried in the tomb of oblivion.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote88sym" name="sdendnote88anc"><sup>lxxxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
defending Smellie from Nihell, Tobias Smollett (1721-1771), a friend
of Smellie, was intent upon destroying Nihell's credibility. Smollett
was apprenticed from 1736, to a surgeon in Glasgow. While there he
commenced writing, then moved to London, but was unsuccessful in
selling his work. Instead he took the position of surgeon's mate on a navy ship,
where he participated in the Siege of Cartagena in Spanish America.
His description of the miseries endured there by soldiers and sailors
has been accepted as an eye-witness account, even though it appears
in his novel, <i>Roderick
Random, </i> a
book read by Mary Shelley in 1817. Smollett's navy experience matched
that of both Smellie and his assistant, Colin Mackenzie. After
leaving the navy Smollett purchased his MD from Marischal College,
Aberdeen in 1750, but by 1753 had abandoned surgery for writing.
Given his medical background. and his friendship with both Smellie
and Hunter, Smollett knew of the burking and was determined to
protect his friends. Despite its low MMR, he described Hotel Dieu as;
'the most dirty slovenly inconvenient indecent shocking receptacle
for the sick in all Europe'. It is noteworthy Smollett devotes ten
pages to criticising Nihell in strong language; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
Every
body knows that <i>nihil</i> signifies <i>nothing</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
… Now, why may not this treatise on midwifery be a <i>hum</i> in the character of <i>
No-thing</i> brayed through the organs of the same animal? … This
honest woman who talks so much
of tenderness, delicacy, and decency, sets up her throat, and, with
the fluency of a fish-woman, exclaims against the whole body of
male-practitioners, as ruffians who never let slip the smallest
opportunity of tearing and massacring their patients with iron and
steel instruments. This assertion is so contrary to truth, that no
man-midwife of any reputation ever advised instruments except in the
last extremity.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote89sym" name="sdendnote89anc"><sup>lxxxix</sup></a>
</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Whereas a parallel
review of Nihell's book, in <i>The Monthly Register</i> of similar date,
commented; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.54cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
<br />
On the whole, her book deserves to be read by all who are interested in
the subject: and who is not, in a greater or less degree, interested
in it? It is, however, wrote in so peculiar a style, with such an
extreme affectation of learning, that it has not the least appearance
of being a female production; nevertheless, we are well informed that
it is the real work of Mrs Nihell, a Midwife in the Haymarket.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote90sym" name="sdendnote90anc"><sup>xc</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
However, in his
attack, Smollett inadvertently highlights a weakness in the defences
of Smellie;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
As she pecks continually at Dr Smellie, we shall aver in our turn, that
she either does not know that gentleman's method of teaching, or
scandalously misrepresents it. All <u>the
anatomical part of the art he constantly demonstrated on the human
subject, of which he had a great variety at command, both dead and
living</u> [my emphasis];
his pupils learned the practice by attending real labours, and
delivering in their turns, under the inspection of a regular-bred
woman midwife: the doctor himself was present at all difficult or
præternatural cases;<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote91sym" name="sdendnote91anc"><sup>xci</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
That is, Smellie 'constantly demonstrated' the manner of using forceps on
patients to his students. Smellie was not associated with a lying-in
hospital, nor did he have an anatomy school. The question thus begged
is; if Smellie was present at 'all difficult or præternatural
cases', then how, and where, did he procure his 'great variety at
command, both dead and living', including so many undelivered
subjects? An argument for Hunter being fully aware of events is the shared use of
van Rymsdyk. Hunter, unpublished in 1755, was less at risk than
Smellie, then in print and vulnerable, but the medical debate was
reason for Hunter to pause his project.
Smellie's fear of adverse publicity was behind a previously unexplained break
in their friendship, with Hunter intending to resume his project, but
Smellie opposed due to the risk of prosecution. Hence Hunter did not
resume his gravid research until after Smellie's 1763 death, when
Smellie's atlas was also republished.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Why was there no
prosecution of Smellie and Hunter?</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
We will later show a number of people knew of the burking as inferred by King George II's
November 1753 speech proposing new legislation. It is argued William
Hunter used his influence to any forestall prosecution, promising
experiments would cease. A sign of this behind-the-scenes debate is
seen in a letter from T H of 7 Aug 1754. As with other literary
evidence, it is hard to accept the timing was coincidental. T H
proposed an impossible burden of proof for capital crimes, especially
true of burking, where there was no corpse once a victim was
dissected. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
It is a maxim in
almost every civil government, that it is better ten persons being
guilty should escape, than that one being innocent should suffer.
Upon this principle it has been usual to require positive and direct
proof of every fact for which capital punishment is inflicted; and in
some countries no criminal is executed, if besides this proof he does
not himself confess the fact. Circumstantial evidence may amount to
the utmost degree of probability, but can go no further;
circumstantial evidence therefore has generally been thought
insufficient to convict any person of a capital offence. Yet when the
crime has been very great, it has been usual to punish the accused
upon more slender evidence than when the crime has been less. ... By
<i>positive</i> evidence, is meant that of a witness who was present
at the fact, and swears to the person who did it. But if a man be
robbed upon the highway of twenty guineas and a moidore, and shot
dead upon the spot; and a person within hearing of the pistol, rides
up, finds the man dead, hears the trampling of a horse, and following
the sound, overtakes, and seizes a man in whose coat pocket are just
twenty guineas and a moidore, who has one pistol loaded, and one that
appears to have been just fired, who appears terrified and confused,
and had made his utmost effort to escape; this evidence, however
strong, is only <i>circumstantial,</i> and it is possible the man
against whom it appears, may be innocent, though the evidence be
true.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote92sym" name="sdendnote92anc"><sup>xcii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
When
Smellie's atlas was published with plates showing victims it
re-ignited the debate.<span style="font-weight: normal;"> In
July 1755, a letter was published in the Gentleman's Magazine from a
writer who floated a law change to enable anatomists like John Hunter
to legally obtain live subjects to use for their experiments. But
access to condemned felons was not granted. John Hunter therefore
resorted to comparative anatomy for fresh subjects, before joining
the army to access newly killed corpses of soldiers. It is again too
much a coincidence that the letter appeared in the same month that
Smellie's atlas was published. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm; margin-right: 0.61cm;">
<br />
I have found many
hints from time to time in your useful miscellany for preventing the
frequency of murder, which I do not find the late laws have much
influenced; suppose, therefore, that instead of giving the murderer's
body to the surgeons when he is dead, he should be put into their
hands alive, and subjected to such experiments as can only be made
upon a living subject, as the knowledge resulting from this practice
may possibly preserve to the community a useful member, in lieu of
that which the criminal has destroyed. What if the most notorious of
these offenders should from time to time suffer the bite of a mad
dog, that by the trial of various methods in all stages of the
deplorable disease which it produces, some certain remedy may be
found out. There are, as I am informed by the faculty [perhaps John
Hunter?], several diseases which might possibly be cured by
chirurgical operations, so dangerous that the experiment is not
likely to be made; even in our hospitals, by gentlemen of character
and regular practice; and might justly be reserved for these
operations, under the direction of persons properly appointed. Care,
however should be taken, that no man, not a murderer, be wantonly
mangled to gratify mere curiosity and perhaps the life of those on
whom any desperate operation or new remedy has succeeded should be
spared.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote93sym" name="sdendnote93anc"><sup>xciii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
Without
physical evidence a case was difficult to prove, but if brought
before the courts, Smellie, Mackenzie and the Hunters could have
faced murder charges. I<span style="font-style: normal;">t was
politically difficult to make a direct accusation against Smellie, or
the Hunters as even John Fielding was a patient; as he noted while on
board ship at Rotherhithe on 28 June 1754: 'I this day sent for my
friend Mr Hunter, the great surgeon and anatomist of Covent Garden;
and though my belly was not yet very full and tight, let out ten
quarts of water.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote94sym" name="sdendnote94anc"><sup>xciv</sup></a>
The date being but three months from the death of John's brother
Henry Fielding. That is not to say John Fielding, in succeeding Henry
in his policing role in 1755, approved of burking, but being blind he
could neither see, nor touch, Smellie's plates to evaluate their use
as evidence. On his appointment to the position, Feilding seems to
have agreed not to prosecute after Smellie, the Hunters, Mackenzie,
Harvie, Burton, and Jenty agreed to cease research.</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
Nero and Agrippina
are discussed in the next chapter, but relevant to the experiments of
Smellie and Hunter in dissecting undelivered subjects while
researching the gravid uterus, are the accounts of Emperor Nero's
murder of his mother Agrippina, to inspect her womb and see whence he
had come. The account does not appear in Roman sources, being a later
invention from around the 12C, although it was widely accepted by the
15C. Two mediaeval views of the murder appear here. In the left hand
version Agrippina is still alive, with her wrists tied with a rope.
On the right Agrippina has her legs bound and her arms tied together
underneath the dissection table, to show she was alive at the
commencement of the dissection, <span style="font-weight: normal;">British
Library: Harley ms 4425, fol. 59R, Flemish, ca 1500. </span></div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Forbes, J, Tweedie, A, Conolly, J, <i>The Cyclopaedia of Practical
Medicine</i>, Philadelphia, Lea, 1845, p 548</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
<i>The Scots Magazine,</i> Vol VII, Edinburgh, Sands, Murray, and
Cochran, 1745, p 370</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Forbes, J, Tweedie, A, Conolly, J, <i>The Cyclopaedia of Practical
Medicine</i>, Philadelphia, Lea, 1845, p 548-549</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, Vol XVII, September 1747, p 428</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
<i>The Scots Magazine,</i> Vol VII, Edinburgh, Sands, Murray, and
Cochran, 1745, p 369</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Brouardel, Paul, <i>Death and Sudden Death</i>, London, Bailliere,
1902, p 33</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
<i>Transactions of the Obstetrical Society</i>, Vol XIV, London,
Longmans, 1873, p 150</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
<i>The Universal Magazine</i>, London, John Hinton, 1755, p 323</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a><i>The
Gentleman's Magazine, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">Vol 33
</span>London, Henry and Cave, 1763, p 158</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
MacDonald, Helen, <i>Human Remains,</i> London, YUP, 2006, p 18-19</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
<i>The Quarterly Review</i> Vol XLII, London, Murray ,1830, p 5-6</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Cook, John, quoted in <i>The London Magazine</i>, Vol 37, London, R
Baldwin, 1768, p 301-302</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
<i>Essex Record Office</i>,
http://seax.essexcc.gov.uk/result_details.asp?DocID=268951 accessed
March 2010</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
Cook, John, quoted in <i>The London Magazine</i>, Vol 37, London, R
Baldwin, 1768, p 243-245</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
<i>Essex Record Office,</i>
http://seax.essexcc.gov.uk/result_details.asp?DocID=264469 accessed
March 2010</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, J Nicholls , 1732, p 1082</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>Monro,
Alexander, <i>Medical Essays</i>, Vol I, Edinburgh, Monro, 1737, p
105, p 110-111</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
Judah, J C, <i>Buzzards and Butterflies – Human Remains Detection
Dog</i>s, Coastal Books, 2008, p 31</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
Schafer, Daniel, <i>Medical Practice and the Law</i>, in Medical
History, 1999, 43: p 492</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
<i>The London Medical Repository</i>, Vol 8, London, Longmans, 1817,
p 353</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Unwins, D, <i>The London Literary Medical Repository and Review</i>,
London, Underwoods, 1818, p 7 - 10</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
<i>Transactions of the Obstetrical Society</i>, Vol XIV, London,
Longmans, 1873, p 240-252</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
Gould, George, Pyle, Walter, <i>Anomalies and Curiosities of
Medicine,</i> Philadelphia, 1896, p 104</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Reports From Select Committees, London, 1828, p 148
http://books.google.co.nz/books?id=VjZbAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage
accessed June 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Johnson, Alastai<span style="font-weight: normal;">r,</span><span style="font-weight: normal;">
</span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">The
Diary of Thomas Giordani Wright, Newcastle Doctor, 1826-1829</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
quoted at
http://www.thesurgeon.net/site/CMD=HIA/ArticleID=99b6d7af-a248-4456-b131-3c9b59475a98/0/default.aspx
</span></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a><i>
Classic Encyclopedia,</i>
http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/William_Hunter, accessed April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Hunter, William,</span><i> The anatomy of the human gravid uterus,
exhibited in figures</i>, Birmingham, 1774 , preface</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
Massey, Lyle, http://anatomyofgender.northwestern.edu/massey01.html
accessed July 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/140942/pregnancy_and_pathology_picturing_childbirth_in_eighteenthcentury_obstetric_atlases/
accessed July 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Kemp, Martin, in Bynum, William F and Porter, Roy, <i>Medicine and
the Five Senses, </i>CUP, 1993, p 116</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Jordanova, Ludmilla, <i>Gender, Generation and Science: William
Hunter's Obstetrical Atlas</i>, in Bynum, W F and Porter, Roy,
<i>William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World</i>,
Cambridge, CUP, 1985, p 388
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
Cody, Lisa Forman, <i>Birthing the Nation; Sex, Science, and the
Conception of 18C Britons</i>, OUP 2005, p 167</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Personal email</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Van Rymsdyk, Jan, <i>Museum Britannicum</i>, London, Moore, 1778, p
iv</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Hunter, William, quoted in McGrath, Roberta, <i>Seeing Her Sex,</i>
<span style="font-weight: normal;">Manchester, MUP,
2002, </span>p 85</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><i>
</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Hunter,
William, </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><i>Two
Introductory Lectures Delivered by Dr. William Hunter,</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">
London, J Johnson, 1784, p 87-89</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a><i>
The Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine,</i> Vol 3, London, Sherwood &
etc. 1834, p 540
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Chapman, Edmund, <i>A Treatise on the Improvement of Midwifery</i>,
London, Brindley, 1735, p 221-230</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
Hunter, W, <i>An Anatomical Description of the Human Gravid Uterus,</i>
ed M Baillie, London, Johnson, 1794</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
<i>The Gentleman's and London Magazine, 1741-1794</i>, London, J
Exshaw, p 182-183, also reported in <i>Gentleman's Magazine, </i>April
1754, p 152</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
<i>The London Chronicle</i>, London, J Wilkie, 1761, p 467</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
<i>The London Chronicle</i>, London, J Wilkie, 1761, p 427</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Hunter, W, <i>An Anatomical Description of the Human Gravid Uterus</i>,
ed M Baillie, London, Johnson, 1794, p 4-5 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
Willett, Jeffery, Medicine in the Age of Enlightenment, Lady Mary
Wortley Montagu and Smallpox,
</span></div>
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">http://scientificethics.suite101.com/article.cfm/the_origins_of_human_experimentation_part_iv
- December 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
Defore, Daniel, <i>The Novels and Miscellaneous Works of Daniel
Defoe,</i> London, Thomas Tegg, 1841, p 22</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
McGrath, Roberta, <i>Seeing Her Sex,</i> <span style="font-weight: normal;">Manchester,
Manchester University Press, 2002, </span>p 87</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
Moore, Wendy,<i> The Knife Man</i>, London, Bantam, 2006, p 50</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 44</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><i>Memoires
of Science and the Arts</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">,
London, Faulder, 1794, p 152</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV,
Amsterdam, Sum. Soc., 1939, p XXV</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV,
Amsterdam, Sum. Soc., 1939, p 3</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a>
Donnison, Jean, <i>Midwives and Medical Men</i>, London, Historical
Publications, 1988, p 46</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
Seligman, Stanley A, <i>The Royal Maternity Charity</i>, Medical
History, 1908, 24, p 403-418</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
Nihell, Elizabeth, <i>A Treatise on the Art of
Midwifery, </i>London, A Morley, 1760, p 137</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
Tindall, Gillian, <i>Three Houses, Many Lives,</i> London, Chatto &
Windus, 2012, p 115</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a>
Johnson, Samuel, quoted in Warbasse JP, <i>Doctors of Samuel
Johnson</i>, Med Lib and Hist Journal, 1907, p 65–87
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
Pope, Alexander,<i> The Works of Alexander Pope</i>, London,
Knapton, 1752, p 159-163</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
Dobie, Rowland, <i>The History of the United Parishes of St Giles in
the Fields,</i> London, Dobie, 1829, p 201-202</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
Jackson, Mark, <i>New-born Child Murder; Illegitimacy and the
Courts</i>, MUP, 1996, p 49</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
Keen, William, <i>A sketch, early history of practical anatomy</i>,
Philadelphia, J B Lippincott, 1874, p 34</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Radcliffe, Walter, </span><i>Milestones in midwifery, and the Secret
Instrument</i>, San Francisco, Norman, 1989, p 58</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a><i>
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">Smellie, William,</span><i> A
Sett of Anatomical Tables, with Explanations, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
1754, Facsimile AU 1971</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a>
Hunter, John, <i>The works of John Hunter</i>, with notes, Vol IV,
ed. by J.F. Palmer, London, Longman, 1837, p 60</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
Adams, Joseph, <span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><i>Memoirs of the
life and doctrines of the late John Hunter,</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;">
London, J Callow, 1818, p 122</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
Hunter, John, <i>The works of John
Hunter</i>, with notes, Vol IV, ed. by J.F.
Palmer, London, Longman, 1837, p 169</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote66">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66anc" name="sdendnote66sym">lxvi</a>
Hunter, John, <i>The works of John
Hunter</i>, with notes, Vol IV, ed. by J.F.
Palmer, London, Longman, 1837, p 169</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote67">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67anc" name="sdendnote67sym">lxvii</a>
Payne, J P, <i>On the Resuscitation of the Apparently Dead</i>,
London, RCS, 22 January, 1969, p 99</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote68">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68anc" name="sdendnote68sym">lxviii</a>
Haywood, Elizabeth, <i>The Female Spectator,</i> London, T Gardner,
1754, p 220-222</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote69">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69anc" name="sdendnote69sym">lxix</a>
Thorpe, W G, <i>Middle Temple Table Talk</i>, London, Hutchinson,
1895, p 172-173</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote70">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70anc" name="sdendnote70sym">lxx</a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Hunter,
John, </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><i>The
works of John Hunter</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">,
with notes, Vol I, ed. by J.F. Palmer, London, Longman, 1835, p
348-351</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote71">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71anc" name="sdendnote71sym">lxxi</a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Hunter,
John, </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><i>The
works of John Hunter</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">,
with notes, Vol I, ed. by J.F. Palmer, London, Longman, 1835, p
443-444</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote72">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72anc" name="sdendnote72sym">lxxii</a><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Hunter,
John, </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><i>The
works of John Hunter</i></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">,
with notes, Vol I, ed. by J.F. Palmer, London, Longman, 1835, p 195</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote73">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73anc" name="sdendnote73sym">lxxiii</a>
<i>The London Magazine</i>, London, 1755, p 592</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote74">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74anc" name="sdendnote74sym">lxxiv</a>
Bower, Alexander, <i>The History of the University of Edinburgh,</i>
Vol II, Edinburgh, Alex Smellie, 1817, p 371</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote75">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75anc" name="sdendnote75sym">lxxv</a>
Who named it?, http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/941.html
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote76">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote76anc" name="sdendnote76sym">lxxvi</a>
Monro, Donald, <i>Essays and observations, physical and literary</i>,
Vol 1, Edinburgh, Phil Soc Ed, 1754, p 403</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote77">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote77anc" name="sdendnote77sym">lxxvii</a>
Monro, Alexander, <i>Medical Essays and Observations,</i> Vol II,
Edinburgh, Phil Soc Ed, 1752, p 122</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote78">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote78anc" name="sdendnote78sym">lxxviii</a>
Bentham, Jeremy, quoted in Valpy, John, <i>The Pamphleteer,</i>
London, Rest Fenner, 1818, p 310</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote79">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote79anc" name="sdendnote79sym">lxxix</a>
Hunter, John, <i>The works of John Hunter</i>, with notes, Vol IV,
ed. by J.F. Palmer, London, Longman, 1837, p 60</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote80">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote80anc" name="sdendnote80sym">lxxx</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Radcliffe, Walter, </span><i>Milestones in midwifery, and the Secret
Instrument</i>, San Francisco, Norman, 1989, p 58-60</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote81">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote81anc" name="sdendnote81sym">lxxxi</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Radcliffe, Walter, </span><i>Milestones in midwifery, and the Secret
Instrument</i>, San Francisco, Norman, 1989, p 61</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote82">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote82anc" name="sdendnote82sym">lxxxii</a>
Harvie, John, <i>Practical directions, </i>London, D. Wilson and G.
Nicol, 1767 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote83">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote83anc" name="sdendnote83sym">lxxxiii</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon</i>,
London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 49-50</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote84">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote84anc" name="sdendnote84sym">lxxxiv</a>
Quoted in Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and
surgeon</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 49</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote85">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote85anc" name="sdendnote85sym">lxxxv</a>
Cullen, William, <i>The Edinburgh Practice of Physic, Surgery, and
Midwifery</i>, London, Kearsley, 1803, 421</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote86">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote86anc" name="sdendnote86sym">lxxxvi</a>
Thornton, John L, <i>Jan van Rymsdyk,</i> Cambridge, Oleander, 1982,
p 5</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote87">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote87anc" name="sdendnote87sym">lxxxvii</a>
Nihell, Elizabeth, <i>A Treatise on the Art of Midwifery</i>,
London, Morley, 1760,
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote88">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote88anc" name="sdendnote88sym">lxxxviii</a>
Nihell, Elizabeth, <i>A Treatise on the Art of Midwifery</i>,
London, Morley, 1760, p 10</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote89">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote89anc" name="sdendnote89sym">lxxxix</a>
Smollett, Tobias George, <i>A Critical Review</i>, London, Hamilton,
1760, p 188</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote90">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote90anc" name="sdendnote90sym">xc</a>
<i>The Monthly Review,</i> London, R Griffiths, 1760, p 525-526</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote91">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote91anc" name="sdendnote91sym">xci</a>
Smollett, Tobias George, <i>A Critical Review</i>, London, Hamilton,
1760, p 191</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote92">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote92anc" name="sdendnote92sym">xcii</a>
<i>The Scots Magazine</i>, Edinburgh, Sands, Donaldson, Murray,
1754, p 29-30</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote93">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote93anc" name="sdendnote93sym">xciii</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, E Cave, 1755, p 295</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote94">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote94anc" name="sdendnote94sym">xciv</a>
Fielding, John, <i>Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon</i>, London,
Miller, 1766, p 248</span></div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-30395353126785174522015-04-06T14:56:00.001-07:002021-11-26T09:33:23.198-08:0013 - The Stages of Cruelty, and Petition of the Unborn Babes ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<b>William Hogarth and Frank Nicholls</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
Apart from the published letters of William Douglas accusing Smellie of
multiple deaths of women, two famous satires of 1751, <i>The
Four Stages of Cruelty</i> by William Hogarth and <i>The Petition of the Unborn Babes</i> usually attributed to Frank Nicholls are further contemporary evidence of murder-to-order by Smellie and
Hunter. From the early 19C, the Four Stages of Cruelty has been
little regarded by art historians. In 1811 Charles
Lamb wrote of Hogarth's series, 'as mere worthless caricaturas,
foreign to his general habits, the offspring of his fancy in some
wayward humour'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
And in 1831 the art historian Allan Cunningham expressed his negative
view of the series; 'I wish it had never been painted. There is
indeed great skill in the grouping, and profound knowledge of
character; but the whole effect is gross, brutal and revolting. A
savage boy grows into a savage man, and concludes a career of cruelty
and outrage by an atrocious murder, for which he is hanged and
dissected'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
This was despite undisclosed opinions as to who was depicted. Thomas Clerk cryptically
wrote in 1812; 'All the countenances in this print are strongly
characteristic,' but did not elaborate on their identities.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
It has been suggested John Freke, Master of the Company of Surgeons
in 1748, presides in Stage Four. In <i>Sin
and Evil</i>, Roy Porter hinted; 'So upon what is the President - or Hogarth - sitting in judgement: the
felon or the business of anatomy? And what precisely is there to
choose, this moral twist invites us to ponder, between murderous
malefactors and dissecting doctors?'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
Other commentators view the series as focused at animal cruelty. But
these views underestimate the social commentary and artistic genius
of Hogarth, who pioneered the skill of political cartoonists in
conveying a clear likeness with a few quick lines by focusing on key
physical characteristics. The series is akin to a crossword puzzle
with two sets of clues. <br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
The simple set of clues implying animal cruelty is well discussed by
modern biographers such as Ronald Paulson and Jenny Uglow. However
the great surfeit of Hogarth material available for research has
caused the cryptic clues to pass unnoticed. Now, 250 years after
publication of Stages of Cruelty, new research has revealed Hogarth's
cryptic clues and hidden message, to
reveal Stages as powerful social comment. And explain why he thought it more important
than the Cartoons of Raphael. Interpretation of his iconography is an
ongoing process, with clues gradually being solved. The key being
contemplating the 'unthinkable'; that is the murder-to-order of pregnant women by
Smellie and Hunter, which has cast new light on events. With
Hogarth's Stages now seen as a confirming eyewitness statement from
the mid 18C. Bernd Krysmanski has acknowledged the identification of
Smellie and Hunter within Cruelty, in his <i>Hogarth's
Hidden Parts</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<b>The Foundling Hospital</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
In understanding
Hogarth's Stages of Cruelty, it helps to be aware of the 18C social
evils prompting his interest. William Hogarth (1697-1764) had a
special interest in children, being a Governor of the Foundling
Hospital from its establishment by Captain Thomas Coram. In this
philanthropic venture which provided a home for unwanted infants,
Coram was supported by Hogarth, who offered paintings to hang on the
walls of the new institution and encouraged his fellow artists to
make donations. The hope was that the wealthy would then flock to see
the pictures, and take pity on the foundlings. Hogarth's plan proved
a great success, and Coram soon collected works by the leading
British artists of the day, as well notable foreigners. Efforts had
commenced well before the hospital opened in 1739. In 1731 Daniel
Defoe proposed in <i>"Augusta Triumpans",</i> the
establishment of a foundling hospital, as many mothers were acquitted
of infanticide by paying for expert witnesses; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
... not a sessions
passes but we see one or more merciless mothers tried for the murder
of their bastard children; and to the shame of good government,
generally escape the vengeance due to shedders of innocent blood. For
it is a common practice now among them to hire a set of old beldams,
or pretended midwives, who make it their trade to bring them off for
three or four guineas, having got the ready rote of swearing the
child was not at its full growth, for which they have a hidden
reserve; that is to say the child was not at man's or woman's growth.
… But, alas! what are the exploded murders to those which escape
the eye of the magistrate, and die in silence. Add to this, procured
abortions and other indirect means which wicked wretches make use of
to screen themselves from the censure of the world, which they dread
more than the displeasure of their Maker. Those who cannot be so
hard-hearted to murder their own offspring themselves, take a slower,
though as sure, a way, and get it done by others, by dropping their
children, and leaving them to be starved by parish nurses. ... It is
therefore the height of charity and humanity to provide against this
barbarity ... And what nearer, what better way can we have, than to
erect and to endow a proper hospital or house to receive them.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Coram acted to
establish the Hospital on being horrified at the number of abandoned
children in the streets of London and also as; 'London parks,
ditches, and garbage heaps were the typical places where onlookers
could come across dead infants. Those strolling close to waterways
could expect to see the bodies of drowned children, as the Thames was
the favourite depository for unwanted infants'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
The Charter provided; 'for preventing the further murders of poor
miserable infants at their birth, and for suppressing the inhuman
custom of exposing new born infants to perish in the streets'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a><br />
<br />
This casual culling of unwanted pregnancies was largely accepted by
society and there were few prosecutions, only 57 in London between
1707 and 1793. A typical case was Hannah Perfect, a servant girl
tried on 25 February 1747 for killing her new-born baby, in a house
where no-one knew she was pregnant. She was prosecuted under a law
passed in 1624, being an Act to Prevent the Destroying and Murdering
of Bastard Children. The statute stated; 'that any unmarried woman
being delivered of any issue of her body, male or female, which being
born alive, should by the laws of this realm be a bastard, and that
she endeavour privately, either by drowning or secret burying
thereof, or any other way, either by herself or the procuring of
others, so to conceal the death thereof, as that it may not come to
light, such case the said mother so offending shall suffer death as
in the case of murder, except such mother can make proof by one
witness at the least, that the child (whose death was by her so
intended to be concealed) was born dead.' Hannah was acquitted,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a>
but she was just one of a similar number, as pregnant servants were a
common occurrence. Her surname 'Perfect', and vulnerability, was
preserved three years later in Hogarth's print “Cruelty in
Perfection”.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
When Coram opened
the Foundling Hospital it was overwhelmed by the response from
mothers and started a ballot system to decide which children could be
taken. Mothers picked a ball from a bag to decide the fate of their
child, while wealthy women looked on as if this were a spectator
activity. On Saturday 30 March 1754, only 20 children out of 100 were
admitted by lot into the hospital.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a>
Hence the hospital was only a partial solution to unwanted
pregnancies; abandonment and infanticide continued. The engraving
shows Hogarth's concern for the life and welfare of children. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
'The artist has made
his old friend Captain Coram a principal figure, and as this
excellent and venerable man was, in fact, the founder of the Charity,
it is with great propriety he is introduced. Before him the Beadle of
the Hospital carries an infant, whose mother, having dropped a
dagger, with which she might have been momentarily tempted to destroy
her child, kneels at his feet, while he, with that benevolence with
which his countenance was so eminently marked, bids her to be
comforted, for her babe will be nursed and protected. On the dexter
side of the print is a new-born infant, left close to a stream of
water, which runs under the arch of a bridge. Near a gate on a little
eminence in the path-way, above, a woman leaves another child to the
casual care of the next person who passes by.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br />
In such a mid 18C social climate, it could be expected that, from the 1746 opening of
Hunter's anatomy school, abandoned babies arrived there, dead or
alive, as subjects for dissection. Hunter himself recommended his
students procure multiple bodies of children for dissection and
study;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
I must likewise
earnestly recommend it to every student to make and collect as many
anatomical preparations as he can. He should not only have a skeleton
for his own use, but he should have several skulls divided by
different sections, to shew all the interiors of that part. He should
have a preparation of all the blood vessels in their natural
situation, and two preparations of the trunk of a child, the one
presenting a fore view, the other a back view, of the whole viscera,
and as many preparations of the organs of sense and generation, and
of the particular viscera as he can easily procure.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br />
The foundling
situation was not improved in 1756, when Parliament resolved that all
children offered to the Foundling Hospital should be received. A
basket was accordingly hung outside the hospital; the maximum age for
admission was raised from two to twelve months, and a flood of
children poured in from country workhouses. The timing of this policy
change, the year after publication of Smellie's atlas, was a sign of
concern over the subjects depicted in the atlas. In less than four
years nearly 15,000 children were presented to the hospital, and a
vile trade grew up among vagrants, known as 'Coram Men', who promised
to carry children from the country to the hospital. It is probable
these Coram men supplied Hunter's school with subjects for
dissection. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<b>The Stages of Cruelty</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
Hogarth had a
childless marriage. As a Foundling Hospital governor for 25 years, he
was aware of adverse rumours relating to childbirth and mistreatment
of children. A matter for serious consideration, is whether Hogarth
was inspired to publish the set of four prints known as the Stages of
Cruelty as an allegory on the actions of man-midwives and anatomists.
It being not unknown for Hogarth to depict real people in his prints.
'In 1733 his genius became conspicuously known. The third scene of
his 'Harlot's Progress' introduced him to the notice of the great. At
a board of Treasury which was held a day or two after the appearance
of that print, a copy of it was shewn by one of the lords, as
containing, among other excellencies, a striking likeness of Sir John
Gonson.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
Although whether Hogarth attended Smellie's lectures is unknown, he did attend
William Hunter's lectures; along with Samuel Johnson, Edward Gibbon,
and Edmund Burke.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
Hogarth was also acquainted with anatomist William Cheselden.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
Indeed, William Hunter himself wrote of Hogarth; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
You cannot conceive anything lying snugger than the foetus in utero. This
puts me in mind of Hogarth. He came to me when I had a gravid uterus
to open and was amazingly pleased. Good God, cries he, how snug and
compleat the child lies. I defy all our painters in St Martin's Lane
to put a child in such a situation.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.07cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Hogarth's
inspiration for Stages of Cruelty came from this visit, logically in
1750 when there was still 'novelty' value in a viewing. This is
supported by Hunter's preface; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.38cm; margin-right: 0.35cm;">
<br />
In the course of
some months, the drawings of the first ten plates were finished, and
from time to time the subject was publicly exhibited, with such
remarks as had occurred in the examination of the various parts. Many
lovers of this story approved of the author's proposal to publish the
anatomy of the gravid uterus, illustrated by those ten plates. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Hunter likely
inquired from Hogarth if the Foundling Hospital would accept babies
arising from his Caesarean experiments. A similar event had occurred
when Hunter assisted in conveying twins born secretly by a Peer's
unwed daughter to the Foundling Hospital, together with £100 for
each child. What Hogarth learned from his visit caused him to convey
contempt for the actions of Smellie and Hunter by publishing a
protest in the form of wood-block prints. There do not appear to be
other wood-blocks among Hogarth's works, so the existence of the
normally cheaper and quicker wood-blocks is abnormal and infers a
need for rapidity in conveying his intent. So what was his reason? </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Modern reviewers consider The Stages of Cruelty as series of four
engravings. However, what are now called Stages Three and Four were
initially prepared as a wood-cut edition of two, before being
substituted by the four engraved prints. It is not clear whether
Hogarth sold any wood-cuts in 1750, but he had proofs of them and
likely showed them to Hunter. The
withdrawal was explained as due to excessive cost and a wish to
produce a set of four. But with two blocks already cut, this was an
obfuscation as woodcuts were less costly. Hogarth retained the
original wood-blocks which were much later issued. It
is relevant to analyse Stages Three and Four as a separate pair from
One and Two.</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Analysis of the timing of the wood-cuts is complicated
by the change in the calendar in use from 1752. For the years
preceding 1752, it can be difficult to decide which year is referred
to, as the new year commenced in March, not January. In 1782 Nichols
refers to the wood-cuts as "Inv'd
and published by Wm Hogarth, Jan 1, 1750. J Bell sculp.", with other
references stating the set of steel engravings was issued on 21
February 1751. Nichols' statement implies the wood-cuts were cut
nearly 14 months before the engravings. Allowing for the calendar
they
likely preceded the engravings by two months, but even if fourteen
months, the argument is little altered.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
Notably, Hogarth uses strong titles for Stages Three - <i>Cruelty
in Perfection</i>,
and Four - <i>The
Reward of Cruelty</i>,
whereas the other two are merely <i>The First Stage of Cruelty</i>
and <i>The Second Stage of Cruelty</i>, implying the titles were afterthoughts. Stages Three and Four are
thus discussed here first.
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Various classical paintings have been suggested by scholars as inspiration
for Hogarth. According to John Ireland, the <i>First Stage of Cruelty</i>
showing Tom Nero thrusting an arrow into a dog’s anus is inspired
by Jacques Callot’s <i>Temptation of St. Anthony</i> (1635). According to
the same author, the “youth of superior rank” who offers Tom a
tart, is said to be a portrait of the thirteen-year-old prince,
George William Frederick, afterwards George III. As for the second
scene, Werner Busch says it is based on Pieter Lastman’s or
Rembrandt’s <i>The Prophet Balaam Smitting the Ass</i> (1626). Bernd
Krysmanski shows that the third scene seems to parody Van Dyck’s
<i>Taking of Christ</i> and that <i>The Reward of Cruelty</i> is deeply inspired by
a woodcut illustration in Johannes de Ketham’s <i>Fasciculo di
Medicina</i> (1493) showing an anatomical lesson by Mondino de’ Luzzi.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
It is readily accepted that these paintings may have influenced
Hogarth in his compositions, but their iconographic detail does not
fit readily into the pattern of Hogarth's visual puns and clever
detail. Many of those depicted can be recognised as part of a
cohesive and structured attack on mid 18C anatomists and
man-midwives.
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Smellie and Hunter are the prime focus and a careful analysis infers William Hunter saw
proofs of the wood-blocks and, fearing public exposure of the murder
of undelivered subjects for the atlases, he protested. Hogarth
relented by making key alterations in Stage Three, but not Stage
Four, and adding Stages One and Two to suggest the series was aimed
at animal cruelty. Hogarth's own autobiographical notes were in
manuscript and a little hard for Burke to follow, but they record;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.38cm; margin-right: 0.35cm;">
<br />
The four stages of cruelty, were done in hopes of preventing in some degree that poor treatment of Animals which makes the streets of London more
disagreable to the human mind, than any thing what ever. The very
discribing of which gives pain but it could not be done in to strong
a manner as the most stony heart were ment to be affected by them the
french among other mistakes of like kind as particularly were …
they speak of our tragidies. Imagine these things done by cruel
dispositions. The circumstances of this set as the two former were
made so obvious for the reason before mentioned that any further
explanation would be neadless we may only [say] this more that
neither great correctness of drawing or fine Engraving were at all
necessary but on the contrary would set the price of them out of the
reach of those for whome they were cheifly intended however whatever
was more material, and indeed what is most material even in the very
best prints viz the Characters and Expressions are in these prints
taken the utmost care of and I will venture to say farther that […]
precious strokes can only be done with a quick Touch would be languid
or lost if smoothe out into soft engraving.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a></div>
<br />
From the reference
to 'four stages' this was written about the four engravings, i.e.
after the wood blocks. Hogarth states, 'the Characters and
Expressions are in these prints taken the utmost care of.' That is a
strange statement for Hogarth to make, if those depicted were generic
18C sitters. Instead it is a clue known people had been depicted and
any unaltered identities should remain obvious.
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Stage Three -
Cruelty in Perfection - Traditional View –</b><br />
In Stage Three, Tom Nero has progressed from mistreatment of animals to theft and murder. Having encouraged his pregnant lover, Ann Gill,
to rob and leave her mistress, he murders the girl. The murder is
shown to be particularly brutal: her neck, wrist, and index finger
are almost severed. Her trinket box and stolen goods lie on the
ground beside her, and the index finger of her partially severed hand
points to the words 'God's Revenge against Murder' written on a book
that, along with the Book of Common Prayer, has fallen from the box.
A woman searching Nero's pockets uncovers pistols, several pocket
watches—evidence of his having turned to highway robbery and a
letter from Ann Gill, reading:</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm; margin-right: 0.21cm;">
<br />
Dear Tommy, My mistress has been the best of women to me, and my
conscience flies in my face as often as I think of wronging her; yet
I am resolved to venture body and soul to do as you would have me, so
do not fail to meet me as you said you would, for I will bring along
with me all the things I can lay my hands on. So no more at present;
but I remain yours till death. Ann Gill.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm; margin-right: 0.21cm;">
<br /></div>
<b>Stage Three - New Overlay </b> –<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
This print is
unique in 18C and 19C art, in depicting a murdered pregnant woman,
other than those in the anatomical atlases. The name 'Ann Gill' is a
typical Hogarthian pun, a hint to look for Hogarth's 'angle', i.e.
his hidden message. We quickly note another pun, the names 'Ann' &
'Tommy' create 'anatomy'. A question begged, is why did Hogarth show
Ann as pregnant? At first glance it complicates the message. But,
given Hogarth's visit to Hunter's dissection, the pregnancy is no
coincidence; with the undelivered subjects an open secret among their
circle. Ann's letter conveys that Tom, as Smellie the man-midwife,
had been trusted by Ann to look after her during her pregnancy and
birth, but she is instead murdered as a subject for dissection.
A bystander holds a
brightly lit lantern with a Christian cross to illuminate the evil
goings on, but the Church is disinterested and silent, despite the
public uproar. The topiary yew, as a precise, formal, dark,
archiepiscopal mitre cross, shows the Church is unmoved by events;
more interested in 'social form' in its surroundings as represented
by the graveyard, than in 'social reform'. Instead the Church should
have lobbied to preclude burking and robbing of churchyards. The
straight lines of the topiary remind one that, in 1730, William Kent
famously wrote 'Nature abhors a straight line'; here Hogarth puns;
'Nature abhors the Church'. This view is supported when Hogarth
corrects an error. In the woodcut the moon points to the right, away
from the church tower, but in the engraving the moon now points left
towards the church tower; the left (sinister) being the side of evil.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
It seems not until Stages One and Two did Hogarth coin the name Tom
Nero. It is relevant to note Hogarth was a classically trained artist
who knew the story of Emperor Nero supervising the dissection of the
womb of his mother, Agrippina, 'to see whence he came', as depicted
in this miniature in the Biblioteque Nationale, Paris. The miniature
is from a late 15C illuminated manuscript <i><roman de="" i="" la="" rose=""></roman></i>. The arms
and legs of Agrippina are tied, showing she was alive when the
dissection commenced. In Stages Three and Four, Hogarth demonstrates
the punishment should fit the crime. He would have known Nero brought
about his death by driving a dagger into his own throat, aided by his
secretary, Epaphroditos. Tom Nero's death in Stage Four is also the
end result from the cutting of Ann's throat.
The title <i>Cruelty in Perfection</i> is a pun on Hannah Perfect and the murder
of a 'perfect' woman in the bloom of pregnancy. Ann's words; 'but I
remain yours till death', anticipates her murder; with a pun on
human 'remains'. The supine position of Ann, is a mimetic
representation of her laying, still clothed, on an anatomist's
dissection table, her left arm hanging over the edge of the table,
with a slit wrist to bleed her body and her throat cut as the coup de
grace. The angle [Ann Gill] of view is as seen by Hogarth when he saw
a dissection in progress. But why is Ann shown as a clothed,
undelivered subject, instead of a naked exhumed body? The shocking
explanation is that in the two images of Stage Three, Smellie is not
about to dissect Ann, but instead is being urged to perform a
Caesarean on her murdered body. The depiction is so soon after her
death, the fetus must still be alive!</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Initially Smellie's apprehension seemed puzzling, as to why he was nervous about a
'routine' dissection, but then it was realised his nervousness is
about attempting an experimental Caesarean to save her baby. Which he
is being urged to do by his assistants and the Hunters. Tom views
Ann's pregnant body, containing a prized fetus, as of greater value
than the valuables discarded on the ground. Ann is clothed to show
she has only just been killed by the assistants. Note there is no
blood on the knife to be used for the Caesarean in the woodcut
version, showing it was not the murder weapon. But in the engraved
image, to 'fudge' the overall message, blood is added to the blade to
imply it is 'merely' a murder, and lessen the message of Hogarth
attempting a Caesarean experiment.
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
There is a clear likeness between Nero and Smellie, in Charles Grignion's engraving of
van Rymsdyk's 1756 portrait of Smellie, where he appears to be bald.
Hogarth's intent in showing Tom as wigless and bald, is to show his
actions have been 'uncovered'. Both Nero and Smellie have dark bushy
eyebrows, a shadow under the right eye, similar nose and lips, and a
prominent chin. Tom Nero represents Smellie, and detailed examination
of Stages Three and Four supports this. The figures next to Tom
represent Smellie's assistants, John Harvie on the left and Colin
Mackenzie on the right. That it is not a casual murder is
demonstrated as both are prepared and wearing surgeon's aprons,
folded down, similar to that worn by William Hunter in Stage Four.
Harvie has a surgeon's knife in his belt. At the rear, Hogarth
depicts himself with his characteristic snub nose, calling for God's
justice as will be granted in Stage Four.
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The likenesses of William and John Hunter are evident in the woodblock, but altered
between the woodblock and the engraving. The man at the left has his
nose and chin made less prominent, to appear less like William
Hunter. The man at the lower left, is older and has a cap to make him
less like John Hunter. The images of Smellie and the Hunters were so
obvious in the Stage Three woodblock, they recognised themselves and
expressed concern to Hogarth. As a result, Hogarth re-engraved Stages
Three and Four and reissued them, together with Stages One and Two.
In doing so, Hogarth ascribed the name Tom Nero and amended the
allegorical focus from anatomy to animals, in conveying that
anatomists learned cruelty as children by torturing animals. The
change being due to a realisation of the risk of trial and execution
for anatomists, if the real message was too obvious.
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In Stage Three it is possible to determine the method of murdering the women. As the
purpose of the Caesarean experiments was to save the baby, it was
important the fetus not be killed in the process of murdering the
mother. Thus poison could not be used. Similarly, it was believed a
fetus could only breathe via the mother, so smothering needed to be
avoided. These presented a challenge. In Stage Three it is noteworthy
the body has a slit wrist and her throat is cut. As already noted,
this suggests each mother had her wrists slit, so as to slowly bleed
to death, as the method of least risk to the fetus, with a coup de
grace to her throat when the anatomists were ready for their
experiment. There is no other simple explanation for such wounds. A
method matched in 19C New York;
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm; text-align: justify;">
<br />
I recollect one of the stories then prevalent, and universally
believed, that missing children had been found in the haunts of the
burkers in our city, fastened in a sitting position in a chair, with
their feet immersed in warm water, an important artery cut, and
slowly bleeding to death.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a></div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
A subtle change between the woodblock and the engraving of Stage Three
is the letter addressee changing from 'Dear Tommy' to 'Dr Tommy', a
Hogarth pun on Doctor Anatomy. One can see the name 'tom'
appears in the middle of the word 'anatomy'. Even more than that,
there was a stage in the 18C when the word anatomy was transmuted
into 'an atomy'. <span style="font-weight: normal;">With the form
'atomy', Hogarth focuses on anatomy, becoming 'atomy', then 'a Tomy',
and 'a Tommy'. </span>Surgeons referred to bodies as 'subjects', but
another term occasionally used was 'atomies'. Jeff Aronson discussed
this in BMJ; </div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
'at one time the indefinite articles 'a' and 'an' were joined to the
words that they governed, for example, aman or anoke. When the words
were later split again, some spurious words were formed in error, for
example, instead of a naranj we have an orange, and instead of a
noumpere we have an umpire. This process is called metanalysis, one
casualty of which was 'anatomy'. Anatomy is from the Greek 'I cut
up'. In addition to its current meaning, the study of the structures
of the body or the structures themselves, at one time it also meant a
skeleton. When the indefinite article was being restored to its
separate existence, the word 'atomy' was falsely coined from
'anatomy' through aphaeresis, by the removal of the supposed
indefinite article. Gay used it in The Beggar's Opera. When Matt of
the Mint is asked what has happened to his brother, Tom, he says that
he had an accident, in other words, was hanged and, having fallen
into the hands of the dissectors, is among the otamies [sic] at
Surgeon's Hall'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Verses from
Stages Three and Four</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 641px;">
<colgroup><col width="314"></col>
<col width="328"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="314"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.04cm;">
To
lawless Love when once betray'd.<br />
Soon Crime to Crime
succeeds:<br />
At length beguil'd to Theft,<br />
the Maid By her
Beguiler bleeds. </div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.04cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.04cm;">
The
gaping Wounds and bloodstain'd steel,<br />
Now shock his trembling
Soul:<br />
But Oh! what Pangs his Breast must feel,<br />
When Death
his Knell shall toll. </div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.04cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.04cm;">
Torn
from the Root, that wicked Tongue,<br />
Which daily swore and
curst!</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.04cm;">
Those
Eyeballs from their Sockets wrung,<br />
That glow'd with lawless
Lust! </div>
<br />
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<br />
Yet
learn, seducing Man! nor Night,<br />
With all its sable Cloud,<br />
can
screen the guilty Deed from sight;<br />
Foul Murder cries aloud. </div>
<br />
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
Behold
the Villain's dire disgrace!<br />
Not Death itself can end.<br />
He
finds no peaceful Burial-Place,<br />
His breathless Corpse, no
friend. </div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
His
Heart expos'd to prying Eyes,<br />
To Pity has no claim;<br />
But,
dreadful! from his Bones shall rise,<br />
His Monument of Shame. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1782, John Nichols published <i>Biographical
anecdotes of William Hogarth; with a catalogue of his works</i>.
In this Nichols included the contents of what he called a 'stupid
pamphlet' describing the set of six prints, <i>Gin Lane</i>, <i>Beer
Street</i> and <i>The Four Stages of Cruelty</i>. The pamphlet had
been published in 1751, hence its contents are contemporary and
worthy of scrutiny.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
On the subject of these two prints, and the four following ones, was
published a stupid pamphlet intituled "A Dissertation on Mr
Hogarth's Six Prints lately published, viz.<i><span style="font-weight: normal;"> Gin
Lane</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">, </span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">Beer-street</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
and </span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">The Four Stages of
Cruelty</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">. Containing, 1.
A genuine narrative of the horrible deeds perpetrated by that fiery
dragon, </span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">Gin;</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">
the wretched and deplorable condition of its votaries and admirers;
the dreadful havock and devastation it has made amongst the human
species; its pernicious effects on the soldiers, sailors, and
mechanicks of this kingdom, and its poisonous and pestilent qualities
in destroying the health, and corrupting the morals of the people.
II. Useful observations on wanton and inhuman cruelty, severely
satirizing the practice of the common people in sporting with the
lives of animals. </span><u><span style="font-weight: normal;">Being a
proper key for the right apprehension of the author's meaning in
those designs.</span></u><span style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">
[my emphasis]</span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;"> Humbly
inscribed to the Right Honourable Francis Cockayne, Esq; Lord Mayor
... London 1751. Price one shilling."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
Nichols comments on the shilling price as; 'and eleven pence three farthings
too dear, being compiled out of Reynolds's <i>God's
Revenge against Murder,</i>
&c.' Nichols reference to 'stupid pamphlet', and his view of the
price, infers 'the right apprehension of the author's meaning' was
not comprehended by Nichols. We can see that Hogarth's 'right
apprehension' was that the Four Stages of Cruelty be interpreted as
an allegory of the cruelty of brute anatomists to humans, not to
brute animals. However, one must wonder if this pamphlet was written
by Smollett, to emphasise cruelty to animals, to try and divert
attention from Smellie and Hunter. Smollett's 1748 and 1760 defences
of Smellie against criticism by William Douglas and by Elizabeth
Nihell were discussed earlier.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Stage
Four - The Reward of Cruelty - Conventional View</b>
-<br />
Having been tried and found guilty of murder, Nero is hanged and
his body taken for dissection. The anatomist, their hearts hardened
after years of working with cadavers, are shown to have as little
feeling for the body as Nero had for his victims; his eye is put out
just as his horse's was, and a dog feeds on his heart, taking a
poetic revenge for the torture inflicted on one of its kind in the
first plate. Just as his murdered mistress's finger pointed to Nero's
destiny in <i>Cruelty in Perfection</i>, in this print Nero's finger points to the bones being prepared for
display, indicating his ultimate fate. The surgeons working on the
body are observed by the mortar-boarded academics in the front row,
behind are the physicians, identified by their wigs and canes, who
largely ignore the dissection and consult among themselves.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Stage
Four - New Overlay </b> -<br />
Stage Four is a pastiche of Vesalius's De Humani Corporis Fabrica and
a Law Court in judgement, even to the coat of arms, showing judgement
has been passed. Hogarth shows John Freke as the President sitting in
judgement. At the Old Bailey the judge placed the 'black cap', a nine inch square of black silk, on
his head before pronouncing the death sentence, and a black cap is on
the head of Freke, the president.
One might expect Stage Four, as an allegory of evil, to show the
traditional gallows, rather than an anatomy theatre. But Hogarth had
a focus on anatomists, rather than murderers, with a non-visual clue
linking Nero and Smellie. For spectators, a prime characteristic of
anatomy theatres was a powerful odour of death, which had a lingering
smell and allows a non-visual pun on Smellie's name, whereas gallows
did not have the same odour.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The body's left [a Latin pun, sinister = left = evil] forefinger points
towards the smell and steam rising from the boiling pot as another
pun on Smellie. The image parallels that of a Caesarean, further
Hogarth anger about Smellie's Caesarean experiments. Hogarth reveals
a belief mere hanging was inadequate, the punishment should fit the
crime. As Mitchell writes without realising the accuracy of her
comment; 'The agonised expression Hogarth has given Nero's corpse,
makes it seem to be alive and undergoing a terrible torture'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
In fact he is still alive and in the process of being hung, drawn,
and quartered. The rope around Nero's neck shows he has been hanged,
with a cut mark preparatory to quartering on the centre of his chest.
The agony on his face shows hanging did not kill him and the
'drawing' of his entrails is seen; with 'drawing' a further pun on
van Rymsdyk's 'drawings'. The
addition of 'T N' to the bicep is seen in the engraving but absent
from the woodblock, a sign the name Tom Nero was coined after
preparation of the woodblock.<br />
<br />
In comparing the profiles, the
anatomist in the centre wielding a large knife represents William
Hunter, compare his nose, chin, and spectacles. The left figure
represents John Hunter, as in the portrait by Robert Home. Hogarth
demonstrates, 'let the punishment fit the crime', with William and
John Hunter required to dissect Smellie. Given his position at the
head of the cadaver, the 'head' anatomist on the right is William
Cheselden, surgeon and artist. Cheselden is engaged upon gouging out
one of Smellie's two eyes, representing the biblical punishment; 'an
eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth'.In 1750 Cheselden was over
60 and John Hunter was his apprentice. Both William Hunter and
Cheselden are wearing surgeon's aprons, with buttons on their chests.
Cheselden recognised himself in Hogarth's woodblock, with the shock
as likely cause of a paralytic stroke he suffered in 1751, before he
died at Bath in the spring of 1752. This view is reinforced by an
apparent act of remorse, about his role in encouraging the Hunters,
made by Cheselden soon after Hogath's prints appeared. On 7 May 1751,
Cheselden sent to the Foundling Hospital £50, enclosed in a paper
with these lines by Pope; ' 'Tis what the happy to the unhappy owe,
For what man gives, the gods by him bestow'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The centre man is Frank Nicholls; compare his bent nose and firm chin,
and although this pre-dates <i>The
Petition of the Unborn Babes</i>, note his accusing finger. The man on the left arguing with Nichols,
is Robert Nesbitt with William Douglas on the right. The observer at
the left rear represents Hogarth, as is seen by comparison with his
portrait, both have broad smooth faces and a distinctively shaped
nose. Others on the right of the Stage Four audience whose features
were apparent to viewers of the time, probably include London
man-midwives; Sir Richard Manningham (1690-1759), Benjamin Pugh
(c1710-1775), and Brudenell Exton (1723-1764). It is possible, but
less likely, that Sir Fielding Ould (1710-1789) of Dublin and John
Burton (1710-1771) of York are also depicted. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The punishment of Smellie compares to the contemporary execution for
Treason, of the Jacobite, Dr Charles Cameron on 7 June 1753. 'He was
then turn'd off, and after about 20 minutes was cut down, his heart
cut out and burnt, but his body not quartered'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
The law of the time providing;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.36cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
The
Traitor, laid upon an Hurdle or Sledge, be drawn to the Gallows,
there hanged by the Neck, presently cut down alive, his Entrails to
be suddenly pulled out of his Belly, and burnt before the Face of the
Criminal; then his Head to be cut off, his Body to be divided into
Four Parts: and lastly that the Head and Body be hung up, or impaled,
where the King shall command.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Interestingly, in a preliminary drawing of Stage Four in The Royal Collection,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
the face of the pointing figure is quite different and obviously not
Hogarth. Inclusion of his pointing hand shows the fate of Smellie is
to hang on the wall of the anatomy theatre. This prompts awareness of
a second skeleton. Implicit in Hogarth's imagery is that Smellie is
the first of two anatomists to be executed. With Cheselden poised to
gouge out a second 'eye for an eye' warning of the second execution,
that of William Hunter. Hogarth signals this by showing John in the
position of Cheselden's student, holding a scalpel as a student holds
a pen, to signify he is a student. John will be required to emulate
Cheselden's lesson and the 'drawing' of Smellie, by 'drawing' of the
entrails of his brother William (cf. the biblical Cain killing of
Abel), before William's skeleton is hung on the right. The 'finger
pointing' of the two skeletons shows Smellie and Hunter will continue
to blame each other, as the first to murder their subjects.<br />
<br />
Hogarth
was so pleased with the series, he wrote to Mr Sewell, a bookseller
from Cornhill: 'there is no part of my works of which I am so proud,
and in which I now feel so happy, as in the series of The Four Stages
of Cruelty because I believe the publication of them has checked the
diabolical spirit of barbarity to the brute creation which, I am
sorry to say, was once so prevalent in this country'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
Given his interest in foundlings, it is inconceivable Hogarth was
more proud of saving animals than children. His comment is thus a pun
on 'brutish' humans and a veiled allusion to pride in halting the
murder of pregnant women. Stages Three and Four are the key, but to
precede them it became necessary for Hogarth to draw Stages One and
Two. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
It is clear the man in the foreground, 'drawing' [Hogarth's pun] the
entrails and studying the detail, is the artist, Jan van Rymsdyk,
with his age of 30 in 1750 and the clothing worn fitting his
description; 'Rymsdyk was a very clever artist, so miserably poor
that he was glad to wear the cast off clothes of Mr Wm Barrat the
surgeon and Bristol historian. ...[Rymsdyk] was lazy and generally in
need of money. ... "The Ship" was frequented by musicians,
artists and interesting Bohemians, who led a jovial rollicking life.
Among these characters were Rymsdyke, the painter, who dressed in
'large flap waistcoat, immense cuffs to his coat sleeves, with
breeches just to the knee, and slit before, with knee buttons'.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
The dog eating his heart, puns that Smellie is both 'heart less' and
'heartless', and Hogarth's knowledge that the remains of Smellie's
subjects were fed to animals. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
Notably, van Rymsdyk approved of the accuracy of Hogarth's work even,
implicitly, his depiction of van Rymsdyk himself; 'But, Hogarth, that
exclaimed Painter, and the first in this Country, and many more
immortal English artists, are not to be ranked among the Class of
Nature-Menders.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> Stages
One and Two are weaker in comparison with Three and Four, by being
clearly an afterthought.</span></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Stage One - Traditional View - </b><br />
In the centre of Stage One, is Nero, assisted
by other boys to insert an arrow into a dog's rectum. A more
tender-hearted boy, perhaps the dog's owner, pleads with Nero to stop
tormenting the frightened animal, even offering food in an attempt to
appease him. Other boys carry out equally barbaric acts: the two boys
at the top of the steps are burning the eyes out of a bird with a hot
needle heated by the link-boy's torch; the boys in the foreground are
throwing at a cock and another boy ties a bone to a dog's
tail—tempting, but out of reach; a pair of fighting cats are hung
by their tails and taunted by a jeering group of boys; in the bottom
left a dog is set on a cat; and in the rear another cat tied to two
bladders is thrown from a high window. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Stage
One - New Overlay</b> -<br />
The two boys inserting an arrow into the anus
of the dog are young Smellie and Hunter. Now, why does Hogarth show
an arrow, and not a more readily available; rod, stick, sword, or
knife? In fact in a preliminary drawing it was a stick. Because in
classical art the arrow represents Diana, goddess of hunting. In
addition, Diana was another name given to Lucina,
the goddess who presided at childbirth. Here
the arrow provides a pun on a 'Hunter', and as 'a man-midwife'
inserting the arrow into the vagina of a bitch in a 'hunt' for a
fetus. The arrow also represented lightning, and hence electricity.
We earlier discussed the 1747 letter by David Stephenson. Experiment
11 as proposed by Stephenson, of inserting a tube into the anus of
the dog, is the focal point of Stage One; 'Experiment
11 - Whether by putting a tube into the anus of any animal, the
electric vapour may not be propagated through the whole compound
intestinal canal to the mouth; and contrariwise from the mouth to the
anus, and be transmitted also through the lacteal vessels to the
blood, and so communicated to the whole animal system? ... And what
effects will this æthereal vapour have, if communicated to the womb
of animals either pregnant or not, and likewise to the urinary
bladder.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a>
The Hogarth pun, the insertion of the 'killing' arrow, not into the
dog's anus, but into the vagina of a female bitch, is an allusion to
men-midwives use of the crotchet to 'hunt' and kill a fetus via a
craniotomy, preparatory to extracting the fetus with forceps.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The choice of the word 'tart' in the verse has to be a pun on 'tart', as
in prostitute. In saying 'take my tart' Hunter gives notice a
pregnant prostitute is available for an experiment. The significance
of the initials 'S G' or 'S C' on Smellie's sleeve becomes clearer.
Ronald Paulson has suggested they stand for the charity school in St
Giles parish, but likely they are also a pun on 'S C' for the
Surgeons' Company, established in 1745. William Hunter became a
member of this in 1747, not long before Hogarth prepared the series.
Using alliteration. Hogarth chooses a title, <i>Stages
of Cruelty</i> with the same initials as Surgeons' Company,
reinforcing the focus on surgeon-anatomists. The boy at the lower
right adopts the same pose as van Rymsdyk in Stage Four, so
representing him as a boy. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Stage Two - The Second Stage of Cruelty - Traditional View –</b><br />
Nero has grown up and become a hackney coachman, and the cruelty of
the schoolboy has turned into the cruelty of a man at work. Tom's
horse, worn out from years of mistreatment and overloading, has
collapsed, breaking its leg and upsetting the carriage. Disregarding
the animal's pain, Tom has beaten it so furiously that he has put its
eye out. In a satirical aside, Hogarth shows four corpulent
barristers struggling to climb out of the carriage in a ludicrous
state. Elsewhere, other acts of cruelty against animals take place: a
drover beats lamb to death, an ass is driven on by force despite
being overloaded, and an enraged bull tosses one of its tormentors. A
dray crushes a boy while the drayman sleeps, oblivious to the boy.<br />
<br />
<b>Stage Two - New Overlay</b> –<br />
Smellie, as Nero, is cruelly treating a pregnant
woman in labour, represented by the dying 'labouring' mare and
overturned coach, a destroyed pregnancy. The barristers, as the law,
turn their back to events and ignore the murder implicit in Smellie's
actions. Even the boy trapped under the dray is unable to attract the
law's attention. The words Labour and Lamb in the verses reinforce a
view of medical research into a pregnant female body. Near the coach,
John Hunter as a student takes notes. The man killing the Lamb shares
William Hunter's beakish nose and sharp chin, an allusion to Hunter's
murder of children as innocent as Lambs.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>The verses from Stages One and Two are: </b>
</div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="328*"></col>
<col width="328*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">While
various Scenes of sportive Woe,<br /> The Infant Race employ,<br />
And tortur'd Victims bleeding shew,<br /> The Tyrant in the Boy. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Behold!
a Youth of gentler Heart,<br />To spare the Creature's pain,<br />O
take, he cries—take all my Tart,<br />But Tears and Tart are vain.
</span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Learn
from this fair Example—You<br /> Whom savage Sports delight,<br />
How Cruelty disgusts the view,<br /> While Pity charms the sight. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div align="LEFT" class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">The
generous Steed in hoary Age,<br />Subdu'd by Labour lies;<br />And
mourns a cruel Master's rage,<br />While Nature Strength denies. </span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">The
tender Lamb o'er drove and faint,<br /> Amidst expiring Throws;<br />
Bleats forth it's innocent complaint<br /> And dies beneath the
Blows. </span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div align="LEFT" class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Inhuman
Wretch! say whence proceeds<br />This coward Cruelty?<br />What
Int'rest springs from barb'rous deeds?<br />What Joy from Misery? </span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Among the points showing an allegorical link between with Smellie and Hunter are; the
word atomy, the likeness between Nero and Smellie in Stage Three, and
the Hunters in Stage Four, the murder of a pregnant female, the
surgeon's aprons worn by Harvie and Mackenzie, the cruelty of
anatomists, the inference of hanging, drawing, and quartering, and
the anatomy theatre. In Stages One and Two there are the 'electric'
arrow, the initials 'S C' for Surgeons' Company, and the reference to
the 'tarts' as subjects. John Hunter appears in all four stages, with
his profile altered in the Stage III engraving. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
Already aware of Smellie's actions, and being an artist, when Hogarth studied the
plates, he realised the victims represented proof of murder. The
Hunters also feared ongoing exposure by Hogarth, as the dissections
and drawings for the Gravid Uterus atlas did not resume until 1764,
continuing until publication in 1774, depicting seventeen undelivered
subjects at various stages of pregnancy. The significance of 1764
being the year Hogarth died, hence Hunter no longer needed to fear
public accusation. Roy Porter linked Nicholls and Hogarth in writing;
'The case was made early in where he depicted a kind of Hogarthian
Man-midwives' Progress'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a>
In a similar Freudian slip, Johnstone writes of the cases in
Smellie's Treatise; 'some of the scenes which imagination readily
conjures up as one reads the records are worthy of Hogarth in their
stark realism'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a>
But it did not registered with Porter, nor Johnstone, that Hogarth
recognised the realism and was targeting Smellie.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<b>The Petition of the Unborn Babes</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
[Please note that, as of 2015, the views expressed in this sub-section need revision. Evidence is being gradually, carefully, and logically accumulated and analysed on my other website, i.e. <a href="https://www.google.co.nz/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CB0QFjAAahUKEwitsIqWlsXHAhUhx6YKHXI0BYM&url=http%3A%2F%2Ftobiassmollett.blogspot.com%2F2015%2F01%2Fsmollett-and-polemic-medicine-1745-55.html&ei=ft3cVa35OqGOmwXy6JSYCA&usg=AFQjCNEHKcmdiAVgqiZsV0t1N3DXHDtH8g&sig2=cu9Me16dcf2Q4OdXD_nCEA">Smollett and Polemic Medicine - 1745-55 - © | The Lost ...</a> The evidence is expected to demonstrate that <i>The Petition of the Unborn Babes</i> was authored by Tobias Smollett, as one in a series of polemic medical satires.]<br />
<br />
Another prominent critic of Smellie was Frank Nicholls FRS
(1699-1778), who had taught both Smellie and Hunter. Nicholls was
son-in-law of Richard Mead and a leading teacher of anatomy. In 1753
on the death of Sir Hans Sloane, Nicholls was appointed as King
George II's Physician, holding the office until the King's death in
1760. We noted the criticisms of Smellie in 1748 by William Douglas,
also a Royal Physician. In 1750 Smellie was a nobody in society, so
for two prominent Royal Physicians to criticise his activities was
significant, although there are signs a majority of the College of
Physicians supported Smellie's gravid research for the man-midwifery
opportunities it would create. However the College wished to keep a
lid on his activities for fear of adverse public reaction. This
explains a previously puzzling action by the College, in acting to
ostracise Nicholls when he expressed public and private criticism of
Smellie;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
On the death of Dr John Coningham in the early part of 1749, the
Elects of the College ignored the claims and well-founded reputation
of Dr Nicholls, and elected Dr Abraham Hall, his junior in age and
standing as a Fellow, into their body. For an act so disrespectful to
Dr Nicholls no adequate cause has ever been assigned, and
contemporary Fellows of the College were unable to explain it. Dr
Nicholls resigned his Lumleian lectureship, and thenceforward took
little part in the ''affairs of the College. His wife's father, Dr
Mead, seems to have resented the slight offered to Dr Nicholls, and
on the 9th April, 1750, resigned his place as one of the eight Elects
of the College.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Mrs Kennon who delivered George III in 1738 collected such a wealthy
clientele that in 1751 she was able to commission Dr Frank Nicholls
to write a satire against men-midwives for a fee of £500.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
Robert Nesbitt FRS (c1700-1761) led the pro-Smellie and Hunter
faction, with the disagreement resulting in a bitter altercation
between Nicholls and Nesbitt. Nesbitt was brother-in-law to James
Douglas and, like Colin Mackenzie and William Hunter, had been an
assistant to James Douglas.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
The altercation led in 1751 to the publishing of an anonymous
petition, <i>”The Petition of the Unborn Babes to the Censors of
the Royal College of Physicians”</i>, widely attributed to Nicholls
which ostensibly targeted mortality rates at the British Lying-in
Hospital opened in 1749 with Hunter as a founder, but its aims were
broader. The Petition was summarised in 1751;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.41cm;">
<br />
In consequence of a Quarrel between Dr N__ls [Nicholls] and Dr N__t
[Nesbitt], a satirical Proposal for publishing the Art of Midwifry
has appeared, in which are the following Articles. Of the lawfulness
and necessity of killing children in the usual difficult cases, that
is to say, when killing a child is conducive to the man-midwife's
reputation. When the man-midwife is in haste. When the woman is
impatient. When the gossips about her are impatient. Whether any
consultation should be had upon the point of killing a child; that
one man-midwife's opinion is sufficient to determine in this case,
because he is generally a man of good and virtuous education;
habitually compassionate by his frequent practice of killing
children; of sound learning, deep judgement, well skilled in the art
of physick, and consequently a competent judge of all the
circumstances necessary to found a good opinion upon, and withal
perfectly disinterested; since if he kills the child upon a
presumption that the mother is in danger, his fee indeed is not often
the greater, though he gets more thanks, reputation and esteem, as
having saved a lady in the most difficult circumstances. A
description of the instruments to be used in killing a child, with
proper directions for their decent and effectual application. - The
manner of opening the child's head and squeezing out the brains. -
The manner of cutting the head off. - The manner of twisting the
limbs off. - Whether in extracting a living child with the hook, it
be most proper to stick it under the ear, or into the sockets of the
eye. An enumeration of the inconveniences and indecency of not
killing the child effectually when judged necessary. A child mangled
and sprawling represented in a handsome copper plate.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
The Petition refers to 'a Court of Inquest … to enquire into the
Deaths of six Children said to have died in the Delivery under the
Hands of a Man-midwife'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a>
Following on from Douglas' 1748 letters accusing Smellie of eight
deaths, and Hogarth's Stages of Cruelty, the reference to six deaths
of children is a minor revision, while still alluding to the deaths
noted by Douglas. Nicholls criticises craniotomy, but as this was not
a new practice his intent seems to encompass the Caesarean
experiments by Smellie and Hunter, which aimed to find an alternative
to craniotomy. The Petition and its follow-up refer to Dr Maulus and
Dr Pocus, and in 1785 their identities were suggested as;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
Dr Nesbitt [Pocus], Dr Maule [Maulus], Dr Barrowby [Barebone],
principally, and Sir William [Browne] Sir Edward [Hulse] and the
Scots, incidentally, are the objects of his satire.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
Some authors suggest John Bamber is meant, but he was aged 84 in
1751, so that is unlikely. The allegations in the Petition were
symptomatic of extreme differences of opinion within the College
concerning ethics. The attack was directed at Pocus, Maulus, and
Barebones. Being potentially actionable for libel, the Petition
needed to avoided close identification of those portrayed, but logic
views Smellie and Hunter as the prime targets. Nicholls' descriptions
parallel those offered of Smellie and Hunter by modern authors; 'the
polite and tender Behaviour of Pocus [Smellie], or the delicate Wit
and lively Imagination of Maulus [Hunter]'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
Nicholls' focus was on their experiments with pregnant women and
Hunter's involvement at the Lying-in Hospital. The medical profession
knew each other well and recognized Smellie, the Hunters, Cheselden,
Mackenzie, Harvie, Hogarth, Freke, Nicholls, Douglas, and van
Rymsdyk, all portrayed in the Stages of Cruelty.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
The Lying-in Hospital defended itself vigorously from Nicholls'
assertion, but that the Petition was written and published, indicates
probable cause. We see a clear ongoing pattern critical of Smellie
and Hunter; Douglas in 1748, Hogarth and Nicholls in 1751, Burton in
1753, the King in 1753, Johnson in 1758, Nihell in 1760, and later
van Rymsdyk. The images of Smellie being hung, drawn, and quartered,
caused consternation among anatomists, leading to the man-midwifery
conference in 1756, to discuss other alternatives to craniotomy. The
Petition goes on to state;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.29cm; margin-right: 0.35cm;">
<br />
But so it is, that we your Petitioners have of late Years been
grievously ill-treated by Dr Pocus, Dr Maulus, and other evil minded
Men their followers and confederates, who not having the fear of God
before their Eyes, nor Abilities to get an honest Livelihood, have
assumed the Character and Discourse of Old Women; and taking
advantage of the Fears and Ignorance of our mothers, persuade them,
that we your Petitioners are their avowed Enemies; and that our
Appearance in the World will be to their utter Ruin and Destruction.
By which wicked Persuasions our mothers are led into a Confidence and
Reliance on the Friendship and Assistance of these ignorant Men; and
hire them at extravagant Rates to distress, bruise, kill, and destroy
your Petitioners, contrary to the Peace and good Order of his
Majesty's Government.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.29cm; margin-right: 0.35cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.32cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
And we your Petitioners particularly charge, that, if we cannot leave
our Dwellings, and make our appearance, as soon as it is expected,
either from the unwieldiness of our Gates, or by means of any other
Obstacle requiring time for its Removal, or if through Fear of the
Cruelties commonly exercised by the said Pocus, Maulus, and their
Confederates, being present, charge your Petitioners with a Riot
tending to the Murder of our Mothers; for which Crime we are
forthwith drag'd out our Habitations by Hooks, Pincers, and other
bloody Instruments, whereby we are sometimes most miserably torn and
bruised, and at other times our Heads are so squeezed, that we are
ever after subject to Fits, and Convulsions, unless (as by God's
Goodness it often happens) we die under the Operation. And in case of
any of the least Resistance, whether on our part, or from the
Nature, and Situation of our Habitations, we are sentenced to Death
as guilty of Rebellion, and in consequence of such Sentence we are
sometimes beheaded, and at other times our Brains are torn out by
Instruments wickedly contrived for the Purpose. Or if your
Petitioners happen to put an Arm out of Doors, whether in our own
Defence, or to feel our way, the said Pocus, Maulus, and their
Confederates, immediately cut off such Arm as high, as they can
reach; by which means your Petitioners bleed to Death in great Misery
and Torture. And we your Petitioners likewise charge, that, if when
drag'd out of our Habitations we are either already dead, and cannot,
or so weak and terrified, that we dare not, cry for Mercy, we are
then by the Directions of the said Pocus, Maulus, and their
Confederates, shook and whip'd; contrary to that Humanity, which is
due to the Distres'd, or that Decency, which is due to the Deceased.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.32cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.32cm; margin-right: 0.22cm;">
Whereas we your Petitioners deny we ever had any Intention to
destroy, or that we of our own Motion ever injure our said Mothers:
but on the contrary we do aver, that such Bruises, Wounds, and
injuries, are wholly owing to the Ignorance, Impatience, and Savage
Disposition of the said Pocus, Maulus, and their Confederates. And we
your Petitioners are ready to prove such our Averment, as well as by
comparing the Bills of Mortality in former times, wherein good Women
only attended our Affairs, with those of later years, in which these
wicked Men have exercised their Barbarities; as by the Printed
Accounts of the Hospital of Lying-in Women in Brownlow-street: By
which account it is admitted, that one in Fifteen of all the Children
there born, are drag'd dead into the World; and it is reserved a
Secret, how many more of the Fifteen die soon after of the Wounds and
Bruises there received, <u>as also how many of the Mothers remain
alive after passing through such Experiments as are there try'd on
miserable mortals</u>.[my emphasis]<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.41cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Benjamin Pugh, a respected man-midwife, in his 1754 <i>“Treatise on
Midwifery”</i>, expressed concern at very often hearing of unborn
children being killed by having their heads opened under a pretence
of being too large, which he said was seldom a real necessity, as he
had succeeded in deliveries through a course of fourteen years
practice without opening one.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>
Although made four years after Frank Nicholls' anonymous petition,
Pugh's comment covers the period of William Douglas' letters to
Smellie and the Petition. We have commented upon Smellie's
experiments with instruments; 'also how many of the Mothers remain
alive, after passing through such Experiments, as are there try'd on
miserable mortals', being a red flag. Nicholls use the word
Experiments, in referring to experiments both with instruments and to
reviving babies from undelivered subjects. The Petition alludes to
these in concluding; 'Ye shall be visited with Shame [nakedness] and
Confusion [dissection], and this your dwelling [womb], shall be
divided [Caesarean sectioned] among the Scots [Smellie, MacKenzie,
and the Hunters]' [My allusions].<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
Lisa Cody has reported on the dispute between Nicholls and Nesbitt;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.35cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<br />
Nicholls explained in his deposition, that the appearance of
Smellie's influential Treatise inspired him to attack Nesbitt and all
other male midwives, who 'avowedly and professedly kill the children
either by cutting off their limbs or by opening the head and
squeezing out their brains, by which many of his Majesties subjects
are every year cruelly and unlawfully destroyed'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Smellie's Treatise was not published until October 1751, hence it
seems prior events triggered Nicholls' attack on man-midwifery.
Adrian Wilson discusses the motivation of Nicholls;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
At first sight Nicholls's hostility to man-midwifery in 1751-1752
seems paradoxical and inexplicable. He had taught anatomy to two of
the leading man-midwives, Hunter and Smellie. The practical methods
he criticized – craniotomy and turning the feet – were entirely
traditional, as he well knew: he had included them in is own medical
teaching at Oxford almost 20 years earlier, and he never objected to
Deventerian man-midwifery, which used these very techniques. Nor was
his onslaught precipitated by the vectis, used by his adversary
Nesbit, for he was unaware of that instrument. And unlike John
Douglas 15 years earlier, Nicholls was not moved by professional
rivalry, for he himself did not practise midwifery. It seems that he
had a personal grievance both against Nesbit and, since January 1749,
against the College, but at most this explains part of his target,
and cannot account for his wider argument. Finally, while the new
lying-in hospitals received passing criticism in one of his satires,
making it clear that he associated them with man-midwifery, these
institutions were not his main target.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
We can now see Nicholl's main aim was to draw attention to the
experiments by Smellie and Hunter, as already criticised by Douglas,
and depicted in the key publishing event of 1751, Hogarth's <i>Stages
of Cruelty</i>. With Hunter's announcement of October 1751 also
catching Nicholls' eye;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
<br />
Mr Hunter has an opportunity of finishing a complete set of drawings
from a gravid uterus in the end of the 9th month. He apprehends that
engravings from these will be of service to the public, and will out
them in proper hands for that purpose as soon as a subscription shall
be filled to defray the necessary expense of having them executed in
the best manner; but as he has no other views than being indemnified,
he thinks proper to acquaint his friends that upon that footing only
he proposes a subscription.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">This
was followed, in October 1752 and September 1752, by advice that
subscriptions were being taken for his </span><i>Anatomy of the
Gravid Uterus</i><span style="font-style: normal;">. Hunter admitted
being attacked, and money as his motivation in writing to Cullen on
22 February 1752: 'Physic is in a strange ferment here. The
practitioners in midwifery have been virulently attacked, but by a
madman; and in that scuffle I have had a blow, too, obliquely,—the
reason is, we get money, our antagonists none'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://draft.blogger.com/null" name="summary1"></a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">The Petition was followed by a
second attack; </span><i>“A Vindication of man-midwifery, being the
answer of Dr Pocus, Dr Maulus, and Dr Barebone and others.” </i><span style="font-style: normal;">by
Dr Peter McGripes, a pseudonym. This was inscribed 'E Schola
Barebonena prope Turrim Feb 14 1752', although The Gentleman's
Magazine records it in December 1751.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
Dr Barebone's School refers to Hunter's school, where John Hunter
anatomised subjects down to 'bare bones', with 'near to the Tower'
alluding to the risk of public execution. Arguments in defence of
abortions and difficult deliveries are satirised to justify the
actions of man-midwives, with references to money and gold matching
Hunter's letter to Cullen;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
The Discourse was opened by Dr Pocus in a laboured Harangue, by which
he endeavoured to prove, that unborn children neither being
Christians, not having taken the Oaths, could by no means be entitled
to Protection either from the Church or the State. He endeavoured
likewise to shew, that a child in the Womb might be considered as a
Wart or a Wen; but at most it could only be look'd on as a Twig of a
Tree, or a Leaf of a Plant, which might reasonably, and according to
common Usage, be sacrificed to the Preservation or Convenience of its
Parent. He enforced his Opinion by the Example of a Cow with Calf, in
buying which the Butcher takes a receipt only for a Cow, whereas, if
the Calf were a distinct Creature, an Action would still lie against
him for the Calf. In like manner, he said, if a Thief is indicted for
stealing a Mare, and is acquitted, if the Mare proves with Foal, the
Thief might be again indicted for the Foal … Sir William seconded
the Opinion of Pocus; but at the same time gave it another turn. He
thought, that a Child in the Womb, in the full significance of the
Word, was properly an Abscess, being designed <i>abcedere a matre</i>,
to go from the Mother, and as such the Operator had aright to let it
out … in such manner as he should judge best... The Assembly were
rising when, astonished at such wild discourse, the immortal Harvey
spoke from that Marble-Bust, which overlooked them. He explained to
them, that Life and the Circulation were inseparable; that, as these
Children had their distinct Circulations and Motions, so it could not
be denied, that they had a Life of their own, and were equally
entitled to Preservation with their Mothers. … Sir Edward starting
up, cried: Poh! Poh! Want stuff is this about Circulations and
Felicities! I know of no Circulation but Bank Circulation, nor any
Felicity but in Gold: and don't believe they have anything to do with
either.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
The Petition was written concurrent with the dissections of
undelivered subjects by Smellie and Hunter. Due to the professional
closeness of Smellie and Hunter, and Hunter's role as a man-midwife
at the Brownlow, Nicholls concluded, mistakenly, that their
undelivered subjects had been obtained from the Brownlow. This was
easily defended by the hospital, highlighting a difference of opinion
and fact, as between Nicholls and the Brownlow.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
To this scathing condemnation of the charity's practice (not to
mention the xenophobic assault on Scotch physicians) the board of
Governors of the British Lying-in Hospital felt itself obliged to
respond. At its weekly meeting of 23 January 1752, the board
authorized publication of a simple recital of the facts that the
Petition has distorted so polemically.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">But similar tactics are seen in
modern defences to difficult questions. The hospital avoided the
issue by tabling statistics only for the hospital itself, i.e.
omitting Smellie's dissections and Hunter's anatomy school. Such
obfuscation, so beloved of modern politicians, is overlooked by those
who choose to take the hospital's response at face value. The clean
report invites suspicion of the activities of private lodgings and
anatomy schools. The view of this author is that events occasioning
the petition were not limited to craniotomy, and occurred at private
premises under the control of Smellie and Hunter. We mentioned
Hunter's efforts to arrange private lodging houses for undelivered
patients, as pioneered by Smellie in
1742.
These lodgings, rather than the hospital, were the source of the undelivered subjects
procured by Smellie and Hunter. Despite letting it rest at this
point, Nicholls was seen to score a moral victory with his 1753
appointment as Physician to the King at £300 pa. But still
concerned, the year after the petition, in 1752, Nicholls proposed to
the College of Physicians that the College should offer instruction
for midwives, in an annual course of free lectures. He himself
offered £1000 towards the cost, but the College showed no interest. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
There is suspicion that concerns about the source of subjects dissected by
Smellie and at Hunter's anatomy school, as voiced by Hogarth and
Nicholls in 1750-1751, prompted the 1752 Murder Act in an effort to
deter the practice of murder-to-order to obtain subjects.<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> Given
the concurrence of dates, those concerns must have reached Prime
Minister Henry Pelham, and George II. Henry
Fielding established the Bow Street Runners early in 1753 and </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">on
11 January 1753, King George II said;</span></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;">I hope you will find the laws made the last session of
parliament, for suppressing those crimes and disorders which have
been so justly complained of, have had a good effect. Whatsoever is
farther necessary to perfect so laudable a work, deserves your
serious confederation; that whilst we enjoy peace abroad, we may
maintain good order and regularity at home.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
But that same year, 15 November 1753, only two years after the 1752 Murder Act, it
was reported;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
[King George II] came to the House of Peers and opened the session of Parliament with a
most gracious speech from the throne, in which his Majesty
recommended to them the dispatch of such business as might be most
conducive to the public utility and concluded as follows; “I am
sorry to be obliged again to mention to you a subject which reflects
dishonour on the nation, as well as creates great danger and mischief
to my subjects. It is with the utmost regret I observe, that <u>the
horrid crimes of robbery and murder,
are, of late, rather increased than diminished</u>
[my emphasis]. I am sensible that works of reformation are not to be
effected at once; but everybody should contribute their best
endeavours; and let me earnestly recommend it to you, to continue
your serious attention to this important object. Whatsoever shall be
found expedient, either in this, or any other respect, for the
welfare and happiness of my people shall meet with my hearty
concurrence and support”.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br />
That the <i>Universal Magazine</i> reported only this portion of the speech,
implies significance in the King's reference to murder. Unless that
was the intent, the reference to murders is odd, as a search of Old
Bailey Online for all offences between 1745 and
1760; where offence category was murder, verdict category was guilty,
and punishment category was death, shows 45 cases with guilty verdicts, an average of only 3 per year. In fact London murders were 52 in 1730-1734, 44 in 1740-1744, and only 21 in
1750-1754. The latter a sign of victims being disposed of to
anatomists.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
The King's speech was therefore directed at anatomists, with the most
likely conduit of concern to the King being via Nicholls, after his
appointment as Physician to George II in 1753. Knowledge of Smellie's
burking could have also passed to Prime Minister Henry Pelham via his
brother Thomas Pelham, Duke of Newcastle who, along with William
Hogarth, was a founding governor of the Foundling Hospital. Henry
Pelham died in March 1754, but the threat of legislation in the
King's speech was alarming to Hunter, as he was also at risk.<br />
<br />
As
a discreet society accoucheur, Hunter was positioned to accumulate
political favours which he could redeem when required. He could
arrange the fostering out of children born to mistresses, servants,
or even of unwanted pregnancies arising from passing dalliances of
society ladies. To drop the proposed murder legislation required the
calling in of such favours, as Hunter later numbered among his
patients: the Pitts, Hertfords, Lady Ossory, the Fitzroys, the Earl
of Sandwich, Lord North, the Coutts, and the Hollands.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
Henry Pelham's brother, Thomas, Duke of Newcastle succeeded Henry as Prime
Minister, and it seems was persuaded to shelve the legislation.
Newcastle was caricatured as a muddle-headed buffoon who struggled to
understand the business of government. Contact between Hunter and the
Duke is seen via an exhibit at the University of Glasgow; Reference
Code: GB 0247 MS Hunter DF126 - Call
Number: MS Hunter DF126 - Drawings of Hernia by JD. A folder made from a sheet of paper with
book-plate of the Duke of Newcastle (?) pasted inside, labelled by
William Hunter.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Changes at the Foundling Hospital are also indication of the concerns. In
1751 Paris there were 3000 or 4000 foundlings dispersed over several
houses according to their age.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a>
But in London, between 25 March 1741 and 31 May 1756, only 1384
children were accepted by the Hospital, less than 100 per year, only
8 per month. Arising from concern around Smellie's atlas and the fate
of pregnant women, in 1756 the Foundling Hospital was granted funding
to enable it to accept many more children. Thus, between 1 June 1756
and 31 December 1757, 5510 children were received by the Foundling
Hospital, a rate of 324 per month, a massive 40 times more than in
previous years.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a><br />
<br />
The 'Smellie burking scare' was the major factor in Hunter shelving
his own atlas project until 1764. Hunter invited public suspicion of
his actions, with a 'Freudian slip'; 'In midwifery all instruments,
and especially such as cut or tear either the mother or child, should
be suspected by the publick; to keep ignorant and inexperienced and
adventurous practitioners upon their guard, and to enforce great
caution and consultation in such delicate and dangerous situations of
human nature'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
A letter writer in 1810, some sixty years
later, referred back to the Petition of the Unborn Babes;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br />
The writer of that publication justly complained, that of all the
practitioners who exercise the different branches of the healing art,
men-midwives alone (as such) gave no test of their learning,
dexterity, or integrity. And yet that they were permitted on their
<i>single</i> opinions, avowedly, and professedly to destroy
children, and to treat the mothers in a manner which frequently had a
fatal termination.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
The writer also drew attention to two 19C newspaper advertisements
offering abortions, which infer, by later example, how sixty years
earlier Smellie and Hunter had attracted poor patients;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br />
<b>To the Female Sex</b> - A Physician and Man-midwife, who has
devoted many years study to the diseases of Women, added to an
extensive practice, thus publicly tenders his services to the fair
sex, for the cure of obstructions, irregularities, weaknesses,
nervous diseases, the cruel effects of infidelity in husbands, and
the complaints common to a particular period of life, as well a the
general causes that prevent pregnancy, or occasion miscarriages, and
every other disorder peculiar to the sex. The Doctor's hours of
attendance at his own house are from 10 to 12, and from 4 to 7, every
day, Sunday excepted. Whether consulted by the party or friends, he
neither hears or reads a case, unless accompanied with a Guinea.
Women labouring under <i>Obstructions, from causes they are desirous
of concealing,</i> would, perhaps consult their own interest in an
immediate application to the Doctor.</div>
<ul><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<b>Pregnant Ladies</b>
Whose situations require a temporary retirement, may be accommodated
with an apartment to lie in, agreeable to their circumstances, and
depend on being treated with honour, attention, and secrecy; their
infant put out to nurse, and <u>humanely
taken care of</u>
[my emphasis], by applying to Mrs M___, Midwife, at the Square Lamp
the North side &c. - So far there is nothing in this to be
objected to, that the unhappy female under such circumstances should
have a secret asylum to fly to, is not inconsistent with a
well-regulated Police. But the Hag, like the Physician, concludes
with the offer of a 'Restorative Salo Pill at £1 2s per box; an
effectual remedy <i> to remove all obstructions or irregularities'.</i><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a></div>
</ul>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Samuel Johnson</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Another who
criticised anatomists at this time was Samuel Johnson, who wrote
several medical biographies and was acquainted with Hunter. Johnson
is a pillar of 18C commentary and wrote;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.39cm;">
<br />
Among the inferior
professors of medical knowledge, is a race of wretches, whose lives
are only varied by varieties of cruelty; whose favourite amusement is
to nail dogs to tables and open them alive; to try how long life may
be continued in various degrees of mutilation, or with the excision
or laceration of the vital parts; to examine whether burning irons
are felt more acutely by the bone or tendon; and whether the more
lasting agonies are produced by poison forced into the mouth or
injected into the veins. It is not without reluctance that I offend
the sensibility of the tender mind with images like these. If such
cruelties were not practised, it were to be desired that they should
not be conceived; but <u>since they are published every day with
ostentation</u><span style="text-decoration: none;"> [my emphasis]</span>,
let me be allowed once to mention them, since I mention them with
abhorrence…the anatomical novice<span style="text-decoration: none;">
</span><u>tears out the living bowels of an animal</u> [my emphasis]
and stiles himself Physician, prepares himself by familiar cruelty
for that profession which he is to exercise upon the tender and the
helpless, upon feeble bodies and broken minds, and by which he has
opportunities to extend his arts of torture, and <u>continue those
experiments upon infancy and age, which he has hitherto tried upon
cats and dogs</u><span style="text-decoration: none;"> [my emphasis]</span>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
This was first published on 5 August 1758 in <i>“The Idler”, </i>with Johnson
referring to the 1757 atlas of Jenty. While Johnson's focus is less
direct than the caricatures drawn by Hogarth, the pairing of 'tears
out the living bowels' and 'continue those experiments upon infancy
and age' describes Caesarean experiments. If resurrected bodies,
rather than murdered or live subjects, had been used, Johnson had no
need to refer to these 'horrid operations', nor 'at the expense of
his humanity';</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
And if the knowledge
of Physiology has been somewhat increased, he surely buys knowledge
dear, who learns the use of the lacteals [lymphatic vessels] <u>at
the expense of his humanity</u><span style="text-decoration: none;">
[my emphasis].</span> It is time that universal resentment should
arise against these horrid operations, which tend to harden the
heart, extinguish those sensations which give man confidence in man,
and make the Physician more dreadful than the gout or stone.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<b>The wider danger</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A full analysis of medical cruelty is beyond this book, but it would be
relevant to investigate the lives of Smellie, the Hunters, and their
assistants for indications of psychopathy. Apart from burking of
undelivered and other subjects, one should not forget the thousands
of dogs and other animals John Hunter admitted killing during his
experiments. It is worthy of record that William Hunter never
married, nor did Colin Mackenzie. Whilst bachelorhood is certainly no
guarantee of cruelty, neither man was ever subject to wifely
influence, nor moderation of their arrogance. The stature of John
Hunter has been high within the medical profession, but in his 1953
Hunterian Oration, Norbury<span style="font-style: normal;"> said;
'Hunter was in the habit of enunciating 'general principles' and then
making his facts fit into the framework'. This fits a man prepared to
dissect murdered subjects in order to prove his theories, so it was
easy for Hunter to also regard children as expendable. Later Norbury
observed, 'The 18th century was an age of indifference to infant
life. Children often died abandoned in garrets and in the street …
One is however left with a sense of </span>frustration as to what
unexplored fields of activity remain to be discovered, and what
further influence on the science and art of surgery can be brought to
light, having its roots in the life and work of the great master,
John Hunter'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1916, Leffingwell wrote of John Hunter, 'At Earl's Court, then a
suburb of London, he established a sort of zoological Inferno, that
reminds one of the<i>“Island of Dr Moreau”'</i><span style="font-style: normal;">.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
It</span> was a country estate of 52 acres where John was perpetually
conducting experiments on dormice, hedgehogs, rabbits, bats, birds,
mice, pigs, lions, tigers, leopards, and whatever else he could find.
<span style="font-style: normal;">John Hunter's attitude to animals
was expressed in a letter to Jenner;</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
I thank you for your
experiment on the hedgehog; but why do you ask me a question by the
way of solving it? I think your solution is just; but why think? why
not try the experiment? Repeat all the experiments upon a hedgehog as
soon as you receive this, and they will give you the solution. Try
the heat: cut off a leg at the same place; cut off the head, and
expose the heart, and let me know the result of the whole.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Leffingwell also
wrote, '[John Hunter] was the type of the class of experimenters whom
Dr Johnson had in his mind, men whose long practice in the infliction
of torment creates an indifference to the ordinary emotions of
humanity, so that even in the causation of agony, they find something
'to amuse', and in the performance of the most painful vivisection an
occasion for 'supreme delight'.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The use of
disadvantaged members of society for experiments, as practised by
Smellie, Hunter and others, was repeated in USA in the 1840s. J.
Marion Sims, often referred to as "the father of gynecology",
performed surgical experiments on enslaved African women without
anaesthesia. The women, one of whom was operated on 30 times,
regularly died from infections resulting from the experiments, made
in order to test his theory about the causes of trismus in infants.
Sims performed experiments where he used a shoemaker's awl to move
around the skull bones of the babies of enslaved women. The lack of
anaesthetics was not unusual, but his attitude towards slaves
parallels Smellie and Hunter's view of prostitutes. Pertinent are
extreme views on psychopathy expressed by Norman Barnesby, who wrote
on the subject of The Gynecological Pervert in 1910; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
And in the domain of medicine and surgery, particularly the latter, ... there has grown up a spirit of cruelty and heartless indifference to human suffering that makes one wonder if we are yet a civilized people. … This also manifests itself in the injury or mutilation of living beings .... Such creatures display a psychopathic condition almost unthinkable to normal and healthy minds, and I would shrink from discussing this unpleasant subject were it not that perversion plays a part in surgery, and especially gynecology, never before suspected, finding therein a license and security possible in no other legalized profession or occupation. ... Now let us suppose the case of a young man, intellectual, talented, and perhaps with great aptitude in surgery, but nevertheless at heart a sexual pervert. He begins practice, and soon acquires a reputation as a skilful surgeon. But he feels, stirring within him, sadistic tendencies which he cannot or will not repress. He looks about him for a means of gratification that will be well within the law, and his search is soon rewarded. He becomes a gynecologist, a specialist in the diseases of the female pelvis. Soon he has gained the confidence of a host of feeble-minded or ignorant women, some of whom are ill, many of whom are simply hypochondriacs and on one and all of whom he has absolute license to operate just as much or as little as he chooses. He begins, of course, by using the curette. It is a simple procedure, from his standpoint, to lacerate the inner membrane of the uterus, and though often of great and lasting harm to the victim, the curettage is long his favorite operation.<span style="font-style: normal;"> But soon he looks longingly at the abdominal cavity. </span><i>... </i>The great surgeon under whom he studied perhaps taught that most young women would be better off without the constant menace of motherhood and had invariably removed the ovaries of those who came under his knife. And so, with this damnable sophistry on his tongue, he becomes proficient at unsexing his women patients who come to him with their petty troubles, and is never so happy as when cutting out ovaries. Except when a uterus can be removed. That is an even greater gratification. A clean sweep of the pelvic organs a mutilated, unsexed woman what a tribute to his skill as a surgeon! … 'No longer', we are told, 'do the surgeons who report the most radical operations on the female generative organs receive the greatest recognition' … Dr J Thomas Kelly … admits the horrible stage of recklessness that formerly prevailed. 'Some years back', he writes, 'after the advent of gynecology as a specialty, and when men wholly untrained in the pathology of the female sexual organs removed those organs for symptoms frequently neurasthenic, one might see in almost any hospital numbers of normal organs sacrificed. ... If abortionists are criminals, then so are many gynecologists. The statutes should be revised, and the needless removal of the ovaries or uterus, or any unnecessary mutilation of the female generative organs, should be classed along with criminal abortion as a felony, punishable by heavy fine and a term of years in prison.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
While shocking to
modern eyes, the views expressed by Barnesby describe events of the
late 19C which are much closer to the events of the mid 18C than we
are. They are equally applicable to 18C anatomists prepared to
procure and dissect undelivered subjects murdered to order. As other
anatomy schools offered subjects for dissection, following the
example of Hunter's school, there was an increase in the demand for
subjects, and a commensurate decline in medical ethics. </div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Lamb, Charles, <i>On the genius and character of Hogarth,,</i>
London, J Hunt, 1811, p 74
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Cunningham, Allan, <i>William Hogarth</i>, J and J Harper, 1831, p.
57.
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Clerk, Thomas, <i>The works of William Hogarth,</i> Edinburgh, R
Scholey, 1812, p 179</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Porter, Roy, <i>Bodies Politic, </i>Ithaca NY, Cornell, 2001, p 50</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Krysmanski, Bernd W, <i>Hogarth's Hidden Parts</i>, Hildsheim, Olms,
2010, p 27</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Defore, Daniel, <i>The Novels and Miscellaneous Works of Daniel
Defoe,</i> London, Thomas Tegg, 1841, p 7-9</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Zunshine, Lisa, <i>Bastards and Foundlings; Illegitimacy in 18C
England</i>, Ohio State UP, 2005, p 43</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Corry, John, <i>A Satirical View of London</i>, London, Ogle, 1804,
p 30</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
Old Bailey Online,<span style="font-weight: normal;"> Reference
Number:</span><b> </b>t17470225-1 accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
<i>The Gentleman's and London Magazine</i>, London, J Exshaw,
1741-1794, p 137</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
Hogarth, William, <i>Anecdotes of William Hogarth</i>, London, J B
Nichols, 1833, p 208-209</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>
</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Hunter,
William, </span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>Two
Introductory Lectures,</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">
London, J Johnson, 1784, p 110</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Nichols, John, <i>Biographical anecdotes of William Hogarth: with a
catalogue of his works</i>, London, 1782, p 26-27</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
High, Brandon,
http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/iss/library/speccoll/bomarch/bomjuly06.html
accessed Sept. 2009
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Nichols, John, <i>Biographical anecdotes of William Hogarth: with a
catalogue of his works</i>, London, 1782, p 50</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
Hunter, William, quoted in Haslam, Fiona, <i>From Hogarth to
Rowlandson</i>, Liverpool University Press 1996, p 218</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
Nichols, John, <i>Biographical anecdotes of William Hogarth</i>,
London, 1782, p 249-251</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
Ireland, John, <i>Hogarth Illustrated</i>, 2nd edn, London, J. and
J. Boydell, 1793, II: p 55: Busch, Werner, <i>Das sentimentalische
Bild,</i> Munich, C.H. Beck, 1993, p 258-59 and figs. 79-80:
Krysmanski, Bernd, <i>Hogarth’s Enthusiasm Delineated.</i>
Hildesheim, Zurich, New York, 1996, I: p 386, n877 and II: fig. 218:
Krysmanski, Bernd, <i>Hogarth’s Hidden Parts</i>, Hildsheim,
Olms, 2010, fig. 19</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
Burke, Joseph, <i>William Hogarth The Analysis of Beauty,</i>
Oxford, Clarendon, 1955 p 226-227</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
Mines, John Flavel, <i>A Tour Around New York and My Summer Acre,
</i>New York, Harpers, 1892, p 143-144
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Aronson, Jeff, <i>When I use a Word</i>, BMJ October 2000,
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1118743
accessed July 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
Nichols, John, <i>Biographical anecdotes of William Hogarth</i>,
London, 1782, p 249-251</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
Mitchell, Margaret,<i> Remember me: constructing immortality,</i>
CRC Press, 2007, p 221</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
<i>The Medical Times and Gazette</i>, Vol 2, London, Churchill,
1856, p 424</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Urban, Sylvanus, <i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, 1753, p
293</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
Chamberlyne, John, <i>Magnæ Britanniæ notitia: or, the present
state of Great-Britain</i>, Birt, 1755, London, p 195</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
Steintrager, James A, <i>Cruel Delight: Enlightenment Culture and
the Inhuman,</i> Bloomington, IUP, 2004, p 52</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
<i>European Magazine</i>, London, 1801</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
Thornton, John L, <i>Jan van Rymsdyk,</i> Cambridge, Oleander, 1982,
p 6-7</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Van Rymsdyk, Jan, <i>Museum Britannicum</i>, London, Moore, 1778, p
v</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Stephenson, D, <i>The Scots Magazine</i>, Edinburgh, Sands, Murray,
and Cochran, 1747, p 119-120</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
Porter, Roy, in Rousseau, G S, <i>Sexual Underworlds of the
Enlightenment</i>, Manchester, MUP, 1987, p 217</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Johnstone, R W, <i>William Smellie</i>, London, Livingstone, 1952, p
68</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Munk, William, <i>The Roll of Royal College of Physicians</i>,
London, RCP, 1878, p 123</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Calder-Marshall, Arthur, <i>The Grand Century of the Lady</i>,
London, Gordon & Cremonesi, 1976, p100
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
Thomas, K Bryn, <i>James Douglas of the Pouch and his pupil William
Hunter</i>, London, Pitman, 1964, p 16</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a><i>
The London Magazine</i>, Dublin, Exshaw, 1751, p 643-644 and in <i>The
Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, 1751, p 563</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Nicholls, Frank, <i>The Petition of the Unborn Babes</i>, London,
Cooper, 1751, p 4</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, 1785, p 10</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
Nicholls, Frank, <i>The Petition of the Unborn Babes</i>, London,
Cooper, 1751, p 10</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
Cook, J W, and Cook, B C, <i>Man-midwife, Male Feminist; George
Macaulay</i>, Ann Arbor, UMUL, 2004, p 113-115</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
Griffiths, Ralph,<i> The Monthly Review,</i> London, April 1754, p
241</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Glaister, John, <i>William Smellie</i>, Glasgow, Maclehose, 1894, p
125</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
Cody, Lisa Forman, <i>Birthing the Nation; Sex, Science, and the
Conception of 18C Britons</i>, OUP 2005, p 183</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
Wilson, Adrian, <i>The Making of Man-midwifery</i>, Cambridge,
Harvard, 1995, p 166</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
Peachey, George C, <i>A Memoir of William & John Hunter,</i>
Plymouth, Brendon, 1924, p 125</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
Oppenheimer, J M,<i> A Note on William Hunter and Tobias Smollett,
Journal of Hist of Medicine</i>, OUP, 1947</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine,</i> London ,1751, p 574</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
Cook, J W, and Cook, B C, <i>Man-midwife, Male Feminist; George
Macaulay</i>, Ann Arbor, UMUL, 2004, p 115</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
Cook, J W, and Cook, B C, <i>Man-midwife, Male Feminist; George
Macaulay</i>, Ann Arbor, UMUL, 2004, p 117</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
<i>The London Magazine,</i> London, Edward Exshaw, 1753, p 34</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a>
<i>The Universal Magazine</i>, London, J D Symonds, 1753, p 237</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
Bynum, W F, Porter, Roy, <i>William Hunter and the Eighteenth
Century Medical World</i>, London, CUP, 2002, p 11</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
University of Glasgow,
http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/manuscripts/search/detaild.cfm?DID=68823
accessed Jan 2010</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
Kimber, Isaac, <i>The London Magazine</i>, London, Baldwin, 1751, p
213
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a>
Massie, Joseph, <i>A Plan for the Establishment of Charity Houses</i>,
London, Payne, 1758, p 145</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
Dease, William,<i> Observations in Midwifery</i>, Dublin, Williams,
1793, p 72</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, Nichols, 1810, p 409</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, Nichols, 1810, p 411-412</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
Johnson, Samuel, <i>The Idler,</i> Third Edition, London, T Davies,
1767, p 94-95</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a>
Johnson, Samuel, <i>The Idler,</i> Third Edition, London, T Davies,
1767, p 96</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a>
Norbury, L C,
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2377576/pdf/annrcse00276-0019.pdf</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a>
Leffingwell, Albert, <i>An Ethical Problem</i>, London, G Bell,
1916, p 40</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
Hunter, John, <i>The works of John Hunter</i>, with notes, Vol I,
ed. by J.F. Palmer, London, Longman, 1837, p 56</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
Barnesby, Norman, <i>Medical Chaos and Ethics,</i> London,
Kennerley, 1910</span></div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-82161439262837808192015-04-06T12:56:00.003-07:002021-11-26T09:33:51.284-08:0014 - More Murder For Dissection, and the Aftermath ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Many surgeon-apprentices arriving in London were naïve, as admitted by
Thomas Denman (1733-1815), later famous as the man-midwife who
delivered Lord Byron, and whose twin daughters both married doctors,
Matthew Baillie and Sir Richard Croft. In September 1754 Denman came
to London to study, carrying with him £75, all his family could
spare towards his career, but;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
When I arrived in town. I was recommended to a Mr Hunt, in Dean Street,
Soho, with whom my brother had lodged and boarded. I paid half a
guinea week, and a hard bargain he had. The money I brought with me
to London was intended for the purpose of enabling me to attend St
George's Hospital, and two courses of Anatomical Lectures, but in six
months it was wholly expended. I knew little of economy, for having
never been accustomed to the management or disposal of money, I acted
as a child … contriving how to spend it as soon as it was received.
… My money bring gone, there was a necessity of seeking immediate
support. Many employments were thought of, but none seemed so
agreeable to myself and friends, as going to sea ... Having applied
to the Navy Board for an order to he examined at Surgeons' Hall, very
much to my astonishment I passed as surgeon to a ship of the sixth
rate, April 3, 1755.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
With so little training, Denman was ill equipped for an employment
situation where, even during the Napoleonic Wars, less than 10% of
casualties were from enemy action. <br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Although he does not disclose where his money went, it was likely
similar to the temptation detailed in a letter from 'An Old Rake'.
Originally published in October 1750<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
and republished in 1758, its content probably also describing the
actions of the young John Hunter in 1749-1750;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.36cm; margin-right: 0.39cm;">
<br />
Let us consider the strong, the almost irresistible incitement of
natural appetite, and weak restraint of reason or discretion, in
youths from fifteen to five and twenty; and we may easily conceive
how impossible it is for them to resist the many temptations they
meet with in our streets, not only at night and at late hours, but in
open day-light and at every hour of the day. ...</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.36cm; margin-right: 0.39cm;">
Suppose then a young fellow, near the end of his apprenticeship, or
just commenced journeyman, with a little money of his own, or perhaps
of his master's, in his pocket: I say, suppose such a young fellow
picked up, or beckoned by one of these female devils; how can he
resist the temptation? Nature prompts, beauty fires, their dress and
their tongue allure; and the present conversation of the world has
weakened the restraints both of modesty and religion. He yields, -
and thus commences an acquaintance, which leads him into a greater
expense than he can support. … I am not so weak as to think it
possible to prevent prostitution entirely; but ... when they crowd
our streets at night and appear publickly in them every hour of the
day, a young fellow cannot go about his master's business without
being led into temptation, and is often involved in ruin before he
has time to reflect. … For my part, I think there are none of the
human species deserve more compassion than our common prostitutes. …
Such unfortunate creatures deserve the more compassion, when we
consider how many of them have been led, or rather forced info that
way of life. … Another innocent believing girl gives credit to the
wows of constancy, and perhaps promises of marriage, made by a man
who had before engaged her affections. A discovery made, she is
turned out of doors by her parents, abandoned by her relations, and
in a month or two left, perhaps, in a bawdy-house destitute of every
thing but beauty, by her villainous, cruel barbarous betrayer. A
servant maid, of more beauty than ordinary, happens to be out of
place, and to continue so till she has spent her money, pawned her
cloaths, and is reduced to the greatest penury.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Apart from the
threat of prosecution, and Hogarth's Stages of Cruelty, there were
social ripples from the 1755 publication of Smellie's atlas,
including an awareness of the plight of prostitutes, arising from
their presumed depictions in the atlas. This culminated in a 1757
report, <i>“Reasons for the Reformation of Clerkenwell Bridewell”</i>
and thence to a veritable flood of charitable plans to save
prostitutes in 1758. In the same year, James Boswell also wrote at
length.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
The multiple plans all being evidence of upheaval in 1754-1756. The
debate led to a report on prisons, <i>“Reasons for the Reformation
of Clerkenwell Bridewell”</i>. The report is valuable background as
to why Smellie, Hunter, and their assistants valued the lives of
pregnant prostitutes with disdain.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
The men and women
prisoners are all together till they are locked up at night and have
perpetual opportunities of retiring to the dark cells in couples, as
often as they please: the women indeed are generally such as do not
need much solicitation to this commerce, but as the county allowance
is no more than a pennyworth of bread and some water in 24 hours, and
many of them are totally destitute both of money and friends, they
would have no alternative but to become prostitutes for subsistence
or to perish with hunger. But this is not all, the gate keepers and
other petty officers of the prison consider all the prisoners as
their seraglio, and indulge themselves in the promiscuous use of as
many of them as they please. There are also two wards called the
bawdy-houses, in which the locker for a shilling, will at any time
lock up a man and woman together for the night, and he is so
solicitous to encourage this practice for the sake of his fee, that
he addressed the author of the <i>Reasons,</i> after he had been 3
days in custody, in these terms. “When you have a honest mind to
have one of these girls that you fancy, lie with you all night, you
may have her; the custom is to pay for her bed & tip me a
shilling”. But this lewdness is not only practised by one prisoner
with another, but by people that go thither on purpose; so that the
place may be considered as a great brothel, kept under the protection
of the law for the emolument of its ministers; many dissolute persons
resort thither, especially on a <i>Sunday,</i> and after having
singled out a girl, and treated her in the tap-house, they are
conducted by the locker, under pretence of shewing them the prison,
to a private place, where they remain undisturbed as long as they
please. It is also a <i>mart</i>, where those who subsist by keeping
prostitutes in their houses, come to supply themselves with the
number they want. It is common for the keeper of a bagnio, or his
servant to come to this place, call for a bottle or two of wine, look
over the girls, enquire when their times were out, and having made
choice of such as they think fit for their purpose, they pay their
fees, and take them home.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Ripples from
Smellie's atlas sparked Sir John Fielding's concern for prostitutes,
when in March 1758 he proposed; 'A Plan of the Preservatory and
Reformatory: Being a Publick Laundry intended to employ, breed up,
and preserve the deserted Girls of the Poor of this Metropolis; and
also to reform those Prostitutes whom Necessity has drove into the
Streets, and who are willing to return to Virtue and obtain an honest
Livelihood, by severe Industry';<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.39cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
... a mother is
left with many helpless children, to be supplied by her industry,
whose resource for maintenance is either the wash-tub, green-stall,
or barrow. What must then become of the daughters of such women,
where poverty and illiterateness conspire to expose them to every
temptation? And they often become prostitutes from necessity, even
before the passions can have any share in their guilt. And as beauty
is not the particular lot of the rich more than the poor. many of the
above mentioned girls have often great advantages of person; and
whoever will look amongst them will frequently see the sweetest
features disguised by filth and dirt. These are the girls that the
bawds clean and cloath for their wicked purposes. And this is done to
such a degree, that on a search night, when the constables have taken
up near forty prostitutes, it has appeared on their examination that
the major part of them have been of this kind, under the age of
eighteen, many not more than twelve, and those, tho' so young, half
eat up with the foul distemper. Who can say that one of these poor
children had beta prostitutes thro' viciousness? No. They are young,
unprotected, and of the female sex, therefore become the prey of the
bawd and debauchee.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.39cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Fielding's
comments illustrate the wretchedness of young prostitutes in mid 18C
London. Those pregnant were even more vulnerable. Further signs of
concern are in a separate proposal outlined in the following month,
April 1758, by Jonas Hanway and Robert Dingley for the establishment
of 'The Magdalen, or Penitential House', 'so this establishment may
be coveted, and not thought an house of correction, but a happy
asylum, and desirable retreat from their wretched and distressful
circumstances'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
A third similar proposal was made in a 1758 book of 155 pages by
Joseph Massie<span style="font-style: normal;">.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
Yet a fourth 1758 proposal was by Saunders Welch; </span><i>''A Plan
to remove the Nuisance of Common Prostitutes from the Streets of this
Metropolis</i><span style="font-style: normal;">'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a>
Concern for prostitutes rose even to the extent of</span><span style="font-style: normal;">
a gold medal being offered for the best plan for their welfare in
April 1758.</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
As common prostitutes are the apparent cause of idleness and vice of
the most pernicious kind, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts,
Manufactures, and Commerce, being ambitious of promoting the welfare
of their fellow-subjects, offer the Society's medal in gold, as an
honorary reward for the plan which mall be judged the best calculated
for the establishment of a charity house, or charity houses, for the
reception of such common prostitutes as are desirous to forsake their
evil courses; that, by a due mixture of piety and useful industry,
they may put themselves in such a way of life, as will, in a few
years, render them worthy members of the community.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The public concern
caused Hunter to be very cautious, and shelve his atlas project for
several years.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>More murders for
dissection</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Undelivered
subjects were not limited to pregnant women, as inferred on 14 August
1754, 'Last Sunday two children were stolen from Windmill Street and
two out of Red-lion Square, and yesterday they were found at a house
in Tyburn Road in custody of four women, who had stripped them almost
naked. The women were immediately secured and committed'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>William Hunter later lived in Windmill Street and maintained his
school there, where he promised each student a body to dissect. The
incident seems a sign children were assembled prior to his lectures,
to be available as subjects. As has been noted in a sinister innuendo; "There is no
evidence that William Hunter was ever short of human subjects for
dissection either at his first course or at any of the other courses
which he continued successfully to run up to the time of his death".<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
Nihell lamented the fate of poorhouse children;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
The parish-registers
of this great metropolis are, I presume, open for inspection. There
[one] needs but to examine them, to discover the red-letter
catalogues of the armies of innocents that have been put to death
under the management of the [parish] charity destined to preserve
their life. There will be found not one but many, even of the most
populous parishes, where for fourteen, twenty, or more years, not one
poor babe of the thousands taken in have escaped the general
destruction, and sacrifice to that inhuman fiend of Hell, [self]
Interest. … Will any one here say, that this total mortality was
purely accidental? … What could be so intolerable in the sum to be
added, to that actually paid for their being worse than murdered out
of hand, to save their little lives, and bring them up. <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
One
writer willing to suspect the dark side of John Hunter, was Robert
Louis Stevenson; as it is supposed that Hunter's home in Leicester
Square was the<i> mise en scene</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
for his famous story of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. More
evidence of 18C murders of children must be waiting to be found. For
example, an indication of burking has been noted by Richard Spencer,
a distant relation of Carlisle who draws attention to a BBCTV History
Cold Case production first broadcast on 13 May 2010. The programme
discussed a mummified anatomical preparation of a child, dating to
the late 18C or early 19C, and held in the Edinburgh Surgeons' Hall
Museum. The programme revealed that the waxy resin used to preserve
blood vessels in the subject was compared to samples from Hunterian
Museum and found to match John Hunter's recipes from 1790, thus
likely one of his preparations. Scientific analysis showed the child
was not suffering from malnutrition, and was unlikely to have come
from a workhouse. It appears the subject was obtained illegally, most
likely by burking, to ensure the body was fresh enough for the waxy
resin to reach the minutest blood vessels.</span><span style="font-style: normal;">
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
That
subjects in the plates in the atlases are missing their limbs and
heads, signals that body parts not essential for gravid uterus
research were passed to the anatomy school for student dissection.
Why waste healthy heads and limbs? Portions were used in John
Hunter's own research on teeth; 'Most of the observations contained
in the following Treatise were made by the Author before the year
1755; and the substance of them constantly demonstrated after that
period, in Doctor Hunter's Course of Anatomical Lectures'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
But it seems clear the subjects depicted in the atlases are the tip
of an iceberg of murders of men, women, and children,
especially when one considers the supply required for all anatomy
schools. Subjects came from the unnumbered homeless children, and
other inhabitants of London who disappeared without trace every year
[as they still do today]. Earlier it was estimated 200,000 subjects
were procured for teaching purposes across Britain and Ireland
between 1745 and 1832. If only one in every fifty was burked, instead
of resurrected, it amounts to 4,000 unrecorded murders; if one in
ten, which instinctively seems more logical, it becomes 20,000
murders. Even one murder for dissection a week in London between 1745
and 1832, equates to around 4,000 murders. Alarm arising after the
publishing of Smellie's atlas led to more care in procuring subjects;
with William Hunter preferring those resurrected. However, it is not
credible to believe burking ceased after 1755. A reasonable
proposition suggests that, prior to 1755 the majority of subjects
were murdered, rather than resurrected; with the converse after 1755.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Earlier
it was noted that in a twelve year period before 1760, John Hunter
had been present at the dissection of more than 2,000 bodies. When
asked in 1781 whether he had dissected more than any other man in
Europe, John replied, 'In the last thirty-three years I have
dissected some thousands of bodies'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
If, for simplicity, one assumes 'some thousands' equates to 3,300;
John had dissected at the rate of two per week. But as over 2000 were
in the 12 years prior to 1760, it seems more likely that a rate of
200 per year, or four per week represents how many he dissected
between 1760 and 1781. Twenty-one years at 200 per year equates to
4400. John Hunter continued dissections for another twelve years
after 1781. If one assumes 200 per year during this period, that is
another 2500 dissections. Thus in total John Hunter performed some
9000 dissections, excluding those dissected by his students. How many
subjects were burked as targeted subjects for John to dissect, or
randomly murdered, will never be known. If only one in ten of John
Hunter's own subjects were targeted murders it represents 900
victims. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
revelation of murder for dissection and the associated events, provides a framework
to explain a number of previously puzzling incidents in the lives of
William and John Hunter. Some
references suggest there was, for ten years from 1754, a rift between
William and John Hunter, but this can be discounted by John Hunter's
own words; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
After
having dissected the uterus, with the placenta and membranes, and
made the whole into preparations, tending to show the above facts, I
returned home in the evening, and communicating what I had discovered
to my brother, Dr Hunter, who at first treated it and me with good
humoured raillery; but on going with me to Dr MacKenzie's he was soon
convinced of the fact. Some of the parts were given to him, which he
afterwards showed at his lectures and probably they still remain in
his collection.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The
absence of a rift is also indicated by the friendly salutations from
John when writing to William in 1761-1762, e.g.; 'From your most
affectionate Brother, John Hunter, Belleisle July, 1761'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
What
becomes apparent, is that the divergence of interest between the
Hunters from 1755 to 1764, related to the supply and use of fresh
subjects. John wished to continue working with fresh cadavers, but
William was opposed due to the risk. This
forced John to change from freshly burked subjects, to those
resurrected two, three, or more, days old. To obviate this, John
changed his focus to comparative anatomy, where he could dissect
live, or freshly killed, animals. Then in 1760 John joined the army.
According to Sir Everard
Home's John enlisted in the army for health reasons. However, it is
more credible to believe John joined the army to
obtain fresh corpses. As reported in 1818, 'The number of human
subjects recently killed and in previous high health enabled [Hunter]
to trace the healthy structure of every part and the secretions of
some with peculiar accuracy.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
A mid 18C view 18C of John was; 'To the people round Golden Square,
[Hunter] was a zealous student of the human body, who might or might
not restore you to health, but would certainly wish to anatomize you
if he failed'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
John kept a large menagerie of animals at Earl's Court, with a
common belief the remnants of his human dissections were fed to the
animals;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
So eagerly did Mr Hunter
attach himself to comparative anatomy, he sought by every means in
his power the opportunities of prosecuting it with advantage. He
applied to the keeper of wild beasts in the Tower for the bodies of
those which died there, and he made similar applications to the men
who showed wild beasts. He purchased all rare animals which came in
his way; and these, with such others as were presented to him by his
friends, he entrusted to the showmen to keep till they died, the
better to encourage them to assist him in his labours.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Between
1755 and 1764, William Hunter distanced himself from John's dissections, being
fearful of exposure and prosecution. This explains an otherwise strange account as
reported by
Adams;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
It is certain that
Dr [William] Hunter took every opportunity of acknowledging to his
audience the obligations he owed to his absent brother. My friend Dr
Cogan, who, happily for all who share his acquaintance, lives to
relate transactions of more than half a century past, informs me that
in the winter of 1762-3, Dr Hunter would frequently introduce in his
lectures — "In this I am only my brother's interpreter" —
"I am simply the demonstrator of this discovery ; it was my
brother's." Dr Cogan adds, "The frequency of such
expressions naturally inspired all his pupils with admiration of Mr
Hunter's skill in anatomical researches, and of the Doctor's
ingenuous conduct."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
The date of 1762-63 is significant as, after the death of Hogarth in
1764, William reversed his view, becoming reluctant to acknowledge
John's contribution. Distancing
himself from the discoveries reconciles with another example of
William's odd behaviour, also occurring in 1762. Seeming the
outburst of a man fearing exposure, and so seeking to position
himself on the moral high ground.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.34cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
In 1762 ... William
Hunter published his <i>"Medical
Commentaries Part I",</i> surely one of the strangest books a physician or a surgeon ever
wrote. From beginning to end, it is an incessant attack on those who
discovered what the brothers also discovered; every device of italic
type, notes of exclamation, and long quotations, interrogation and
interjection, heavy sarcasm, charges of stupidity, falsehood, and
flagrant theft — all these things make the book, and there is
nothing else in it, hardly one line that is quiet. It was the method
of controversy fashion able in his time, full of sound and fury. The
points at issue lay between the brothers on the one side, and the
Monroes of Edinburgh on the other side; and to these disputes was
added a controversy with Percivall Pott.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.34cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Despite
all this William added;
'I am resolved to take no further notice of him'. An undercurrent
continued, with rumours
of burking by William Hunter hindering his acceptance in other
circles.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
It was in this year
1767 that a most curious incident arose which can have done nothing
to allay any jealousy which William felt for his brother. In
February, John, wee John, was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal
Society. William, who had nursed that Society for years with neat and
able little papers was still outside its sacred pale. He was elected
later in the year, but it must have been a snub to him. Incidentally
he was a man to some extent fated to be snubbed-by government, and,
above all, by the College of Physicians.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Later
events</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
When Hogarth died in 1764 he was no longer a threat to Hunter. Smellie had
died in 1763, so a second edition of Smellie's atlas could be
published without public challenge. Realising the risks to his own
atlas had receded, Hunter resumed his project in 1764, on a more
defensible scale of one undelivered subject per year, compared to the
four or five per year he and Smellie had procured in 1750-1754. A
dozen pregnant subjects varying terms were procured and dissected
during the ten years 1764-1774, when the probability of finding
undelivered corpses in random burials was no greater than previously,
so again the undelivered subjects must have been murdered. In 1774<span style="font-style: normal;">,
after 35 years of man-midwifery, William Hunter conceded the rarity
of undelivered subjects in the preface to his atlas; 'the
opportunities for dissecting the human pregnant uterus at leisure,
very rarely occur. Indeed, to most anatomists, if they happen at all,
it has been but once or twice in their whole lives'. He wrote, that
until his good fortune, 'few, or none of the anatomists, had met with
a sufficient number of subjects, either for investigating, or for
demonstrating the principal circumstances of uterogestation in the
human species'. With that statement Hunter begged the question; 'If
your statement is true, how did you and Smellie obtain so many ninth
month subjects in a space of five years?' </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Combining the eight deaths
claimed by Douglas with the pregnant corpses obtained by Smellie,
Hunter, and Jenty, and allowing for the Smellie 'Shippen' plates, it
can be seen the anatomists were responsible for over eighty victims
inclusive of the fetuses. Probably more, but those are the only ones
provable by contemporary references. A point to note, is that if
burking was not the source of corpses; near-term naturally dying
subjects would have continued to arrive for dissection at Hunter's
school between 1755 and 1764, but none arrived during that period.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
The mathematical odds of over twenty, mostly near term, pregnant
bodies in 1750-1754, none between 1755-1764, and an average of one
per year in 1764-1774, are astronomical. </span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Van Rymsdyk experienced inner turmoil in making undelivered drawings
between 1750-1754, as his pregnant wife Maria knew the source of the
subjects and their son Andrew van Rymsdyk (aka Andreas van Rymsdyk)
was born in 1753 or 1754. Maria's date of death is unknown, but her
distaste was perhaps the cause of later bad blood between van Rymsdyk
and Hunter. </div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">A
similar dispute related to pregnancy and the burking of undelivered
subjects, involved William Hewson (1739-1774) who later died after he
accidentally cut himself while dissecting.
In 1761-1762, Hewson became assistant and partner in William
Hunter's school. He continued as resident assistant until the
partnership was terminated some months after Hewson married Mary
Stevenson on 10 July 1770. Hunter claimed to dissolve the partnership
as Hewson no longer lived in the school, whereas Hewson
counter-claimed personal ownership of preparations he had made while
teaching there.
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The
public reasons claimed for the dispute seem trivial, with the real
nature of the dispute likely relating to the murder of undelivered
subjects for the resumed atlas. One can expect that Hewson's pregnant
wife Mary learned of the burking, as had Maria van Rymsdyk, prompting
a crisis of conscience for Hewson in burking pregnant subjects during
Mary's pregnancy, so leading to the dispute with Hunter. Hewson
certainly knew the source of subjects, and would not be the first man
to revise his ethics after parenthood, Hewson's son being born on 26
April 1771.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
After the dispute, Hewson moved to the London home of Benjamin Franklin and
established a rival anatomy school. Over 200 years later, in 1998, it
was reported<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
workmen had dug up the remains of four adults and six children hidden
beneath Franklin's home. They were discovered during the restoration
of the house at 36 Craven Street, close to Trafalgar Square. Most of
the bones showed signs of having been dissected, sawn or cut. One
skull had been drilled with several holes. </span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Van
Rymsdyk and <i>Museum Britannicum</i></b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A disagreement with
van Rymsdyk in 1773 over Hunter's atlas, seems the reason for
Hunter's comments in a letter written to Camper in late 1773,
apologising for not sending copies of the plates;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.3cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
Hunter tells Camper
that he is not going to send him any plates. After saying that he had
purchased all the original drawings from Smellie's estate, Hunter
continues, “I had sent some of my plates to Haller – an affair of
delicacy, which I cannot explain, prevented me from sending the rest,
or sending a part to you and some others who asked me. The objection
was so powerful that I was very unhappy at being obliged to excuse
myself when the Princess of Brunswick was here and asked for them for
her physician. That circumstance I am sure will excuse me with you.
Twenty-four of 33 plates are now printed of; and if my business in
the winter will give me leave to attend to the letter-press, the book
will be published in the spring”.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
It is possible the
purchase of van Rymsdyk's original drawings by Hunter from Smellie's
estate aroused a claim by van Rymsdyk for ownership of the drawings,
or for some form of copyright payment, which was refused by Hunter.
Thus leading to a dispute, or 'affair of delicacy' between van
Rymsdyk and Hunter, resulting in van Rymsdyk threatening Hunter, and
Hunter declining to give van Rymsdyk any credit in Gravid Uterus.
This annoyed van Rymsdyk, who four years later, in 1778 authored and
published his own atlas <i>Museum Britannicum</i>. Relevant to
the earlier discussion about the forensic quality of his drawings is
his comment; 'Now Concerning Mine and my Son's Drawings, all the
Objects we have truly imitated without adding or diminishing, an
established solemn Law, I had formed from my Cradle, for my future
Conduct as a Painter.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
The atlas contains expertly drawn images, interspersed by personal
comments indicating van Rymsdyk believed he had been unfairly treated
and was contemplating revenge, writing; 'Remember, that even a worm
will turn, and that I have borne with patience...'.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Van Rymsdyk appears to pun on Hunter's name by alluding to him as; 'Dr Grooper, the
Man-Midwife, the Church-Yard Shark, or Anatomist, who will make a
Skeleton of your deceased wife, &c. after you have been at the
expense of £100 or £200 in keeping her alive, and bestowing a
decent burial on the Corps.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
Several commentators have interpreted van Rymsdyk's target as Hunter,
with the text of his atlas containing further thinly veiled attacks
on Hunter, but under the guise of Dr Ibis. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br />
I look upon myself
as a man that has been ill used and betrayed, the author of my
intended ruin is now at my mercy, and I was advised not to shew him
any; but I will rather use Doctor Ibis, as we commonly do a cur when
he barks at the Moon, </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
'Now caps for men,
are thrown to hit,</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
If it fits you, you
may wear it.'</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Van Rymsdyk goes on
to threaten Hunter with exposure;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br />
It is a great
comfort to me that he is alive, and will see the above, ... for as to
employing of other people to write for one, there is something so
detestable and cowardly in that; and it is a dishonest mean cunning,
in making oneself a great man with other people's merit. ... ... O if
I had a mind to speak how could I expose you, in what we commonly
call a great length. <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In a footnote to an
illustration of a stuffed ibis in his Britannicum, van Rymsdyk refers
scathingly to Dr Ibis, who has a hooked nose, long stiff legs, and
shining black clothes. Van Rymsdyk recommends Dr Ibis look to the
fable of the man and his goose. In Egyptian history, a cult of Thoth
gained prominence. This varied the Ogdoad cosmogony myth, so that it
was Thoth who gives birth to Ra as a result of laying, as an ibis, an
egg containing Ra. Later it was said this was in the form of a goose
- literally as a goose laying a golden egg. The modern version of the
fable explains that a man and his wife possessed a goose which laid a
golden egg every day. They soon began to think they were not getting
rich fast enough, and, imagining the bird must be made of gold
inside, they decided to kill it to obtain the whole store of precious
metal; however, upon cutting the goose open, they found its innards
like that of any other goose. A fable quite applicable to an
anatomist. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Van Rymsdyk's
attacks on Hunter have been noted by other authors, but something not
focused upon is; what threat did van Rymsdyk have in mind to use
against William Hunter? Even leaving aside the cause of the dispute,
Hunter was then a man at the peak of his career, the Queen's
Physician, and a well entrenched and respected reputation. Verbal
threats may be made in the heat of anger and without serious intent.
However, for van Rymsdyk to put his threat into print, implies the
threat was serious and van Rymsdyk confident of its substance. The
analogy of killing and dissecting the golden goose, suggests the
threat related to Hunter's anatomical dissections. One might ask, in
what possible manner could van Rymsdyk have an ability to 'expose'
Hunter. The ability must be peculiar to van Rymsdyk and implicitly,
it has to be something he was in a position to be confident about. It
suggests exposure of an illegal action by Hunter, as would shock
anyone hearing of it and so damage Hunter. Resurrected subjects
continued to be available for dissection at Hunter's anatomy school,
as was common practise, and so not an issue to occasion surprise if
exposed by van Rymsdyk. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Hence
the threat must refer to something worse than resurrecting subjects.
In the context of 18C anatomy, burking and/or the associated medical
experiments including the Caesarean are seen as the only material
matters permitting van Rymsdyk to threaten Hunter based on insider
knowledge. It may be claimed van Rymsdyk over-reacted. Be that as it
may, the important point is that van Rymsdyk believed he had a
credible threat over Hunter, further evidence of burking. A threat to
expose the murder of pregnant women fits within the knowledge
available to van Rymsdyk after completing the second group of twelve
drawings for Gravid Uterus. If the threat had been publicised, it
would have destroyed Hunter. There being no defensive
counter-argument by Hunter, infers the threat was seen as real by
Hunter, further explaining his reluctance to publish the descriptive
text to accompany his atlas while van Rymsdyk lived; and in fact it
was not published until 1794. Van Rymsdyk died in 1788 or 1789,
several years after Carlisle arrived in London. Carlisle studied art
at the Royal Academy and with his interest in art and anatomy,
details of the undelivered subjects likely arose in conversation, as
Rymsdyk had no reason to protect Hunter. </div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The
incident, or something similar, prompted a 1780 poem expressing views
of man-midwifery; </span><i>”The Comforts of Matrimony"</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
by Ned Ward,. One dialogue discusses man-midwifery, including the
murder of mother and baby for a bribe, as well as a death-bed
confession by a man-midwife. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Between a Man-Midwife and his
Wife.</b></span></span></div>
<br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="337*"></col></colgroup><colgroup><col width="319*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="54%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Wife</b> - Strange is the
business you pursue,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">To me, at least, if not to
you; </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Indelicate in high degree, </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">And mocking to all modesty!</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Man-midwife</b> - </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Wise Men much otherwise have
thought, </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">And very different doctrine
taught;</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">They say that Women are not
skill'd,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">In desperate case relief to
yield;</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">And many a Woman would be
lost,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">After long time in torment
tost,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">If skill and judgment were
not call'd,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">To save the more than half
appall'd: </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Who then so fit as Man to
free, </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Poor Woman from her Misery?</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">In knowledge deep, in Science
skill'd,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">At trifles they disdain to
yield. </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Wife</b> - Granted - And
for this reason, I </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Must question long as you
reply: </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">'Tis just this matter of
disdain, </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">That puts our Sex to utmost
pain; </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Incapable of feeling for us, </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Each Coxcomb his instructions
borrows, </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">From ancient fools of high
renown, </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">And deals his doctrines thro'
the Town; </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Till every silly Woman
dreams, </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">That all the Doctor's idle
schemes, </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">(Founded in nature and in
reason,) </span></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">'Gainst Common Sense can be
no treason.</span></span></div>
</td>
<td width="46%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Man-midwife</b> - Of all
the Women ever born </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">You, Madam least should treat
with scorn,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">The Art which sav'd your
scurvy life,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">And gave me back a worthless
Wife; </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">But for the skill of Dr.....</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Wife</b> - Ha! Sir! </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">If I say yes, dare you say
nay, Sir? </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">If I say nay, dare you say
yes? </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Fine times when matters come
to this? </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Why you, and all your paultry
tribe,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Would for a superadded bribe,
</span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">The Mother and the Babe
destroy, </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">And blast the parents
brightest joy: </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">You know not what is tender
dealing, </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Strangers to every generous
feeling. </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">The Doctor whom you speak of,
he </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Had eas'd me of my misery,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">And, in his execution bold, </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Had sent me where no tales
are told, </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">But when you kindly mention'd
Grave,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Thought that your orders were
to save,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Not deeming Hell could be so
base,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">At such a time in such a
case,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">To murder - Nay, Sir, - do
not start - </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">I speak a truth should rive
your heart -</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">With his last breath the
Wretch confess'd</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Thus much - your conscience
knows the rest</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Man-midwife</b> - </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">Nay - Conscience - that be
once your plea,</span></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">You've done, for ever done
with me; </span></span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">And if you do not bid adieu </span></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small;">To
such a Friend, I've done with you.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a></span></span>
</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
The verses infer the
man-midwife asked Dr... to kill his undelivered wife. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
Why you, and all
your paultry tribe, would for a superadded bribe, the
mother and the babe destroy, ... The doctor whom you speak of, he had
eas'd me of my misery, and, in his execution bold, had <u>sent
me where no tales are told</u>
[my emphasis],
but when you kindly mention'd grave, thought that your orders were to
save, not deeming hell could be so base, At such a time in such a
case, to murder - nay, sir, - do not start - I speak a truth should
rive your heart - with his last breath the wretch confess'd thus much
- your conscience knows the rest.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The dialogue
suggests public disquiet and rumour about murderous activities of
man-midwives. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>The Hunter
brothers' dispute</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Six
years after its 1774 publication, the subject of Gravid Uterus did
emerge as a major </div>
rift between the Hunter brothers. Although
puzzling to previous authors, t<span style="font-style: normal;">he
reasons for the Hunters' dispute make sense when overlaid with
burking. In 1780 John submitted, </span><i>"On the Structure of
the Placenta"</i> to the Royal Society. It implies the brothers
were already in dispute, likely due to William's obduracy in not
publishing the detailed text to accompany Gravid Uterus. Paget
comments;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
Time
has not softened the ugliness of this astonishing communication to
the Royal Society. It was read, but not published in the
Transactions. We look for some sort of excuse for it, and find only
such gossip as makes it worse — that William Hunter had
disapproved, nine years earlier, of John Hunter's marriage; that they
had disputed over the possession of certain anatomical preparations;
that John Hunter's judgment had been weakened by ill-health. We are
still left wholly unable to see why he waited twenty-six years, and
then, when he was fifty-two years old, raised a storm over a
dissection that he had made when he was twenty-six.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a></div>
<i>
</i>
<br />
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
John's paper was a direct challenge to William: </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.43cm;">
<br />
The
connexion between the mother and foetus in the human subject has, in
every age in which science has been cultivated, called forth the
attention of the anatomist, the physiologist, and even the
philosopher; but both that connexion, and the structure of the parts
which form the connexion, were unknown till about the year 1754. The
subject is certainly most interesting, and the discovery important;
and it is my intention, in the following pages, to give such an
account of it as I hope may be acceptable to the public; while, at
the same time, I establish my own claim to the discovery. But that I
may not seem to arrogate to myself more merit than I am entitled to,
let me, in justice to another person, relate what follows. The
examination was made in Dr MacKenzie's presence, and in the presence
of several other gentlemen, whose names I have now forgotten [likely
including Harvie].<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
John
Hunter goes on to describe how he dissected and demonstrated the
preparation: </div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.43cm;">
<br />
I returned home in the evening, and communicating what I had discovered to my brother. Dr Hunter, who at first treated it and me with good-humoured raillery; but on going with me to Dr Mackenzie's he was soon convinced of the fact. Some of the parts were given to him, which he afterwards showed at his lectures, and probably they still remain in his collection ... The facts being now ascertained and universally acknowledged, I consider myself as having a just claim to the discovery of the structure of the placenta and its communication with the uterus, together with the use arising from such structure and communication.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a><br />
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
John Hunter then mentions William's discovery of the decidua reflexa, with allusion to the Atlas; That very accurate and elaborate work which Dr Hunter has published on the Gravid Uterus, in which he has minutely described and accurately delineated the parts, without mentioning the mode of discovery. And he quotes some manuscript notes, taken by one of the audience at his brother's lectures in 1755-56, to prove that William Hunter, even then, a year after the discovery of the placental structure, neither spoke of it nor understood the meaning of it.
The letter can be interposed into the discussion concerning murder. In 1755 medical
concern was raised over Smellie's atlas.<br />
<br />
Given that, it is to be
expected that William would avoid mention of the placental subject
and make no claim. From the earlier reference by Dr Cohan that, <span style="font-style: normal;">'in
the winter of 1762-3, Dr Hunter would frequently introduce in his
lectures — "In this I am only my brother's interpreter... I am
simply the demonstrator of this discovery; it was my brother's ...",<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a></span>
it is apparent William avoided a claim to the discovery as late as
1762-63.<br />
<br />
William then sought John's assistance between 1764-1774 with
dissections to complete the atlas, which was published in 1774 with
public adulation of William. He likely assured John he would be given
credit when the text to accompany Gravid Uterus was published. John
accepted this delaying tactic for several years, but when the text
had not appeared by 1780, John wrote to the Royal Society seeking
recognition. William now changed his memory of events, and recoiled
from his accommodating attitude of 1762-63, replying;
First. That the doctrine has been many years ago published in printed books as my discovery, and had been communicated as such by myself. Secondly. Besides treating of it as my own discovery in my lectures on the subject, I have always done so, for many years past, in the very first lecture of my course, which is the most public of all, because the door is then open to every person whose curiosity prompts him to be present. ... I would first beg to know the grounds of Mr Hunter's claim, as I am too well acquainted with his abilities not to think that he must be able to support his claim by something that I am ignorant of.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a><br />
<br />
In reading that reply, one can speculate why William had delayed publishing the text. Logic suggests William was on the horns of a dilemma. A continuation of the status quo, that is without publishing the text, would ensure he was remembered as a great anatomist and, apparently, the discoverer of the placental structure. Conversely, if the text was published, it would draw attention to John's work and might lead to new questions on the source of the subjects. Procrastination was the easy solution, but the delay became unacceptable to John, who wrote to the Royal Society.<br />
<br />
William needed to respond with a public claim, or his presumed right would be seen as invalid. John replied to the Society; Dr Mackenzie had injected the subject, and being unable, as I conceived, to explain an appearance which he had found in dissecting it, sent for me. I came to him, and having examined it further, explained the appearance in question, then, for the first time, to my own satisfaction and that of Dr Mackenzie; and in the evening of the same day, full of the discovery, I came to Dr Hunter, and brought him with me to Dr Mackenzie, to see and judge of the explanation I had given and Dr Mackenzie had agreed to. This is my state of the fact upon which I ground my belief of myself being the author of this anatomical discovery; but as my brother thinks differently, after a period of twenty-five years, I am content to abolish all remembrance of the successions of time in the course of that day, and to suppose that Dr Mackenzie, Dr Hunter, and myself inspected the parts together, and made the discovery, by which means the honour of it will be divided into three, one of which I may surely be allowed to take to myself, the other two may appertain to Dr Mackenzie and Dr Hunter.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a><br />
<br />
After this exchange the issue was dropped, with John feeling he had made his point. However, the detailed text explaining the plates, <i>"An Anatomical Description of the Human Gravid Uterus, and Its Contents"</i><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a> remained unpublished until 1794. The year after John Hunter's death, ten years after William Hunter's death, twenty years after the atlas was published, and over forty years after the first group of drawings was completed in 1751.<br />
<br />
The text was edited by Matthew Baillie, who wrote; No regular description of the anatomy of the Gravid Uterus accompanied these plates, but the plates themselves were merely explained. Dr Hunter had intended, however to make up this deficiency, so as to render the whole work complete. He has made a promise to this purpose in the preface to his large volume of Engravings: and has left behind him a Manuscript containing a Description of the Anatomy of the Gravid Uterus and its Contents, which he had not quite finished. What appeared to me to be wanting, I have attempted with much diffidence to add, but this amounts only to a few pages. It may very naturally be asked why has this publication been so long delayed? To this question I am unable to give a satisfactory answer.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a><br />
<br />
Burking provides the answer. William delayed publishing, fearing discussion would lead to a focus on John Hunter as discoverer, and queries over the legitimacy of the subjects he had dissected. As Baillie observed, the delay was strange but, as the burking scenario has developed, the disparate Hunter brothers actions and attitudes come together in a close fit and thereby explain the circumstances. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Other comments implying knowledge</b>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1783 William
Hunter delivered a speech, published after his death; <i>The
Uncertainty of the Signs of Murder in the Case of Bastard Children.</i>
In the paper Hunter was specific in noting which details made the
death of a baby suspicious, inferring he could readily identify
anything suspicious about a corpse received for dissection, i.e.
whether resurrected or murdered.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
His words seek to excuse his research as based upon an extenuating
circumstances, as if the knowledge obtained by dissecting pregnant
women was so important, he should not be condemned for their murders.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
In those unhappy cases of the death of bastard children, as in every
action indeed that is either criminal or suspicious, reason and
justice demand an enquiry into all the circumstances; and
particularly to find out from what views and motives the act
proceeded. For, as nothing can be so criminal but that circumstances
might be added by the imagination to make it worse; so nothing
can be conceived so wicked and offensive to the feelings of a good
mind, as not to be somewhat softened or extenuated by circumstances
and motives ... In some (it is to be hoped rare) instances, it is a
crime of the very deepest dye: it is a premeditated contrivance for
taking away the life of the most inoffensive and most helpless of all
human creatures, in opposition not only to the most universal
dictates of humanity, but of that powerful instinctive passion which,
for a wise and important purpose.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Third
party knowledge of the source of murdered subjects, is implied by the
actions of Sir Everard Home (1756-1832),<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>
brother-in-law of John Hunter. He assisted Hunter in many of his
anatomical investigations then, among other items, Home burned ten
large manuscript volumes of John Hunter's cases along with many other
items. One report refers to thirty volumes destroyed by Home. Copies of some remained,
but most were destroyed, possibly as they held incriminating comments
concerning undelivered subjects. Clift gave evidence to a
Parliamentary Committee in tears;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">In July, 1823, I first obtained a
knowledge of the circumstance from Sir Everard himself. He began by
telling me that on that very week his house had nearly
been on fire; that the engines came, and the firemen insisted upon
entrance, as they saw the flames coming out of the chimney. Then he
told me that it was in burning the manuscripts of Mr Hunter that the
fire occurred. ... I can hardly describe my feelings on receiving
this information. I said to him, 'I hope Sir Everard, you have not
destroyed those ten volumes relating to the gallery, and Mr Hunter's
lectures.' He replied that he had; and then I mentioned to him
perhaps twenty others, of which I had a very perfect recollection
(and I felt that all the hopes which I had entertained were entirely
frustrated and destroyed; my life had been spent in the service of
that collection, and I hoped to have lived to see those papers
beneficially employed); but he told me that they were all gone, and
then I said to him, 'Well, Sir Everard, there is only one thing more
to do, and that is to burn the collection itself.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
It has
been claimed Home plagiarized the work of John Hunter, and
systematically destroyed his brother in-law's papers in order to hide
the evidence.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
While his plagiarism is generally accepted, it is probable Home
deliberately destroyed the papers as some of them reflected badly on
Hunter.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">By
1760, John Hunter had been in London for twelve years, and himself
was dissecting two or three fresh corpses a week. We have
demonstrated undelivered subjects were burked and there is no reason
to doubt that many other females and males, adults and children, were
also murdered. There are signs of this in a plate from John Hunter's
><i>Observations
on Certain Parts of the Animal Oeconomy</i>. It is based upon a drawing by
van Rymsdyk and one can see the same freshness of subject as in the
atlases. A suggested research proposal requiring access to museum
preparations of the Hunters, is to review their preparations as if
they are modern forensic evidence, to consider how long deceased were
the subjects when the preparations were made. If Hunter's
preparations relating to the testis still exist in Glasgow, it is
likely they came from freshly murdered subjects. Consider;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
It appears, that William Hunter was far behind the two professors, de
Haller and Monro, in beginning to prove, by ocular demonstration, a
connection of the ducts, coming out of the testis, to form the
epididymis: as in a note annexed to the evidence of Henry Watson, for
confirming the complete preparation of an injected testis, shewn by
William Hunter in the autumn course of the year 1752, he says, "I
take the opportunity with pleasure of doing this gentleman the
justice that I did at my lecture, with regard to his observations
upon the testis, by declaring, that he first shewed me the ducts
coming out of the testis to form the epididymis in a preparation
where he had traced them by dissection with great accuracy."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
William Hunter denied his own lymphatic research, attributing it to
John;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
'I had made,' says Dr Hunter, 'no satisfactory observations upon the
lymphatic glands for several years after I had read lectures; and
therefore never took upon me to decide between Nuck and Ruysch,
whether they were cellular or only vascular. All this, as well as the
manner in which the lacteals and lymphatics pass through them, I
professedly gave from authors, and not from my own observations. My
brother found out, to the best of my recollection, in the year 1753,
or 1754, that he could fill those glands uniformly, and the lymphatic
vessels going from them, by pushing a pipe into their substance, as
Dr Nicholls had done in the testis.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
However, in 1762 William claimed he had performed experiments on
testes in 1752;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
Dr Hunter produces the evidence of six gentlemen of unquestioned
veracity, who attended his lectures at the time, to prove that, in
November 1752, he injected the<i> vas deferens</i> in the human body
with mercury, and by that method filled the whole epididymis, and the
tubes that come out from the body of the testis, to form it: that, in
a few days after, the doctor's brother, Mr John Hunter made another
preparation of the same kind, and shewed the testis open, with the
tubular internal substance very generally filled with mercury.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In hindsight, the success of these preparations, after earlier
failures, means fresh subjects and implies murder. A detailed account
of the debate with the Monros over lacteal research is contained in
The Critical Review of 1758,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
and indicates how difficult preparations were to make if there was
the slightest decomposition. Samuel Johnson implied burking when he
wrote;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
What is alleged in defence of these hateful practices every one
knows; but the truth is that by knives, fire, and poison, knowledge
is not always sought, and is very seldom attained. I know not that by<span style="text-decoration: none;">
</span><u>living dissections</u> [my emphasis] any discovery has been
made, by which a single malady is more easily cured. And if the
knowledge of physiology has been somewhat increased, he surely buys
knowledge dear, <u>who learns the use of the lacteals at the expense
of his own humanity</u>. [my emphasis] It is time that universal
resentment should arise against those horrid operations, which tend
to harden the heart, extinguish those sentiments which give man
confidence in man, and make the physician more dreadful than the gout
or the stone.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Consider also a statement by Jesse Foot, made in 1794, when the art
of injecting wax into veins and arteries of subjects was just
attaining the skill achieved by John Hunter in 1750-1754.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">And lastly, it appears, now the art
of injecting is improving, that the difficulty of success is only
surmounted, by attending to the proper subject for injection: and
that it should be only attempted on a testis of a subject which was
in a state of perfect health, and whose age was favourable for a
perfect secretion of seminal fluid; who had not undergone emaciation
from sickness, and </span><span style="font-style: normal;"><u>whose
seminal vessels had been emptied a short time before his death</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;">
[my emphasis];</span></span><span style="font-style: normal;"> and
that it succeeds to a great certainty on the testis of a large animal
than a small one.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Hunter's success being due to access to the fine detail of freshly
killed subjects. Reading between Foot's lines, it is clear pregnant
prostitutes were not the only subjects burked from whorehouses. His
words describe healthy male customers, at risk of murder after
intercourse with a prostitute. The question invited is: Other than by
murdering a prostitute's recent customer, how could Hunter possibly
know a subject had their<span style="text-decoration: none;"> seminal
vessels emptied a short time before death? The most obvious targets
were sai</span>lors on foreign ships docked on the Thames, who
disappeared without trace.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The research into the testis later led to a dispute, as the Hunters refrained from
publishing their work. It is logical to conclude they avoided
publishing because of their use of burked subjects. A paper by John
Hunter in 1774 is another 'red-flag'; discussing the study and
dissection of healthy subjects, so recently deceased as to suggest
the probability of burking. The paper is titled, <i>On
the Digestion of the Stomach after Death</i>
and shows the impact on recently deceased humans;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
In order to judge accurately of the appearance of dead bodies, it is necessary to
consider the changes which they undergo after death ... By this
means. appearances which are natural may be supposed to have arisen
from disease, and parts really diseased may be mistaken for the
natural state. Digestion he observes can neither be reckoned a
process of the living nor of the dead body because although its cause
arises from life yet it can be continued after death.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Murders are inferred in comments of anatomist, John Sheldon, in
discussing lymphatic preparations.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.47cm;">
<br />
They are in general void of contents in the dead human subject. -
Their coats are so pellucid, that it requires the most acute sight of
an anatomist, much accustomed to the appearance of the different
systems of vessels, to discern and distinguish them from veins or
nerves. - There is also much difficulty in opening them in such a
manner as to be able to introduce proper instruments for injecting
them, which in general, (except in the trunk, or thoracic duct) can
seldom be effected with any other fluid but quicksilver. The
difficulty of injecting even with this subtle fluid is increased,
from the minuteness of these vessels in many parts, and from their
being crowded with numerous valves, which render it impossible to
inject them any otherwise, than from branch to trunk. - Great caution
and patience are requisite to dissect and prepare the lymphatics,
either for immediate demonstration or future preservation; and the
difficulty of dissection is increased, from the necessity of
injecting with quicksilver: for if we happen to wound the vessels,
our labour will be lost by the escape of that subtle fluid. ... It is
owing to the great improvement this art has received of late years,
to the invention of new and better instruments for such purposes, and
to the greater frequency of dissection, that we have attained our
present knowledge of that system.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Details of Sheldon's lacteal experiments, forty years after Hunter,
reveal he fed 'living animals', (his euphemism for children), with
milk, then strangled and dissected them;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
In experiments on living animals, other materials can be made use of
with great convenience and advantage, by injecting such fluids into
the cavities of the alimentary canal, as will be readily absorbed;
for instance the feeding of dogs and other animals [children?] with
milk, previous to the strangling of them, the opening of the animal
and perforating the small intestines, and throwing in starch water,
with solutions of musk, or mixtures of indigo and starch water, as
practised by Mr Hunter, have greatly contributed towards making
discoveries upon this system: in a word, any gelatinous fluids,
rendered opaque with such colours as will be absorbed, are extremely
useful for experiments of this kind; for much <u>more can be seen by
examining the vessels distended with a coloured fluid from natural
absorption, than by anatomical injection practised in the dead body,
and these parts may be readily preserved</u> [my emphasis] for future
inspection, as shall be taken notice of hereafter. If such
experiments had not been made, we should still have doubted whether
the veins did not perform the office of absorption.<span style="text-decoration: none;">
The first discovery of</span> the ampullulæ by Lieberkuhn <u>arose
from feeding scrophulous children, in whom the lacteal glands were
obstructed previous to their death with milk</u>, [my emphasis] by
which means not only the lacteal trunks became distended with chyle,
but likewise the ampullulæ. The experiments succeeded much better in
these subjects from the chyle being stopped in the vessels by the
obstructed cells of the lacteal glands.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The fresh nature of the subjects Sheldon found most suitable, implies
they were burked;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
The viscera and extremities of any other subjects than adult ones,
are very improper for dissecting the absorbent system, except the
liver and lungs, and <span style="text-decoration: none;">these may be
injected successfully, even in the foetus. </span><u>If the anatomist
be dexterous in distinguishing the vessels, it is better to take the
parts immediately after death</u> [my emphasis] as he will be more
likely to find lymph, or chyle in the vessels, and have the advantage
of the parts being in a recent state, and consequently of a much
greater length of time to pursue his object. <u>In living animals
[children], the best method of discovering the lacteals (and that
which is most commonly practised) is, to feed the animal with milk
about two hours previous to the killing of him. As soon as the animal
is strangled,</u> [my emphasis] the root of the mesentery is to be
tied; by which means, although the progress of the chyle will be
stopped, the absorption from the intestinal canal will take place for
some time ... If
ligatures were applied to the wrists [wrists!] and to the legs
immediately above the ancles [ankles!] of subjects in <i>articulo
mortis,</i> or
immediately after death the lymph would be stopped in the lymphatic vessels below the
ligatures, they would become distended, and might be injected with
the greatest facility … These glands appear to be of greater
importance to young animals than to adults, and to man and
quadrupeds, than to the other classes of animals. It is a remarkable
circumstance, that in the foetus and children, the lacteal and
lymphatic glands are exceedingly numerous, but they disappear, as we
advance in age; so that in the adult human subject, there is not
perhaps one tenth part of the number found in the foetus.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
But Sheldon's barbarity was taken to task; 'On this, however, we cannot
forbear to remark, that making ligatures for such purposes upon a
human creature in <i>articulo
mortis</i>, or even immediately after death, savours so much of barbarity, that
we cannot think it will be often practised'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a>
Evidence of a freshly murdered subject, killed by having their throat
cut, is inferred in a reference; 'In one instance where the lacteals
were remarkably varicose, the quicksilver from the injecting pipe
passed through the whole course and ran out of the jugular vein. This
circumstance is very uncommon'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm; text-decoration: none;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
In 1782 Sheldon edited four of Lieberkuhn's dissertations, presumably
describing a method also used by Sheldon in experimenting on live children. One reviewer wrote; 'We
must not, for various reasons, enlarge on the contents of these
tracts'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a>
But those reasons become clear in another review; 'The fourth
dissertation contains the description of an 'Anatomical Microscope',
with its horrid apparatus for the purpose of crucifying living
animals, and fixing them and their bowels in such a manner, with
pointed hooks, as that they cannot move, in the midst of their
protracted tortures, so as to disturb the operator, after he has
opened their bellies, and dragged out their intestines for his
deliberate inspection'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">With the
dissection of one child nearly costing Sheldon his life;</span>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
While [Sheldon] lived near Tottenham Court Road he had procured for
dissection a child belonging to some of the poor Irish residing near
him, who, when they found the body was missing, applied to Sheldon.
Being always provided with more than one subject, he gave them an
infant of a different sex. The sons and daughters of Erin knew their
poor dead Paddy had been a boy; they therefore broke into the house
(from which the anatomist had only time to escape over the roof), and
ornamented the iron rails by sticking upon them all the bones and
skulls they could find.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A documented example of large scale burking and injecting of fresh
bodies occurred in Liverpool. On 12 October 1826, three casks
containing eleven bodies were recovered from the wharves and
investigated. The report supposes the clothes were for disguises, but
more likely they were amassed from the bodies of sailors, labourers,
and farm workers, murdered while visiting local whorehouses.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
… having let the
cellar to a man who said his name was Henderson, a cooper, and a
native of Greenock. Boughey then got a crow-bar, broke open the door,
and commenced a search, when he discovered eleven empty casks, four
casks containing <i>salted
human bodies,</i>
three sacks, each containing a body, <u>a
syringe of the description which anatomists use for the purpose of
injecting hot wax into the veins and arteries of bodies, besides a
great number of smock frocks, jackets, and trowsers</u>,
[my emphasis] no doubt used as disguises by the resurrectionists.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The coroner testified that altogether he found 33 bodies, including
five boys and three girls, dead about six or seven days and in a
perfect state. There were no marks of violence, but there was a
thread tied around the toes of one of the women, said to be usual for
some families to do after death. Presumably in the interest of public
order, the coroner deemed the bodies had been disinterred, but that
seems unlikely given the large accumulation of clothing taken from
the victims, who would more likely have been buried in shrouds and
the presence of the syringe. The cellar belonged to a Rev Dr McGowan
who had a language school in the rooms above the cellar, but the
three casks were addressed to a Mr G Ironson at Edinburgh, probably
for the Edinburgh Medical School.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1831 a crew
member of an American ship was recorded as burked while his ship was
in England; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
Burking - New Zealand savages are said to eat the bodies of their enemies slain in
battle; but persons in Great Britain are charged with slaying
inoffensive persons and eating them - or, what is the same thing, of
selling their bodies to the surgeons, that they may obtain food for
themselves. Burking, which is the term used to describe the damnable
offence, seems to make some progress, or it least to cause much alarm
in certain parts of England, and some particulars are given that have
terrific appearances. If there is truth in these things, the people
ought to 'doctor' the surgeons. They are worse than the half-starved
wretches who commit murder, that their own families may have food.
Among the 'burked' is supposed to be the mate of an American vessel
at London.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>The Reaction of Carlisle to Murder for Dissection</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle studied at the RA and lectured there for 16
years. He arrived in London prior to the death of Jan van Rymsdyk and
was a favourite student of John Hunter. He was thus well placed to
understand and interpret Hogarth's iconography in the Stages of
Cruelty. Taken with this, are there signs of Carlisle viewing the
anatomical atlases with concern? Yes, it is shown in his career
direction and actions, particularly his attacks on man-midwifery.
While one must concede advances in medicine, it was not without cost,
as Carlisle noted in quoting Herman Boerhaave (1668-1738) and other
writers; </div></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
If we compare the good which half a dozen true disciples
of Aesculapius have done since their art began, with the evil that
the immense number of doctors have inflicted on mankind, we must be
satisfied that it would have been infinitely better if medical man
had never existed. … </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
In most cases the
proverb is true, that the remedy is worse than the disease, and the
doctor more dangerous than the disorder. The history of medicine
confirms it; every method and system has made a greater number of
victims than the most contagious epidemics and the longest wars.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Paget
recorded Carlisle's first meeting with John Hunter, soon after
Carlisle reached London;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Sir Anthony Carlisle, whilst a pupil
at the Westminster Hospital, was anxious to become personally
acquainted with [John] Hunter. He introduced himself by calling and
requesting his acceptance of a very delicate and well-executed
preparation of the internal ear. Hunter was highly delighted with it,
detained him to breakfast, and in the course of conversation
encouraged him by saying, 'Any man who will set about a business, and
do it as you have done that ear, may do anything he pleases in
London.' On finding that Mr Carlisle had not yet attended his
lectures — as a reason for which he assigned his not being
sufficiently advanced in professional knowledge to profit by them —
'That, Sir,' said Mr Hunter, 'is very complimentary, but I will give
you a perpetual ticket, and shall be glad to see you whenever you
will call.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
As a favoured student of John Hunter, Carlisle learned the unspoken
aspects of John's career. In working with him on the Irish Giant and
other preparations, a natural question to ask, was how undelivered
subjects for Gravid Uterus had been procured. That knowledge appears
to have caused a crisis of conscience for Carlisle, such that he
nearly gave up a medical career in favour of literature. There is
hint of his thoughts in the inclusion in his Old Woman novel of a
quotation by William Havard, who gave up surgery to become an author.
As a trained anatomist Carlisle must have had suspicion of the manner
of death of some subjects offered to him by resurrectionists. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
had two broad choices in following in the research footsteps of John
Hunter. Either overlook the burking by resurrectionists and work with
human subjects, or instead research comparative anatomy. A</div>
natomists
had four choices if they were suspicious of burking, with the first,
and most common reaction being to turn a blind eye, as had happened
with Torrence and Waldie, with the Chicago medical schools over H H
Holmes, and in Britain with Burke and Hare, and Bishop and Williams.
Most anatomists adopted this policy. The second alternative was to
refuse to accept a body believed to be burked, but this was
impractical, it would lead to the anatomist being judge and jury for
each subject and to disputes with suppliers, as to whether or not a
corpse was burked, and hence a refusal of future supply. The third
alternative was to inform the authorities of any suspicions, but this
would again adversely impact on sources of supply, so the anatomy
school would fail. The fourth alternative was to avoid dissecting
bodies supplied by resurrectionists; by ceasing to teach anatomy, by
leaving the profession, or by focussing upon comparative anatomy. The
fourth alternative fits most closely with Carlisle's career. His
actions show he was unwilling to be in a position where he would need
to dissect a burked body. As Professor of Anatomy, Carlisle was
criticised for an aversion to teaching anatomical dissection, instead
focussing on the beauty of form. But in avoiding dissections in his
lectures, he avoided the risk of demonstrating on burked subjects. He
concentrated on comparative anatomy and he lectured on surgery, but
not on anatomy;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Westminster Hospital, August 29 1804, The established plan of
instruction for the Surgeons' pupils of this Hospital will be
continued throughout the present season. Mr Lynn, Mr Morel, and Mr
Carlisle, will exhibit and explain the several chirurgical
operations; and Mr Carlisle will deliver occasional lectures on the
subjects deemed most useful for hospital students. Mr Carlisle will
give an introductory lecture at the hospital, on Tuesday October 2.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
continuing decision to lecture on surgery, but not anatomy, is
evidenced in an 1808 advertisem<span style="font-style: normal;">ent;
'Mr Carlisle FRS and Surgeon to the Westminster Hospital, will resume
his Course of Lectures on the Art and Practice of Surgery, in the
beginning of October at his house in Soho Square'. In 1809 he
inserted a similar advertisement; 'Mr Carlisle will commence his
usual Course of Lectures on the Art and Practice of Surgery, on
Tuesday October 11 at Eight o'clock PM, at his House in Soho Square.
These Lectures arc intended to comprise such Pathological Remarks as
are applicable to the Theory and Management of Surgical Practice.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a>
</span>By 1814 Carlisle was advertising;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
Lectures on Surgery, Physiology, and Pathology. Mr A Carlisle FRS,
FAS, Professor of Anatomy at the Royal Academy and Surgeon to the
Westminster Hospital, will begin his Course of Lectures on the Art
and Practice of Surgery and the Sciences connected therewith on
Monday October 10 at 12 o'clock, at his house in Soho-square. The
introductory discourse is open to all Professional Students, and the
subject to be continued on Mondays and Fridays, at the same hours.
The diseases and accidents allotted to the province of surgery will
be amply treated of, and illustrated by cases from the Lecturer's
experience. A compendious view of the Animal Economy will be adduced
to illustrate the several processes of disease and recovery. The
Operations of Surgery, and the Anatomy of the affected parts are to
be demonstrated.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66sym" name="sdendnote66anc"><sup>lxvi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
His
actions display a willingness to dissect humans, only when he knew
the source of the subject. In 1835 Richard Harlan quoted Carlisle,
adding,
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">In truth the practice of an
unqualified physician is very little better than legalized murder;
thousands of unsuspecting victims are annually hurried to the
oblivious tomb, sacrificed to stupid pride or nefarious avarice; not
to mention the millions whose constitutions are irretrievably ruined
by tampering with active remedies, or by neglecting the critical
moment for the establishment of health.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67sym" name="sdendnote67anc"><sup>lxvii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<b>Medical
Experimentation and Ethics</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
encouraged debate over the concealment of medical experiments and
failures;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
This savage state still exists in the medical world. Do we not meet
daily with reports from different persons, who having tried
successful experiments with new remedies, extol their discoveries to
the skies. Those experiments tried, too, upon the living man, who
unconsciously has swallowed the dose from the experimenter's hand! -
a dose which is known to be a virulent poison, and destructive to
life. If the patient survives, we hear of the case; but if he falls a
martyr to the rash experiment all is hushed, the grave hides the
ignorance of the doctors, and silence keeps all in the dark, unless
some one has watched his doings, an opportunity for which is seldom
afforded! What but this, could have caused Sir Anthony Carlisle to
say “The records of twenty centuries exhibit the precepts and laws
of medicine as unsettled as they were in the days of Hypocrates!”
and Bichat, “at present we are all groping in the dark!” and
Macculloch “The physician is like Nebuchadnezzar, he dreams, and
death is the sentence of him who cannot divine what the dream was.”
We could go on and quote hundreds of such denunciations upon the
present unsettled state of medicine. Can any one ask, is there room
for reform in such dark, and misty subjects? or can any one feel
indifferent in the reform, when all are exposed to the calamitous
results arising from the want of knowledge and certainly in the
healing art.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68sym" name="sdendnote68anc"><sup>lxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
In his 1820
Hunterian Oration, Carlisle reinforced his view on the need for
proper training;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
No man is competent
to estimate the evidence of even a human pulse, in order to inform
himself of the state of a disease, or to guide his judgement in
prescribing remedies, unless he perfectly comprehends the circulation
of the blood, and has been habituated to consider the different
indications of a throbbing artery; yet this slender rationale is a
step above the sceptical empiric, who entertains no belief beyond the
reports of his senses.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69sym" name="sdendnote69anc"><sup>lxix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br />
More evidence of murder by anatomists awaits discovery in 18C and 19C literature, and
in anatomy museums. Consider, for example, the gravid uterus
preparations in Joshua Brooke's Brookesian Museum, which were offered
for sale by auction over 23 days in May 1828.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
This Museum comprehends more than 3000 Preparations in glasses, some
upwards of two feet in height, containing a choice selection of
various parts of the human body, in a natural and morbid state, (many
minutely injected), as well as of Comparative Anatomy. In the
Obstetric Department, there is a large assortment of Casts of the
Gravid Uterus, accurately painted, and also preparations both in
spirits and dried of adult individuals in parturition, shewing the
natural and preternatural presentations, with Foetuses as well as
human Monstrosities,<span style="font-style: normal;"><u> of
every period of utero-gestation, ad infinitum</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;">.
[my emphasis]<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70sym" name="sdendnote70anc"><sup>lxx</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br />
The auction list
refers to <i>ad infinitum</i> preparations of female reproductive organs
and foetuses'. After the sale it was reported, "many of the
preparations reached very high prices". </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<b>More Modern Views in the 19C and 20C</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1847 Dr W D
Chowne delivered a paper <i>'Source of Haemorrahage in Partial
Separation of the Placenta'</i> which passes lightly over the
detailed plates in Hunter's Gravid Uterus. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
I would instance
three high names - William Hunter, John Hunter, and Sir Charles Bell,
all of whom had opportunities of actually witnessing, in the living
body, both the structural facts and physiological phenomena they
described. The Caesarian operation, performed at St George's
Hospital, in the presence of William Hunter, and of several others,
by John Hunter, in 1774, about the time when he was publishing his
plates of the gravid uterus, and therefore at a time when his
attention would be particularly alive to everything connected with
the subject. We have proof moreover that when his <i>'Description of
the Gravid Uterus and its Contents'</i> was written<i>,</i> the
author wrote under impressions and recollections of what he had
witnessed in the living body; and he refers expressly in the said
work to what he had seen 'in a very short and crooked woman, with a
very narrow pelvis, upon whom he saw the Caesarian section
performed'. Keeping in mind that these two eminent men; William
Hunter and John Hunter, had one witnessed, and the other performed,
the operation; and that both had seen the gravid uterus laid open,
and the placenta exposed to view and removed, their views on the
anatomy of the uterus, on the source of haemorrhage, and the means
employed by Nature for arresting it, cannot fail to be regarded as
having a claim on our confidence.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
This “once over
lightly” view seems typical of medical history authors of the 19C
and 20C, with no closer questioning, even in the 21C. No medical
historian has been willing to focus on the genesis of the atlases of
Smellie and Hunter. Andrew Cunningham has come closest in his history
of anatomy, <i>“The Antomist Anatomis'd”;</i> but even this has
twenty pages devoted to George Stubbs and his dissection of the
horse, and only four pages of text on the two atlases of Smellie and
Hunter, with nary a question about the source of their undelivered
subjects. Cunningham seems to have his finger hovering, but be
reluctant to press the button and ask the obvious question, when he
writes;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
What one can
conclude from Smellie's achievements is that knowledge of the
mechanics of natural and obstructed childbirth is essential for the
birth attendant, whether male or female, and that such knowledge can
<i>only</i> be discovered by anatomical observations and be taught by
anatomical instruction.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71sym" name="sdendnote71anc"><sup>lxxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
It is not clear why medical historians have been reluctant to address
the question more deeply. It may be because they fear uneasy
parallels between 18C British anatomical research and the unethical
experiments on humans conducted in Germany during World War II.
Murders were committed on unwilling subjects in pursuance of medical
research, and the images in the atlases are still used as part of
instruction within medical education. In that respect there is an
eerie resemblance to the medical experiments conducted in Germany
during the Nazi era, and more recent use of that data. The results of
the German experiments are available to medical researchers, and a
difficult and unusual ethical dilemma has arisen, which has been
addressed by several authors. Baruch C Cohen has written <i>The
Ethics Of Using Medical Data From Nazi Experiments”</i>. After
discussing the experiments, he proposed guidelines for using the Nazi
data in future research;</div>
<blockquote class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.58cm; text-align: justify;">
Absolute censorship of the Nazi data does not seem proper, especially
when the secrets of saving lives may lie solely in its contents.
Society must decide on its use by correctly understanding the exact
benefits to be gained. When the value of the Nazi data is of great
value to humanity, then the morally appropriate policy would be to
utilize the data, while explicitly condemning the atrocities. … To
further justify its use, the scientific validity of the experiment
must be clear; there must be no other alternative source from which
to gain that information, and the capacity to save lives must be
evident. Once a decision to use the data has been made, experts
suggest that it must not be included as ordinary scientific research,
just to be cited and placed in a medical journal. I agree with author
Robert J Lifton who suggested that citation of the data must contain
a thorough expose' of exactly what tortures and atrocities were
committed for that experiment. Citations of the Nazi data must be
accompanied with the author's condemnation of the data as a lesson in
horror and as a moral aberration in medical science. The author who
chooses to use the Nazi data must be prepared to expose the Nazi
doctors' immoral experiments as medical evil, never to be repeated.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72sym" name="sdendnote72anc"><sup>lxxii</sup></a>
</blockquote>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Cohen's
views give rise to a conundrum. Should a similar caveat be applied to
Smellie and Hunter? Or are they excused by the passage of time?
Medicine has benefited from the experiments of Dr Josef Mengele, but
does that mean he should be held in high respect? Cohen goes on
discuss;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br />
The most shocking and appalling example of the non-repentant Germany
was recently discovered by a West German television network (the
"ARD") which broadcast claims that tissue samples and
skeletons from the corpses of victims of the Holocaust were being
used for teaching purposes at the Tubingen and Heidelberg Medical
Schools in West Germany. The anatomy institute at Tubingen alone
received 1,077 bodies from the execution site in Stuttgart between
1933 and 1945. Tubingen officials said that they "had been
lulled into a false sense of security" and believed that all
remaining body parts from Nazi victims had been disposed of in a
dignified matter. Officials at Tubingen found four slides that had
been prepared from two corpses of Nazi victims who were executed for
political reasons. One was a woman of Polish extraction, the other a
man presumed to be German. In Heidelberg, three slides (out of about
1,500 in the collection) were found dating back to 1941 and 1943. The
names of the people from whose corpses they were taken were not
listed on the slides, but the indication 'decapitatus' indicates that
the people may have been victims of Nazi persecution. The specimens
were ultimately removed from the West German medical schools, buried
in the State of Israel, and given appropriate commemorations.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73sym" name="sdendnote73anc"><sup>lxxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Cohen observes the identities of victims were unknown, even if their
nationality was only uncertain. Given that, one could interpolate
that, if there is probability of 'murder to order' of specimens held
by British medical schools, there is reason to inter their remains
with suitable respect. Following the German definition, it appears
those can be classifiable as 'may have been victims'. Should these
victims now be buried? Detailed consideration, as to what extent the
atlases, research, and museum specimens, of Smellie and the Hunters
should be scrutinised by applying modern standards of bioethics is
beyond the scope of this book, but the subject warrants thought. This
poses an ethical question, as both the Glasgow medical
school and the RCS Museum hold preparations made by Smellie, William
and John Hunter, John Sheldon, Joshua Brookes, and other anatomists.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
As a comparison, after being aired by Dr Howard Israel, there was
debate from 1995 about subjects depicted in an anatomical atlas by
Eduard Pernkopf. In <i>"The Holocaust: Memories, Research,
Reference"</i>, by Robert Hauptman and Susan Hubbs Motin there
is a quote regarding Pernkopf's atlas; - 'On page 586 of the 1943
edition was a drawing of a pregnant woman. The abdomen was dissected
open exposing the intestines and the enlarged uterus. The artist was
Lepier and his signature included a swastika.' In 1947 an Auschwitz
survivor, Olga Lengyel made a reference apparently to this; 'About
two thousand organic preparations had to be dispatched to the
University of Innsbruck. According to instructions, these
preparations had to be made from absolutely healthy bodies, which had
been gassed, hanged, or shot <i>while in good health!'</i><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74sym" name="sdendnote74anc"><sup>lxxiv</sup></a>
After an investigation, the Pernkopf Commission of the University of
Vienna published a report in December 1997. The report stated there
was no doubt that the Viennese school of anatomy had used the bodies
of Nazi victims for scientific purposes. The debate canvassed the
medical ethics behind those images, with some arguing the atlas
should be removed from medical libraries.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75sym" name="sdendnote75anc"><sup>lxxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
<i>The London Literary Gazette</i>, London, 1823, p 586</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
<i>Gentleman's Monthly Intelligencer</i>, London, R Baldwin, 1750, p
436-437</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
<i>The London Magazine,</i> London, R Baldwin, 1758, p 222-223</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Boswell, James, <i>The Scots Magazine</i>, Edinburgh, Sands,
Donaldson, Murray, and Cochrane, 1758, p 605-606</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, D Henry and R Cave, 1757, p
268-269</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
<i>The London Magazine,</i> London, R Baldwin, 1758, p 132</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
<i>The London Magazine,</i> London, R Baldwin, 1758, p 195</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Massie, Joseph, <i>Plan for the establishment of charity-houses for
exposed or deserted women,</i> London, Payne, 1758</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
<i>The Monthly Review</i>, London, R Griffiths, 1758, p 89</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
<i>The Universal Magazine</i>, London, H D Symonds 1758, p 206</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
<i>The Universal Magazine</i>, London, J Hinton, 1754, p 92</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Morris, W I C, <i>Brotherly Love,</i> Medical History,
1959 - pubmedcentral.nih.gov accessed February 2010</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Nihell, Elizabeth, <i>A Treatise on the Art of Midwifery</i>,
London, Morley, 1760, p 196-198</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
Hunter, John, <i>The Natural History of the Human Teeth,</i> London,
J Johnson, 1778, p vi
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Hunter, W, quoted by Keen, W, <i>A sketch, early history of
practical anatomy</i>, Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1874, p 43</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
Hunter, John, <i>The works of John Hunter</i>, with notes, Vol IV,
ed. by J.F. Palmer, London, Longman, 1837, p 62</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 74</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
Adams, Joseph, <span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>Memoirs
of the life and doctrines of the late John Hunter</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">,
London, J Callow, 1818, p 31</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 84</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 52</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 56</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 56-58</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
Morris, W I C, <i>Brotherly Love</i>, Medical History, 1959
January, p 20–32.
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Moore, Wendy,<i> The Knife Man</i>, London, Bantam, 2006, p 130</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Wadd, William, <i>Nugæ chirurgicæ: or, A Biographical Miscellany</i>,
London, John Nichols, 1824, p 83</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><i>The Times, </i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman;"><span style="font-style: normal;">11
February 1998</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
Camper, Petrus, in <i>Opuscula Selecta Neerlandicorum,</i> Vol XV,
Amsterdam, Sum. Soc., 1939, p XXXIX</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
Van Rymsdyk, Jan, <i>Museum Britannicum</i>, London, Moore, 1778, p
iv</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
Van Rymsdyk, Jan, <i>Museum Britannicum</i>, London, Moore, 1778, p
vi</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Van Rymsdyk, Jan, <i>Museum Britannicum</i>, London, Moore, 1778, p
83</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Ward, Ned Jr, <i>The Comforts of Matrimony; or Love's Last Shift,
</i>London, Fielding and Walker, 1780, p 97-99</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 70</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 67-74</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Hunter, John, <i>The works of John Hunter</i>, with notes, Vol IV,
ed. by J.F. Palmer, London, Longman, 1837, p 60-65</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 56</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
Hunter, John, <i>The works of John Hunter</i>, with notes, Vol IV,
ed. by J.F. Palmer, London, Longman, 1837, p 60-65</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 67-74</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Hunter, William, <i>An Anatomical Description of the Human Gravid
Uterus</i>, ed M Baillie, London, J Johnson, 1794 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
Hunter, W, <i>Anatomical Description of the Human Gravid Uterus</i>,
ed M Baillie, London, J Johnson, 1794 p viii-ix</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">
Hunter, William, </span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">The
Uncertainty of the Signs of Murder</span></i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
London, Callow, 1818, p 23-24</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">
Hunter, William, </span></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">The
Uncertainty of the Signs of Murder</span></i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
London, Callow, 1818, p 10</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a><i>
Wikipedia</i>, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everard_Home, accessed
April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 252</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 255</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
Foot, Jesse, <i>The Life of John Hunter,</i> London, T Becket, 1794,
p 18</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
Foot, Jesse, <i>The Life of John Hunter,</i> London, T Becket, 1794,
p 27-28</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
<i>The Critical Review</i>, Vol XIII, London, Hamilton, 1762, p 419</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
<i>The Critical Review</i>, Vol IV, London, Baldwin, 1758, p 523-532</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
Johnson, Samuel, <i>The Idler,</i> Third Edition, London, T Davies,
1767, p 96</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
Foot, Jesse, <i>The Life of John Hunter,</i> London, T Becket, 1794,
p 22</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
<i>Medical and Philosophical Commentaries</i>, Edinburgh, J Murray,
1774, p 27-30</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a>
Sheldon, John, <i>The History of the Absorbent System</i>, London,
Sheldon, 1784, p i-ii</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
Sheldon, John, <i>The History of the Absorbent System</i>, London,
Sheldon, 1784, p 3-4</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
Sheldon, John, <i>The History of the Absorbent System</i>, London,
Sheldon, 1784, p 3-10, p 48</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a><i>
Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, Vol IX, Edinburgh, Bell, 1797, p 234</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a><i>
The Critical Review</i>, London, Hamilton, 1784, p 188</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a><i>
The Critical Review,</i> London, Hamilton, 1783, p 102</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
<i>The Monthly Review</i>, London, Griffiths, 1783, p 548</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
<i>The New Monthly Magazine</i>, London, Colburn, 1816, p 424</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
<i>The Edinburgh Annual Register</i>, Edinburgh, Cadell, 1828, p 225</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a>
<i>Niles Weekly Register</i>, September 1831- March 1832, Baltimore,
Niles, 1832, p 357</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a>
Boerhaave, Herman, quoted in Carlisle, A, <i>Practical
Observations</i>, London, John Churchill, 1838, p xliv-xlv
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a>
Paget, Stephen, <i>John Hunter, man of science and surgeon
(1728-1793)</i>, London, T Fisher Unwin, 1897, p 224</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
Bradley, T, <i>The Medical and Physical Journal</i>, London, Richard
Phillips, 1804, p 285</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
Bradley, T, and Adams, J, <i>The Medical and Physical Journal</i>,
London, Richard Phillips, 1809, p 352, p384</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote66">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66anc" name="sdendnote66sym">lxvi</a>
<i>The Times,</i> London, 3 October 1814</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote67">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67anc" name="sdendnote67sym">lxvii</a>
Harlan, Richard, <i>Medical and Physical Researches, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">Philadelphia</span>,
Lydia R Bailey, 1835, p xxiv</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote68">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68anc" name="sdendnote68sym">lxviii</a>
<i>The Southern Medical Journal</i>, Charleston, SC, 1838, p 34</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote69">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69anc" name="sdendnote69sym">lxix</a>
Carlisle, A quoted in <i>Transaction of Apothecaries and Surgeons</i>,
London, Burgess, 1823, p 78</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote70">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70anc" name="sdendnote70sym">lxx</a>
Brookes, Joshua, <i>The Museum of Joshua Brookes</i>, London, 1828,
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote71">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71anc" name="sdendnote71sym">lxxi</a>
Cunningham, Andrew, <i>The Anatomist Anatomis'd</i>, Farnham,
Ashgate, 2010, p 176-182</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote72">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72anc" name="sdendnote72sym">lxxii</a>
Cohen, <span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Baruch
C, </span></span><i>The Ethics Of Using Medical
Data From Nazi Experiments,
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/naziexp.html
accessed December 2009</i></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote73">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73anc" name="sdendnote73sym">lxxiii</a>
Cohen, <span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">Baruch
C, </span></span><i>The Ethics Of Using Medical
Data From Nazi Experiments,
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/naziexp.html
accessed December 2009</i></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote74">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74anc" name="sdendnote74sym">lxxiv</a>
Lengyel, Olga, <i>Five Chimneys</i>, London, Panther, 1965, p
184-185</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote75">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://draft.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75anc" name="sdendnote75sym">lxxv</a>
Atlas, Michel C, <i>The Case of the Pernkopf </i><i>atlas</i>,
Bulletin Med Libr Assoc. 2001 January; 89(1): 51–58. </span>
</div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-45269650651434362502015-04-06T01:15:00.004-07:002021-11-26T09:41:44.554-08:0015 - Man-midwifery and Phrenology Battles - Was Carlisle Correct? ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<b>The Preliminaries - A Personal and Professional Crusade</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The observation <span style="font-style: normal;">'History is written
by the victors' </span>is of uncertain origin, although some sources
attribute it to Sir Winston Churchill. Much criticism of Carlisle
focuses on his use of the terms "derogatory" and "gross
indecency", but those quotations are isolated from his real
message. As such the words have become engraved for posterity by
man-midwifery, the victors of the day. In contrast midwives, as
losers in the man-midwifery takeover and without a political vote
were not well positioned to record their view of history. As that 19C
view of Carlisle has tainted his reputation, it is appropriate to
revisit and re-evaluate some of the man-midwife v midwife conflict.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Carlisle was opposed to accoucheurs or man-midwives, believing many
were poorly trained. A key factor in his view was the murdered
subjects in Smellie's and Hunter's atlases. Abhorrence of such
actions reinforced Carlisle's opposition to accoucheurs. Not only
were many men-midwives cavalier in their approach, they were
trumpeting their new profession based upon atlases depicting images
of murdered mothers and babies. Carlisle proposed <span style="font-style: normal;">cases
of violent death occurring to mother or infant from the use of
surgical instruments or surgical hands, should be investigated before
a jury. </span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">If
this law had been in existence in 1750, the atlases would have been
investigated before a jury, likely leading to the conviction and
execution of Smellie and the Hunters. </span></span><span style="font-style: normal;"><b>
</b></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle resisted
man-midwifery as unnecessary and potentially dangerous, instead
proposing births were safer if attended by midwives; 'it is always
mischievous to tamper with pregnant women, under the pretence of
hastening, easing, or retarding the most portentous and delicate work
of the creation.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
Despite these words of caution he was unsuccessful and pilloried for
his views by 19C medical media; with man-midwifery displacing many
midwives from their birthing role in Britain. In contrast, German
midwives were protected with better training and a licensing system.
In France, Italy, and Spain, the Catholic church insisted on the use
of females, to protect female modesty. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
It is acknowledged
Carlisle had personal reasons to challenge man-midwifery. At least
five women personally close to him died during, or shortly after
child-birth, including his own mother, Barbara, as well as Martha
Carlisle's mother, and Mary Wollstonecraft, mother of Mary Shelley,
who died from man-midwife malpractice. Mary Wollstonecraft had
intended that Carlisle edit a book for her and in 1792 she shared his
views of man-midwifery; 'Women might certainly study the art of
healing, and be physicians as well as nurses. And midwifery, decency
seems to allot to them, though I am afraid the word midwife, in out
dictionaries, will soon give place to accoucheur, and one proof of
the former delicacy of the sex be effaced from the language.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
In 1793 Caroline Matilda Want, first wife of Carlisle's good friend
Basil Montagu died in childbirth, as in 1806 did Laura Rush,
Montagu's second wife. Another personal reason was revealed in The
Lancet of 1854;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.51cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br />
Sir Anthony wished
the 'wives, widows, and female kindred' of general practitioners to
devote themselves to 'a dishonourable vocation' and it came out
afterwards that the writer kept a mistress, whom he was very anxious
to introduce into practice as a<i> sage femme</i>!<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;">As with many men of scientific
bent, Carlisle was not financially successful. In 1830 he was
estranged from his wife Martha, and his mistress, Mary Eccles was the
mother of his two teenage daughters. As indicated by the passage,
Mary Eccles was already, or wished to be, a safe-femme, i.e. a
midwife. Thus, Carlisle was keen to protect her occupation, and hence
her ongoing earning ability, in the event of his death, to be able to
provide for their daughters. But h</span>e had a greater social
conscience than many of his medical contemporaries. In a Southey
letter of 1799 there is reference to a dinner where Carlisle was
unafraid to express liberal political views;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
There were some blockheads there, one of whom chose to be exposed by
engaging in some classical and historical disputes with me; another
gave as a toast General Suwarrow, the man who massacred men, women,
and children for three successive days at Warsaw, who slew at
Ockzakow thirty thousand persons in cold blood, and thirty thousand
at Ismael. I was so astonished at hearing this demon's name as only
to repeat it in the tone of wonder; but, before I had time to think
or to reply, C[arlisle] turned to the man who gave the toast, and
said he would not drink General Suwarrow, and off we set, describing
the man's actions till they gave up all defence, and asked for some
substituted name; and Carlisle changed him for Count Rumford. It was
a hateful day, the fellows would talk politics, of which they knew
nothing.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
More
signs of Carlisle's social conscience are recorded in 1800, in a
letter critical of inexperienced surgeons on the subject of bougies,
used to address urinary blockages, where Carlisle stated;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.43cm; margin-right: 0.36cm;">
<br />
... the general and indiscriminate use of bougies, armed with
caustic... induces me to trouble you and the public... in the hope of
exciting those who have had greater experience, to make a candid
declaration of their success or failure ... When novelties are
introduced into medicine, whether they be wisely ordered, or the
contrary, it seems an invariable consequence, that the hopes of the
promulgator are too sanguine; and in the hands of the sanguine
imitator this error is seldom amended. ... The young surgeon filled
with the statements contained in books, and the cures so easily
performed at the lecture table, sets out in the profession without
fearing the management of any recorded disease; he flatters the hopes
of the patient, tries his skill, having, in his own mind, from the
first, a full assurance of success, and too often meets with the
bitterest disappointment.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The theme
of his comments was that many young practitioners were overconfident
in their ability. He believed experienced men should ensure both
successes and failures were more widely known. As a young man, he was
outspoken towards his more experienced medical brethren. In 1800 he
outlined his reasons for adopting a new method of conducting a
lithotomy;<span style="font-style: normal;"> 'The various alterations
which eminent Lithotomists had given to the gorget, made me suspect
the fitness of that instrument for its destination. The operations on
the dead subject still more encouraged my suspicions'. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1819
Carlisle spoke strongly against excessive use of calomel as a
purgative;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
Mr Carlisle has expressed himself very strongly on this subject.
"That grave men should violently persist in directing large
doses of calomel, (and I consider any dose above four grains to be
large) and order these doses to be daily reiterated in chronic and
debilitated cases, is passing strange. Men, starting into the
exercise of the medical profession from a cloistered study of books,
and from abstract speculations, men, wholly unaware of the
fallibility of medical evidence, and unversed in the doubtful effects
of medicines, may be themselves deluded, and delude others for a
time; but when experience has proved their errors, it would be
magnanimous, and yet no more than just to renounce both the opinion
and the practice".<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Calomel
comprised six parts mercury to one part chloride and, in the 21C,
Carlisle's antipathy is well understood but, in 1829, Wakley and The
Lancet would still brook no criticism of calomel;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
Having no intelligible principle for his guidance, we find him at one
moment lauding the entire College of Physicians as a class of most
erudite and conscientious men, and, at another, ridiculing the very
basis of their profession, by declaring “medicine a science built
on conjecture, and improved by murder;” and publicly expressing a
belief that “calomel is poison, and digitalis kills people.”<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle's
opposition to man-midwifery is inferred in his 1797 novel
<i>Elizabeth.
</i> An
ex-soldier, who commences to practise as a physician, is approached
by an Italian whose inheritance is in jeopardy due to his bereaved
sister-in-law's pregnancy, and;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
[B]y the answers he
drew from me he discovered that my circumstances were not the most
flourishing, ... [he said] I can recommend you to my sister, who
intends coming to Lisle to lie in. … I have pitched upon you so to
order and settle matters, by your superior understanding and love of
property, by disposing of this unworthy baby in such manner as your
prudence shall direct, so that it may never more appear as the
inheritor of my fortune, … The lady soon afterwards came to Lisle …
and when the time of her delivery arrived, I was myself her
accoucheur, and assured her the child was still-born … I received
the reward of my wickedness, even more amply than I expected …
[Later, the Italian died and] I conceived the design of passing my
little daughter, who was now grown a beautiful child, for that which
was stifled at birth, and by persuading the mother it was the same,
secure into my own family those riches, which to put in the
possession of another, I had committed so wicked a crime.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
incident fits the view of Carlisle as a man crusading against
man-midwifery and Carlisle's crusading mien is inferred in his
novels, where<span style="font-style: normal;"> knights rescuing
damsels are a repeated theme. In developing a story line, he sought
to arrive at a socially acceptable structure. This caused him to
resile from his own earlier student actions, such as body-snatching.
His stance was reinforced by his knighthood in 1820, when he
seemingly identified himself as 'Sir Anthony', with a lance on a
white charger undertaking a personal 'Crusade' against man-midwifery.
In that context, his references to a 'degrading vocation' are seen in
an earnest, but quaintly chivalric, context</span>. But his battle
with Wakley, The Lancet, and other critics had more in parallel with
an eight round boxing match.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<b>Round 1 – The history</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Professionally,
a major factor in Carlisle's entry to the public arena on
man-midwifery was his frustration in seeing man-midwives taking
lives. He saw young practitioners displacing experienced midwives,
and overly anxious to advance the timing of deliveries, either
manually or with instruments. In so doing they under-estimated the
increased risks in accelerating a natural process. Some men-midwives
boasted of their prowess with forceps as if a successful hunter,
rather than showing concern for the safety of the expectant mother
and baby. In contrast, midwives adopted a monitoring role, supportive
of the mother and allowing for natural timing of a birth. Despite
being criticised for his views on man-midwifery, Carlisle was
familiar with the appearance of the gravid uterus, shown as early as
June 1792 when he conducted a post mortem of Lucy Vaughan;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br />
Anthony Carlisle of Leicester Square, Surgeon, being Sworn saith;
That he was called upon this Morning to open the Body of the
deceased, which he Accordingly did. And found a considerable degree
of Inflammation upon the Stomach, and also found a quantity of Oil
and Underneath the same a considerable Quantity of Mineral Substance;
and which Deponent, upon the usual Experiment, found to be white
Arsenic. And Deponent has no doubt but the Arsenic so taken into her
Stomach was the Immediate Cause of her Death. And Deponent saith That
he Examined the uterus and is certain she was not in a State of
Pregnancy.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">There
were earlier male champions of midwives. In 1764 R Davis said iron
instruments were almost constantly used by men. In countering the
argument that difficult labours require not only the skill but the
strength of a man, so it was impossible to deliver some women without
instruments, Davis stated that only happened to women injured by
hasty or forced labours with a former child, or by iron instruments.
It never happened to a woman with her first child, nor ever happened
to the poor with any child. He added he saw continual accounts of the
death of women in child-bed who were women of fashion. In 1797 Thomas
Champney expressed a belief in midwifery as women's work from which
men, except on rare occasions, should be excluded, believing there
was, 'nothing more unnecessary or unmanly than for a surgeon or
physician to neglect his patients, to sit beside a lady's bedside for
hours, together in a natural labour which any female of prudence
could manage'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">In
1825 David Davis published, '</span><i>Elements of Operative
Midwifery.</i><span style="font-style: normal;"> Davis said he had
never witnessed a case of a puerperal patient dying undelivered from
a failure of the powers of parturition, i.e. due to the state of
exhaustion.</span><i> </i><span style="font-style: normal;">Davis
worried about the overuse of instruments; 'Dr Davis considers the
proportion of one in fifty-three, which is approved of by Professor
Burns, as at least four hundred per cent too great, and he comes to
the conclusion that the forceps cannot be required more than once in
three hundred, or at most once in two hundred and fifty cases'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A well-known cartoon
of 1793 compares a man-midwife, with his large and frightening range
of iron implements, and rows of pills and powders; with a midwife,
holding her single tiny implement, an invalid feeding bowl. The
man-midwife is on the left, or sinister, side; from the Latin
'sinister' on the left-hand side, considered by the Romans as the
unlucky side. The midwife is on the right side. Even the rooms
reflect the difference. The man-midwife in a cold room with bare
boards and a pestle and mortar. The midwife instead in a warm
welcoming room with a fire and a carpeted floor.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
The
illustration is described as; <i>'</i>A Man-Mid-Wife, or a newly
discovered animal, not known in Buffon's time, for a more full
description of this Monster, see an ingenious book lately published,
price 3/6, entitled Man-Midwifery Dissected, containing a variety of
well authenticated cases elucidating this animal's propensities to
cruelty and indecency, sold by the publisher who has presented the
author with the Honour of a frontispiece'.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The
debate was not helped by poor choice of words, as when</span> Sir
Henry Halford, President of the Royal College of Physicians, opined
the practice of midwifery w<span style="font-style: normal;">as 'an
act foreign to the habits of gentlemen of enlarged academic
education'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
</span>Inevitably, the question of decorum was raised by many.
Although his authorship is unconfirmed, an anonymous pamphlet
attributed by many to Carlisle was titled, <span style="font-size: small;"><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">"Observations
on the Impropriety of Men being employed in the business of
Midwifery."</span></i></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">
This was published in 1827 and of it, the Trades Newspaper w</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">rote;
'This pamphlet speaks the language of thousands and if it only spoke
the voice of the writer it would be impossible for any one to peruse
it without feeling convinced that it spoke the language of truth'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
</span></span></span><span style="font-style: normal;">Th</span>e
pamphlet alluded to accoucheurs being governed by lust, quoting the
mild example below, which is representative of many similar claims,
accounts, counter-claims, and references, outside the scope of this
work. It refers to 'one of the most celebrated, but unnamed,
professors in London';
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">A particular instance of very gross
licentiousness towards a young married lady, in a case of
miscarriage, [who] does not indiscriminately attend ladies who apply
to him; but when his attendance is required he calls on the party. If
her person be attractive, he agrees to attend her; if otherwise, he
excuses himself on the plea of ill-health, or having already too much
business; professing his call to be one of politeness merely. To
prove motives is impossible.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Difficult,
untrained, or hasty births by men-midwives were not the only causes
of death related to pregnancy, another reason being fatal infection
arising after delivery, due to lack of knowledge about causes of
infection and an additional risk of men-midwives. Whereas midwives
tended not to come in contact with infection, men-midwives came
direct to their parturient patients from dissecting rooms, after
working on diseased subjects with contaminated hands and clothes. It
was not until 1847, that Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis (1818 – 1865) a
Hungarian physician, discovered that cases of puerperal fever, could
be cut drastically if doctors washed their hands before a
gynaecological examination. Semmelweis introduced hand washing with
chlorinated lime solutions for his interns who had performed
autopsies. This immediately reduced the incidence of fatal fever.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
As late
as 1866 an author wrote of the dangers of men-midwives and the action
of fetal destruction. The writer quoted statistics to show the
comparative frequency of child destruction: British practice, 1 in
220 cases; French, 1 in 1200; Paris, itself 1 in 1628; German, 1 in
1944.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
Another reported;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The average frequency of this
fearful operation among British practitioners, according to Dr
Churchill, is 1 in 291 labours; whilst in Paris, Mesdames Lachapelle
and Boivin only had recourse to it 28 times in 42,760 labours. Few
but the initiated know the meaning often hidden under that obituary
notice, 'Stillborn'; such cases are not even registered. .... Dr
Churchill says; 'By the use of the perforator, not only are all the
children destroyed, but extensive statistics have shown that about 1
in 5 of the mothers perish.' ... Dr Gooch, who was lecturer at St
Bartholomew's Hospital, tells us that his predecessor, Dr Thynne,
used to say, 'That you had better open six heads unnecessarily than
lose one woman;' this, although he must have known the fact adduced
in my last letter, proves that about one mother in five perishes
under the operation. Surely, if unborn children had a voice in the
matter, they would prefer the tender heart and gentle hand of a
female attendant, who as proved by the immense practice of Mesdames
Lachapelle and Boivin, would rarely need to assail child-life, to the
experimental officiousness of those young men who are let loose upon
society, armed with fatal instruments and deadly drugs, which under
cover of a legal diploma, they may use with impunity.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a></span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Round 2 – Follow
the money</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<i>The Monthly Review</i> outlined its belief there was such a vigorous defence
of man-midwifery, in essence, due to the excessive numbers of medical
men in London, far more than in Paris;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
It is necessary, for
a moment, to look at the state of the profession, as it is now
organised in [London]. The amount of sanitary aid required for a
given proportion of population is, we apprehend, best determined by a
reference to places, where nothing hinders the demand and supply from
accommodating themselves to each other. The city of Paris, where the
equilibrium between those two principles is suffered to adjust
itself, and which is also in circumstances very nearly alike to those
of London, is the fairest example for the occasion. In Paris the
proportions of medical men (including every species of accredited
dealers in medicine), to the inhabitants, is as one to nine hundred.
In London, the proportion is as one to three hundred and forty-five,
being about the relative proportion of professional assistance, that
is thought necessary for regiments going to battle, or to make a
noiseless but quite as perilous a campaign against the climate of
Sierra Leone.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Another view ridiculed the excessive size of the London medical army; 'The
thing is truly appalling! Only think of nearly four thousand regular
physicians, surgeons, apothecaries, and druggists, without including
the irregular troops of corn-doctors, horse-doctors, tooth-doctors,
and quack-doctors let loose upon us every day, to the imminent danger
of our lives or liberties, our persons or our purses! There is no
wonder, that our bills of mortality are longer than our other bills.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
General practitioners were engaged in a fierce turf war against
midwives and others for fee income;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
The
'general practitioner' as he is called, is ever on the watch to make
a lodgement within a patient's house, to penetrate his doors in a
great variety of characters. He is surgeon, man-midwife, apothecary,
doctor - he has great competition to encounter - the market is
overstocked - delicacy must give way - he must contrive business, for
he must subsist. Experience shews that the surest road to custom, is
midwifery attendance - it is an admirable expedient for hopeless
adventurers. A surgeon-apothecary, a 'general practitioner,' in town
or country, may be wooing customers until doomsday, without effect
.... But let him have a case of midwifery; let him be called to
attend a respectable lady of solvent circumstances in her
confinement, and then, what a golden prospect opens upon him. The
mother and child - they are marked prey.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Round 3 - The <i>Times</i> Letter</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
One of Carlisle's students was Augustus Bozzi Granville who attempted to
form The Obstetric Society at a meeting in his home in 1825, he
studied anatomy under Joshua Brookes, and surgery under Anthony
Carlisle; he even lived for three months in the latter's house as his
private pupil. A letter writer confessed
to have paid two guineas to join the Society and then complained
that;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
[I]t is to a Dead Body that I wish your attention to be directed, or
at least to a body which, whether from asphyxia or inanimation, has
shown no signs of vitality for a very considerable period. I allude,
Sir, to a body of men, or more speaking of men-midwives, who were at
one time congregated under name of the 'Obstetrical Society'. I would
ask what has become of that society; what has it been doing; and why
is it so silent?" ... it was supposed that great things would be
affected during the following autumn. As winter approached, the
struggle was to commence: the three medical powers were to be brought
onto their marrowbones, and man-midwifery was to be in the ascendant.
There were wars and rumours of wars; as act of parliament, or a
secretary of state's warrant, was to turn the College of Physicians
into a Lying-In Hospital, and Sir Anthony Carlisle was to be
compelled to go out as a monthly nurse.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Its limited success caused the Obstetric Society to be short lived and
largely forgotten, although it did prompt Carlisle's
public defence of midwives. In 1827, Carlisle
was at the peak of his career, knighted, well respected, and
successful. He had two teenage daughters, so was not expressing views
formulated from living as a bachelor, nor from a male dominated
household. He came to centre stage with his letter to The Times, but
had expressed his views prior to this, as in his 1817 letter to
Francis Wrangham, referring to a Mrs Knapp, likely a midwifery
teacher;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
I am very much
obliged by your kind interception with the Duchess of Leeds on behalf
of Mrs Knapp. The subscriptions to support her just establishment
have been asked from persons in influence, and have ranged from 20 to
10 guineas each. I am perfectly satisfied of the fitness and the
great advantages of cultivating female midwives and of the opposite
effects continually arising from the indecent employment of men.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In his efforts to
protect the role of midwives, Carlisle wrote to Sir Robert Peel on 26
February, 1827.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
Sir … I am induced
to address you through the press. Man-midwifery has only been
practised in England during the last one hundred years, and it was
introduced as a French fashion. From the beginning it has been
strongly opposed on the score of its indecency, by many distinguished
and scientific medical men, and also, because the birth of mankind
appeared to them to be a purely natural process, so wisely ordered
that it very rarely demands any other aid than experienced mothers
can safely give. Even so late as the time of the illustrious mother
of his present Majesty, that exemplary Queen was personally attended
by good Mrs Draper, without difficulties or misadventures: whereas
the contrary result, under male management, in the fatal affair of
the Princess Charlotte and her infant, will be long remembered.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
If it should be asked why so many professional men addict themselves to a degrading
vocation, it may be answered that the practice of man-midwifery leads
to unlimited power in every family, and thence to lucrative ends.
Women, naturally timid, and ignorant of their own structure, are
peculiarly exposed, during the most important office of their
existence, to the persuasions or menaces of more knowing persons, and
they are thence easily made to believe that the natural and wholesome
delays and pains of child-bed are within the control of medical or
surgical art. - an assumption which is too generally acted upon, and
with unvarying evil consequences; because it is a violation of the
ways of nature. Man-midwives have continually alleged, that ignorant
women practitioners commit many fatal mistakes, and now they present
similar objectives against unlicensed men. If as I believe, the
safeguards of child-birth are amply provided by nature, and that not
one instance in a thousand calls for any other help beyond that any
moderately experienced woman can safely give, why are we to licence
adventurers, who may seek notoriety by desperate acts, often
involving manslaughter - operative acts, the moral propriety of which
is very doubtful, and the time and the methods for performing them,
still subjects for rancorous disputes? But the present affair is not
respecting the utility of man-midwives, but the impropriety of
empowering any special corporate medical body to coerce the rest; to
further impede female midwives in a becoming duty, and to deprive
delicate women of that great reverence of self-respect. Already the
prevalence of man midwifery has driven country surgeons and
apothecaries to adopt this humiliating office, and the number of
women practitioners has been thence so reduced, that paupers are in
many places delivered by apprentice boys under 16 years of age ...</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.43cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
Finally, it may be
noted that the different classes of man-midwives have never yet
agreed among themselves to adopt a common ordeal for certifying the
qualifications of their calling, and you may be assured, Sir, that
many worldly interests will rage against the establishment of any
monopoly of this kind in any single institution, because
man-midwifery is the covert way to medical fortunes. If, however, the
greediness of a few individuals should expose this subject to free
discussion, and the judgement of married men and modest women should
be copiously awakened, perhaps the general custom of employing women
may be again resorted to, and their competent instruction publicly
enforced.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Carlisle's
second letter was addressed; 'To His Majesty's Judges, Coroners, and
Justices of the Peace' </span>and published in The Times of 1 May,
1827<span style="font-style: normal;">; </span><i> </i>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
My present purpose is therefore to awaken the attention of the legal
authorities of this kingdom, and to prepare them for deeds which must
arouse the indignation of parties who may suffer from the audacity of
young adventurers in surgical midwifery. ... I, therefore, most
respectfully submit, that whenever cases of violent death occur to
mother or infant, from the use of surgical instruments or surgical
hands, a coroner's inquest should beholden, and if sufficient proofs
are adduced of hasty violence, or of rashness, the affair should be
investigated before a jury, and a chief reliance placed upon the
opinions of some grave disinterested physician,or experienced
hospital surgeon, they being persons the best qualified to understand
the intricate hinges of life or death, and to determine how far it
may be ever expedient, under given circumstances to hazard the life
of a mother, or that of her progeny.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Now
the murders by Smellie, Mackenzie, and the Hunters have been
evidenced, the effect of the proposal becomes clear. If in effect in
1750, the deaths of the subjects depicted in the atlases would have
been investigated before juries, leading to the conviction and
execution of Smellie, Mackenzie, and the Hunters. In addition 19C
man-midwives emulating Dr
Hagen of Berlin would have been prosecuted. Hagen said for 350
patients, he employed the forceps 93 times and the crotchet in 28
cases, with 26 of his patients dying, a staggering mortality rate of
7.4%. In contrast, Dr Dewees of Philadelphia stated in more than 3000
cases, he had not met with one requiring the crotchet.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
</span></div>
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Inherent in
Carlisle's attempt for justice was his natural remedy;</span><i> </i>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
I, therefore now propose the restoration of the practice of midwifery
to females, beginning with the introduction of the wives, widows, or
female kindred, of medical practitioners, by which every surgeon or
apothecary may secure his female patients against the inroads of his
competitors, and establish a respectable maintenance for such female
in the event of his premature death.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Far from recognising
the seriousness of the matter, on 12 May, 1827, Wakley, conscious of
The Lancet's financial dependence upon man-midwifery subscribers,
laid a defensive smoke-screen;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
The attack of Sir
Anthony Carlisle on the general practitioners of the British empire,
supplies another illustration of the happy constitution of the
English College of Surgeons. … If the accusations promulgated by
Sir Anthony Carlisle had been the effusions of some acrimonious and
malignant creature, altogether unconnected with our profession, they
would even then have excited disgust in every honourable mind; but
considering that they emanated from an individual who is one of the
Court of Examiners of our college; a man, who, on entering office,
swears to “protect and defend every member in the exercise and
enjoyment of his rights, privileges, exemptions, and immunities;”
disgust gives place to feelings of honest indignation. ...<br />
If the
Council of the College were elected <i>annually</i> by the Members,
would any one of them have dared to insult the great body of the
profession in the manner of Sir Anthony Carlisle? No. Yet this man,
who has accused the Members, not only of violating the most sacred of
trusts, and even of murder; aye, of murder! still holds his office in
the College, and will hold it, unless the mode of election be
altered, in despite of the detestation in which he is universally
held. What opinion must the public entertain of General
Practitioners, when Sir Anthony Carlisle, one of the heads of our
College, tells “His Majesty's Judges, Coroners, and Justices of the
Peace” to watch the conduct of Surgeons, and to drag them before a
tribunal of their country, when death is connected with the
employment of surgical instruments? What opinion, we ask, must the
public entertain of the talents and integrity of the profession, when
addresses of this nature, from Sir Anthony Carlisle, are circulated
throughout the kingdom in <i>The Times</i> newspaper? Sir Anthony
Carlisle either does, or does not know, that the atrocities of which
he speaks have been committed; if the first, what steps did he take
to bring their authors to punishment? - if the second, what are we to
think of a man who, in the absence of all evidence, attempts to blast
with one stroke of his pen the reputation of his brethren - the
reputation of those whose interest he is sworn to protect? </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.34cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.34cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
... That his
accusations are false, must be evident to all; because from the
spirit perceptible in his communications, it is but too obvious that
if he were acquainted with any cases of malpractice, nothing would be
more gratifying to his disposition than to give them publicity; yet,
in the utter absence of proof, this man is foolish enough to believe
that his statements will be credited. Sir Anthony's arguments, if
they can be so called, against the cultivation of obstetric surgery,
are no less absurd and unfounded than his attacks on the practises of
the art are slanderous and base. He tells us that labour is “a
purely natural process, so wisely ordered, that it rarely demands any
other aid than experienced mothers can safely give.” We admit, to
the fullest extent, that the birth of a child is “a natural
process,” and that, in numerous cases, an experienced mother could
render every requisite aid; but the <i>rarity,</i> good Sir Anthony,
how is <i>it</i> to he treated? <i>because</i> the birth of a child
is “a natural process,” would you not instruct the student how he
might overcome a difficulty? or when the difficulty does present
itself, would you deprive the poor suffering mother of surgical
assistance simply <i>because</i> child hearing is “a natural
process?” Why, good Sir Anthony, is not <i>walking</i> a natural
process? yet occasionally a man, in his perambulations, tumbles into
a pit, or slips from off a curb-stone under the wheels of a wagon, -
yet, because walking is a natural process, would you deny him the
assistance of surgical aid to replace his fractured and dislocated
bones? Is not <i>seeing</i> “a natural process?” yet, <i>because</i>
“not one in a thousand” is affected with cataract, would you
refuse the blind the aid of a surgeon, <i>because</i> seeing is a
natural process, and “not one in a thousand” is afflicted with
blindness? And although child-birth, with the generality of women, is
accomplished without the assistance of art, yet it occasionally
happens, much more frequently, indeed, than “once in a thousand
times,” that the greatest decision, skill, boldness, and dexterity,
on the part of the practitioner, are required to secure the safety of
parent and offspring, which are sometimes insufficient to preserve
one from death, sometimes both, and now and then the preservation of
the parent demands the sacrifice of the offspring. This is a scene of
anxiety, evidently unknown to Sir Anthony Carlisle. ...</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.34cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.34cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
When a difficulty
really occurs in the course of labour; when a deviation from the
“natural process” does present itself; Sir Anthony, with truly
characteristic disinterestedness, contends that the case should be
submitted to the discretionary “of Hospital Surgeons or Hospital
Physicians of enlarged intellect.” … yet these men of “enlarged
intellect” who have always scouted the practice of Midwifery, are,
according to the statements of Sir Anthony Carlisle, better qualified
to contend against the difficulties of preternatural labour than
general Practitioners, who make the science an object of constant
study and investigation. Hospital Physicians and Surgeons of
“enlarged intellect,” indeed! hospital jackasses would be a much
fitter term, if it be intended as a guide to the measure of their
“enlarged intellects.” Do Hospital Physicians and Surgeons,
previous to their election, afford any proof of their “enlarged
intellect.” it is notorious that they do not; and what evidence do
they furnish after they are elected? Why, speaking professionally,
that they have not a single well-founded claim to the offices they
hold. We could insert a pretty summary of the evidences of their
skill, and if this oysterean swaggerer provoke us with any more of
his effusions, we will furnish the public with a history of his
scientific testaceous exploits in the wards of the Westminster
Hospital.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
At the
time there was no standard qualification in man-midwifery. There was
a formalization of medical education following the Apothecaries Act
of 1815, but midwifery was excluded from the course. The RCS was the
logical place to offer such a course, but declined to do so until
1852, as the College's stance was based upon protecting the role of
midwives. They were concerned that women were not recognised as
doctors, hence the introduction of midwifery courses would lead to a
proliferation of men-midwives, with loss of work for midwives who RCS
believed were better qualified to administer a delivery. In
hindsight, the College might have served midwives better by
encouraging them towards a higher qualification, so allowing women to
become professionally accepted as 'man-midwives'. But in the social
climate of the day, recognition of women was a long way off, as shown
in a satirical report of 1829, intended to ridicule Carlisle;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.58cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Maison Royale de Sante - Polypus of the Uterus and Pregnancy. - The
above combination is singled out as the subject of an interesting
report by --- a lady, Madame Boivin. Ah, Sir Anthony Carlisle, how
would your heart leap with joy, could you see such obstetric blues in
merry England, or preside over a college of literary midwives not
men! How would decency be screened if the harem of generation and
foetation were forbidden ground to all who are not arrayed in
petticoats, and the mysteries of midwifery only to be descanted on by
females! Seriously, however there appears to be something repulsive
in the idea of women writing on such subjects as impregnation, or
relating dissections with perfect sang froid, something which would
seem to sin against decency and feeling. But after all, men's
sentiments on these points are conventional rather than established
on any certain principle, and what passes for modesty and decorum
here, is looked on with dismay by the faithful, or the prudes of
Constantinople. If our Gallic neighbours tolerate and encourage
female practitioners and writers in midwifery, surely we have no
business to complain. We remember reading of a cardinal, who when the
pious sisters of a certain nunnery who complained that they were
scandalized by the posterior view of a naked marble god, erected in
his holiness's garden, recommended them to look another way! If any
of our pious brethren are shocked at French ladies publishing on
pregnancy we would simply repeat the cardinal's advice.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
Carlisle's foes even forged letters purporting to be written by him,
so that he wrote in protest;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
Sir, I feel much obliged by your judicious doubts as to the
authenticity of a letter signed 'Sir Anthony Carlisle'. I have not
written that letter, and I am unaware of its tendency; but as it is a
forgery, the probability is that it issues from a malignant source.
It is not my habit to answer unworthy scribblers, and my friends
remain satisfied with my statements printed under your favour,
Anthony Carlisle.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
his second Times letter, Carlisle wrote;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
The public are not aware that the self-constituted teachers of what
is now termed 'The Obstetric Art and Science' are not any of them
general hospital surgeons, or hospital physicians, and their assumed
authority to dictate to surgeon's pupils the terms on which they may
commit irremediable injuries to women, or destruction to infants are
not sanctioned by law. I do not announce these alarming statements
inadvisedly, but from serious apprehensions, awakened by the
flippancy with which men-midwives write and speak of sacrificing a
child, or wounding the vital parts of a mother.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Despite his efforts,
man-midwives spoke casually of their cases, as if dealing with a
sticking drawer; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
In books of
midwifery, we find frequently disclosures like the following:- "I
recollect upon one occasion where, in my hurry to deliver the patient
I omitted attending to this circumstance (namely, to perforate the
child's head laterally), in consequence of which, the child receded
into the cavity of the abdomen, where I was obliged to follow it, and
deliver by the feet: an operation which, independent of the
enlargement which it must have occasioned in the rent, put the
patient to considerably more pain and distress, than she otherwise
would have had to encounter." (M Keever on Lacerations of the
Uterus). ... "I turned the child," says Mr M Keever,
describing one of his cases, "with great facility, and
experienced but little difficulty until I came to the head, which I
was obliged to perforate behind the ear, in consequence of some
deformity in the bones of the pelvis. I employed all the force I
thought justifiable, for the purpose of completing the delivery, but
in vain: and I am satisfied that had I continued my extracting
efforts much longer, I should have separated the trunk from the
head".<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle wrote his first Times letter with the best of intentions,
but his opponents turned it against him by focusing on his use of the
phrase 'degrading vocation'. This enabled him to be ridiculed, see
The Lancet (1826-27), ii, 177-9 and 456-61. Carlisle's intent was to
highlight men-midwives who took unfair and dangerous advantage of
women when they were most vulnerable. In the context of the day, his
letter would have been better received if instead of 'degrading
vocation' he had used 'opportunist and licentious vocation'. However,
Wakley's campaign was with a view to building The Lancet subscription
base, so would have attacked Carlisle whatever he wrote. The second
letter also had ill-chosen words. Carlisle's view was that
men-midwives believed they should not require to be associated with
nurses and gossips, in waiting days and night for parturition.
Instead, he said, men-midwives taught their disciples to meddle, with
a view to speeding up the natural process. The minor alterations
below [ ]convey Carlisle's message, in the sense of his other
writings.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
That educated men [-midwives] should submit to be associated with
nurses and gossips, for whole days and nights merely to wait the
humiliating events of parturition is contrary to [their perceived]
decency and common sense; men-midwives therefore teach their
disciples, to assume directorial offices, and to be curiously or
officiously meddling, under various pretences, by which the terrified
and shocked distressed object is rendered obedient; and when the
operator's patience begins to fail, or his predictions are at fault,
he rushes into the perilous adventure of using his conjectural
desperate art; and I confidently believe that the increasing number
of deaths to mothers and infants, as well as the pretended
difficulties in midwifery, are mainly if not altogether imputable to
such undue or improper interference.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle tried, without success, to demonstrate men-midwives were
participating in a manner below the dignity of a medical
professional. While that sounds patronising in the 21C; in the 19C,
there was a wide gulf between successful professionals, living in
houses where the number of servants often outnumbered family members
several times to one. To suggest a midwife was a social equal, was
equivalent to suggesting a surgeon was socially equal to his butler,
his coachman, or his cook. In that 19C context, his comments relating
to nurses and gossips fit easily into the social vernacular.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<b>Round 4 – The Awful Combination, Man-midwifery and Phrenology</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
It took courage for Carlisle to speak publicly against man-midwifery,
and to combine his words with an attack on phrenology. From a 21C
point of view phrenology is an irrelevance, but in the 19C it had
many adherents, and was regarded as a major new science, replacing
Lavater's physiognomy, and with Wakley as a champion. It is important
to recognise the influence of phrenology, in Wakley's attacks on
Carlisle. Carlisle referred to Lavater in his 1800 Gothic novel The
Old Woman;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
Without having studied Lavater, I could read from St. Edward’s
looks what passed in his mind, and although they are far from
intelligent, (for his eyes always seem to be hunting for his wits,)
yet I could collect distrust, malice, and something like exulting
pleasure.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741-1801) was a Swiss physiognomist, who
wrote, <i>“Physiognomische Fragmente zur Beförderung der
Menschenkenntnis und Menschenliebe”</i> (1775-1778), based upon
classing people by their looks. The English edition was translated by
Thomas Holcroft (1745-1809), a friend of Carlisle,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a>
who likely assisted Holcroft in translating the medical terms. The
fame of the book, which found admirers in France and England as well
as Germany, rested largely upon the handsome style of publication and
the accompanying illustrations, and a book certain to have been in
Symmons' library. Both physiognomy and phrenology are interesting as
evolutionary failures in the development of medicine. Southey made
reference to Lavater in a letter of 26 April, 1797;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Carlisle and I,
instead of our neighbours' 'Revolutionary Tribunal,' mean to erect a
physiognomical one, and as transportation is to be the punishment,
instead of guillotining, we shall put the whole navy in requisition
to carry off all ill-looking fellows, and then we may walk London
streets without being jostled. You are to be one of the Jury, and we
must get some good limner to take down the evidence. Witnesses will
be needless. The features of a man's face will rise up in judgment
against him; and the very voice that pleads 'Not Guilty,' will be
enough to convict the raven-toned criminal.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br />
In comparison, phrenology was based on the belief physically located
organs, as the seat of different faculties, were able to reveal
individual and universal characteristics of the mind. It was regarded
by many as a pinnacle of modern medicine but Carlisle took the
pseudo-science to task in expressing his opposition to stories of
man-midwives manipulating skulls of newly born babies to improve
their intelligence with a better phrenological shape.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
In contrast, Cooper was in favour of phrenology;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
The medical profession has been accused of illiberal opposition to Gall and
Spurzheim, and of a desire to detract from the merit of their
discoveries, but though the charge be too well founded, it gives us
pleasure to be able to mention several notable exceptions. “Mr
Astley Cooper declared in his lectures at the Royal College of
Surgeons, that he knew nothing of the brain, before he read Dr
Spurzheim's book; and both Dr Barclay and Mr Abernethy requested Dr S
to demonstrate the brain in their theatres.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
Franz Joseph Gall
(1758-1828) and Johann Kaspar Spurzheim (1776-1832) were founders of
the pseudo-science of phrenology around 1800, following on from the
physiognomy of Lavater. They emphasised the brain as the organ of the
mind, with the shape of the skull critical to interpretation of
personality and intelligence. Initially phrenology was lampooned.
</div>
<br />
Satire is often prompted by observation of foolish
actions, as with cartoons. Stories of the manipulation of babies'
heads were recorded as early as 1821, in a semi-satirical passage
with sinister and serious overtones;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.34cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
It is a well known
fact, that the human cranium may be moulded, in early infancy, into
any conceivable shape, from the elastic nature of the bones of which
it is formed. Every medical practitioner from Hippocrates and Celsus
down to Abraham Posset the apothecary, is aware of this fact; and it
is equally well ascertained, that several tribes of savages take
their distinctive mark from the form of the skull. ... As all the
organs of thought and volition are as distinctly laid down in the
cranial map of Gall and Spurzheim, as the position of the Isle of
May, or the Bell Rock, in the charts of the coast of Scotland, and as
I have already demonstrated the practicability of compressing the
cranial bones, at an early age, into any conceivable form, nothing
more is required, to give a new and definite direction to the
thoughts and feelings of the next generation, than to mould the
infant head to a given form, by the simple application of an
unyielding metal head-dress, formed so as only to permit the
development of the required organs. These metal caps might be moulded
from the heads of those whose ruling passions were most strongly
marked; and continuing them of the same form, they might be made of
increasing sizes, so as to suit every shade of growth from puling
infancy to the full grown man.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.07cm;">
Four years later, Spurzheim in his 1825 book, <i>"Phrenology,
Or, The Doctrine of the Mind"</i>, was silent on pressure
applied, between 'transient' and 'less violent', allowing scope for
experiment;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
Moreover it may be demanded whether the form of the head is changed
during the birth and also whether it is possible for midwives to give
it an arbitrary form by compression in any way. ... The brain is also
a living part and is naturally elastic. Transient and not very
violent pressure, therefore does not change the primitive form of the
brain. Excessive, it will undoubtedly derange its organization; and
less violent, but permanent, will alter its natural form, hinder its
development and certainly injure the manifestations of the mind.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
When George Combe lectured on Phrenology in 1824 his audience included
Wakley, 'who expressed his determination to support the science'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
He did so with force and, between 1824 and 1851, The Lancet devoted
over 600 pages exclusively to phrenology, including Spurzheim's
course of lectures in 1825; but Wakley was not alone, James Johnson
described phrenology in 1826 as 'the most intelligible and self
consistent system of mental philosophy that has ever yet been
presented to the contemplation of inquisitive man'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
<i>The Lancet</i> on 30 December, 1826 reported Cooper's belief;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
A corresponding
Society of Phrenologists now exists in London, and indeed, the
science is making progress all over Europe, and even in Asia, Africa,
and America. In Edinburgh, where cranioscopy was considered to be
almost blasphemy, craniometers are now made of steel and carried
about in professors' pockets to measure heads with; and the science
of craniometry engages the profound attention of the mechanics, who
are trying to rival each other in the construction of the best
machines with which to measure the quantum of human intellect. ...
phrenology found its opponents in London; and the various views of it
taken by different persons, became very interesting subjects of
amusement to the true believers in the doctrine. Sir Anthony
Carlisle, who hates all foreign humbug, shook his head, and feared it
favoured of <i>charlatanry</i>.
Sir Joseph Banks openly proclaimed it damned nonsense … Phrenology,
however, proceeded rapidly and surely; schools and societies of it
were set up, and as Dr Spurzheim in his new works <u>which,
by the by, Sir Astley Cooper is reported to have pronounced to be
calculated to fix immortality on its author</u> [my emphasis] has associated phrenology with Christianity, it is likely to get firmly established in the minds of the London schools.
... Let Dr Spurzheim and the phrenologists go on temperately to
publish facts unperplexed by any hypotheses, and we doubt not, that
after years of investigation they will at length add something to the
stock of our knowledge of the structure, functions, and pathology of
the brain.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
Phrenology
provided Wakley, as it did many asylum doctors, with a basis to link
human behaviour with the brain, and assert the medical nature of
mental disorder. Wakley's belief in phrenology and membership of the
London Phrenological Society explains further his attacks on
Carlisle. He had a double spur to attack Carlisle, with many more
subscriptions to The Lancet from phrenologists and man-midwives, than
from midwives! Given the success of his pious 'oyster' attack on Carlisle in 1826, Wakley
had been delighted when in 1827, Carlisle waded into man-midwifery.
In the 19C as much as in the 21C, there is nothing like a controversy
to build circulation revenue for a journal. Nevertheless, Wakley
resented any opposition to phrenology, including Carlisle's 1830
ridicule; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<br />
How much Gall and Spurzheim owe to those - I am at a loss what to term
them, 'man-midwives'. They are, in truth, most clever Phrenological
bump-makers, and if the Cranioscopic system be correct, expecting
parents can procure dispositions and characters in variety, by merely
informing their Gentlemen attendants what temper they wish their
offspring to possess; and he will dextrously mould and form the
pliant yielding shape. ... "What is this delicate young
gentleman's name?" said a noted Surgeon and Phrenologist to a
lady of my acquaintance, "he has the most beautiful
crainiological head I ever met with - such conscientiousness - such
combativeness, but governed by by conscientiousness! - and such
talent for inquiry, his organs of causality, locality, and
acquisitiveness, are positively the most prominent I ever saw."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Carlisle revealed; 'I have seen instances of obliquity of vision, convulsions,
etc. caused most evidently by imprudent fingering'. The
extent to which committed phrenologists went was described in 1829;
'There is in the cultivators of anatomy, as well as other pursuits,
an enthusiasm, a mania, or morbid curiosity, which sometimes requires
to be controlled, as well as the ferocious practices of the
resurrectionist. It is not long since a devotee of science actually
unearthed the remains of his parent, in order to subject her head to
phrenological scrutiny'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
In 1838, 'Mr Morrison of the Newcastle School of Medicine, came
forward as a teacher of anatomy to declare, that in the whole course
of his investigations, he had never met with one fact at variance
with phrenology, but abundant evidence in confirmation of its truth.
… Mr R Carlisle (no relation) stated that after study he had found
phrenology to be in accordance with the Bible'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
<i>The Lancet </i>was still firmly behind phrenology in 1839,<span style="font-style: normal;">
Wakley even elevating Gall above Copernicus, Galileo, Harvey and
Newton;</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
Look at phrenology in France, in Britain, in America; it already directs
lunatic asylums, it presides over education, it mitigates the
severity of the criminal law, it assuages religious animosity, it
guides the historian, and is a beacon light to the physiologist, and
already has it incorporated its nomenclature with the language of
these countries. … Dr Gall stands forth, the equal of Copernicus,
Galileo, Harvey, and Newton; or, if discoveries are to be estimated
by their consequences, he will one day be awarded a place in the
temple of Fame, more elevated than those assigned even to these
illustrious men.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
Carlisle enjoyed verbal ripostes and was able to shrug off Wakley's attacks, even to
the extent of telling stories against himself. One which must have
riled Wakley was a dinner, where Carlisle had been invited to meet
the celebrated Spurzheim on his return to London, probably during
1825.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.52cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br />
Carlisle, like the
majority of his really scientific brethren, had no faith in the
doctrines of the new theory: but the ordinary rules of politeness
might well have restrained him from any open manifestation of
contempt for the real or pretended science, in the presence of its
most conspicuous votary and apostle, on an occasion when the
assembled party had been summoned expressly to do him honour.
Carlisle however thought proper to assail him from the opposite side
of the table, with a jeering challenge to try his demonstrative
powers on his, Carlisle's head, which he declared himself quite
willing to submit to the professor's scientific manipulation; plainly
intimating, at the same time his utter incredulity as to the alleged
results of the science, and his conviction that it was a delusion and
an imposture. The host and the rest of the company witnessed with
much annoyance this sarcastic onslaught on the 'lion' of the day. But
the calm and shrewd professor, after having borne with an impassive
countenance the undisguised incivility of his assailant, quietly
observed, addressing the lookers-on: “I will not trouble the
gentleman to submit his head to the scrutiny of my fingers. I am
sufficiently skilled in the science, to read his character at this
distance. Any one who is even slightly acquainted with the principles
of phrenology, can see by a glance at his frontal development, that
the organ of <i>self
esteem</i> is <i>immensely
large</i>!”<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The circumstances of this challenge
to Spurzheim, reinforce the view Carlisle ailed from Asperger's
Syndrome. His </span>views remained valid in 1840, when even the
Phrenological Journal concerned;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Phrenology appears to be in danger from a bastard brood of her own who ape the
mountebank's trade and sell characters in the most approved fortune
telling fashion. These gentry have quitted the lines upon the palm
and have taken to the bumps the head. ... A host of persons have
their curiosity aroused by these arts and make haste to purchase the
advice and manipulations of the phrenological mountebank. Each who
gets his own head manipulated is certain to carry his paper voucher
to some of his acquaintances and to recommend them to follow. ... But
the art [of Phrenology] is itself too profitable to be suppressed by
the discountenance of the superior phrenologists. They might as well
attempt to stop the sale of quack medicines, as to suppress the sale
of phrenological flatteries.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.52cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
The crossover between Carlisle, phrenology, and Frankenstein (as in
chapter 23) is seen in a 1832 caricature titled 'Frankenstein's
Creating Peers'. Prime Minister Grey holds a paper labelled 'Royal
Assent' over a table of ready to be enobled new peers. He is saying
“Now I have this Promethean Fire I fear to use it”. He is
encouraged by Brougham who says, “Oh! Proceed. We must only be
careful to see they all have the bump of obedience prominently
developed on their craniums; 'tis the only way to neutralize the
smile of those already made”. An angry Duke of Wellington peers
through a leaded window.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<i>Hansard</i> for 20 April
1842 testified to Wakley's ongoing commitment, 'Mr Wakley said, he
had had a practical demonstration of the truth of phrenology. He knew
before he had commenced his observations, that he should not convince
the noble Lord'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
As late as 1856, cranial manipulation was still
practised; 'So far from phrenologists rejecting physiognomy they have
corrected its errors and confirmed its truths and regularly use it as
an aid to cranial manipulation and admeasurement in the development
of character.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
One ponders what diagnosis Wakley may have determined, could he have arranged
phrenological examinations of William Smellie and the Hunters! To
be fair, not all journals were such as avid supporters of phrenology
as <i>The Lancet</i>. <i>The Literary Gazette</i> of 1829, included phrenological
comment on the skulls of the murderers, Burke and Hare;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Mr Stone, in his pamphlet, demonstrates that the phrenological
developments of the monsters Burke and Hare not only do not
correspond with, but directly and absolutely contradict, their
acknowledged characters. Burke's organ of destructiveness was below
the common average in fifty skulls, and his organs of benevolence and
conscientiousness above the average; and yet Burke was one of the
meet cold-blooded, systematic destroyers that ever disgraced
humanity: his cerebellum was also below the average size. With regard
to Hare, Mr Stone, from an accurate comparison shews that the organ
of destructiveness in this atrocious murderer was not above the
average size, and that many individuals of exemplary character, at
the same time that they possess this organ larger than he did,
exhibit a greater deficiency in the alleged organs of benevolence and
conscientiousness.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: -0.05cm;">
Similar observations gradually lowered the enthusiasm for phrenology
and by the 1850's the phrenological societies were mostly defunct,
with few publications on the subject; the early advocates being
either very aged or dead. The science became largely discredited and
moribund in Britain, but by then Wakley in defending phrenologists,
had left his criticisms of Carlisle, to coin a phrase, 'carved in
ink', for later historians to parrot without question.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: -0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: -0.05cm;">
<b>Round 5 – The Effect on Wives, Mothers, and Midwives</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: -0.05cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">In
the years 1828-1830, surgeons and anatomists were under intense
spotlight over the Burke and Hare murders, the Anatomy Committee
hearings, and several high profile criminal cases. At this time
Carlisle was the RCS President and the public face of anatomy. In
this climate </span></span>Carlisle and M Adams antagonised
man-midwives by publishing papers which provided new material for
Wakley. I<span style="font-style: normal;">n 1830, Carlisle published;
</span><i>"An Important Address to Wives and Mothers"</i><span style="font-style: normal;">.
The paper reviewed an inquest concerning the use of forceps which led
to the death of the patient. Carlisle's view being; 'The evidence not
only shows how unnecessary and dangerous force and instruments are in
a great majority of labours, but is also a convincing proof
that,....the duties so generally usurped by men are such as females
are equally capable of performing'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
A surgeon-accoucheur who in twenty years had been on call for between
20,000 and 30,000 deliveries over that period, testified he did not
believe more than twenty times had it been necessary to call a
surgeon in cases of difficulty or danger. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: -0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: -0.05cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Whereas the defendant, Mr H, stated
in evidence, 'persons like me, who have a great deal to do in
midwifery, are obliged to make use of instruments',<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a>
so claiming his time was more important than risking the life of a
mother and child. Carlisle said 'instrumental labours', were much
more common in private practice, than in hospitals or public practice
where patients were left to female attendants who called a surgeon
only in cases of danger. In contrast men with extensive medical
practices maintained their schedule by hastening labour with manual
force and use of instruments. It was these men that Carlisle focused
on; 'No man is justified is risking the safety of either mother or
child, because he 'has a great deal to do' or another lady to visit,
or another being to drag into the world'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a>
He noted midwives did not use instruments, but they felt if they were
able to use them, they would do so more seldom than men, arguing that
parturition, though most painful, is not in itself dangerous. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: -0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: -0.05cm;">
Carlisle had observed that children delivered by midwives in almost
all instances possessed well-shaped heads, but expressed concern that
gentleman attendants to 'Mr Obstetric', were moulding newborn babies
heads to achieve crainiological heads to best fit with the teachings
of phrenology. Parents were informing their man-midwife what temper
they wished their offspring to possess, so the man-midwife could
dexterously mould and form a pliant yielding skull to the requisite
shape. Carlisle w<span style="font-style: normal;">rote, 'we have so
many of Gall and Spurzheim's kind friends about us that many
accidents happen which would not have occurred had you, as in past
years, but midwives. The wonder is not why so few happened then, but
that more do not take place now'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
</span>Another area of concern was man-midwives acting to bring away
the afterbirth far too soon, as had led to the death of Mary
Wollstonecraft. A fourth concern expressed by Carlisle was where a
gentleman attendant was present and determined the labour was
progressing too slowly, when he had another call he needed to make.
In these circumstances Carlisle knew of instances where the
attendants would 'draw a little blood' from their patients for the
avowed purpose of 'preventing inflammation', but in reality to retard
the process of delivery and enable the gentleman to leave for a time
to visit another patient.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: -0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Adams
quoted an unnamed London Lying-In Hospital where, in 1829, for 377
deliveries, four women died and twelve children were stillborn,
despite the staff including; a physician, a physician accoucheur, a
consulting surgeon, and a surgeon. He showed the death rate was ten
times that of a Paris hospital of ninety years earlier, where the
statistics for Hotel Dieu without men-midwives, recorded<span style="font-style: normal;">;
'Women delivered from January 1, 1740 to January 1, 1742 amounted to
3,743, five of whom died, and 29 children were still-born'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
Carlisle recalled over 500 lives saved by Mrs Newby; </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
In the year 1803, the Royal Humane Society was called upon to attend
to the claims of Mrs Newby, the matron of the City of London Lying-in
Hospital, a situation which she had filled for thirty years, a
enduring which had recovered more than five hundred children, some of
whom for five, others for ten, and some for twenty minutes, did not
discover any signs of life, but by her judicious exertions were
restored to their mothers. The society did not hesitate for a moment
in bestowing upon her a medal, bearing upon it an appropriate
inscription.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Carlisle also commented, 'The Medical faculty of Marienburgh has
lately conferred the degree of MD on the widow Boivin, head nurse and
directress of the Hospital of the Fauborg St Denis at Pa, the
authoress of a clever work on midwifery and other writings'. In the
final pages of his paper, Carlisle wrote in favour of more medical
training for women.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">One of the pamphlets
was of 39 pages, authored by 'A Medical Practitioner' and titled<i>
"An Important Address to Wives and Mothers on the Dangers and
Immorality of Man-Midwifery"</i>. The frontispiece depicted a
man-midwife holding the tools of his trade and more instruments on
his person. Common perception had Carlisle as the author. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"> </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The second by Adams,
had an even longer title; <i>"Eyes for the Blind, Man-Midwifery
Exposed! or, What It Is and What It Ought to Be: Proving the practice
to be injurious and disgraceful to society; the frequent cause of
jealousy and disgust; and of serious mischief to delicate and modest
families: with Broad Hints to New Married People and Young Men and
Women"</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a>
It ran to 96 pages and was dedicated 'To Sir Anthony Carlisle', where
Adams wrote; 'My object is to do good by showing to the world, that
man-midwifery is a beastly, an indelicate, an unnecessary, and an
injurious imposture; a theme on which you have so boldly and so
properly expatiated, and for which you have been subjected to such
invidious and contemptible abuse.'</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The tragic results
of man-midwifery cases came before surgeons required to perform
autopsies;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Mr Charles Bell ...
makes the following important observation, ...
I wish that my present subject permitted me also to state, what I
have found on dissecting the parts after the use of the crochet; and
in particular where the forceps had been used, as I must presume, in
a case improper for them. The injury which the seeming harmless
instrument, the forceps, is capable of doing might then be proved,
and a wholesome admonition given to young surgeons.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
With Wakley unwilling to address the dangers and attacking only in
broad generalities, the debate continued. Carlisle was handicapped by
the lack of political power or professional status for women. Being
unable to vote, nor qualify as doctors, women had no means of
expressing a potent political opinion. From the 21C, it is
interesting to speculate how the various male protagonists would have
been viewed and judged, if the debate had commenced under the
political and voting environment of the 21C, or even 100 years later
in 1930. By 1829 ridicule of Carlisle had even crossed the Atlantic.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">We wonder that Sir Anthony Carlisle
did not bring forward Madam Boivin as a practical proof of the
soundness of his arguments, for assuredly this lady might fearlessly
enter into single combat with the most doughty champion of man
midwifery here. Armed with her shining and terrific pelvimeter,
“Couronne par la Societe Royale,” we should like to see Madam B.
break a lance or a pair of long forceps with Dr Davis, or as the
lawyers would say, “join issue” with that celebrated accoucheur,
on some of the more intricate problems of mechanical midwifery, as
for example, “the evolution of the foetus”. We are strongly
inclined to think that the female MD would prove victorious in
obstetrical tactics!<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Further evidence
Carlisle was pro-midwife, and not anti-women, is shown in his role as
President and Honorary Treasurer of The British Ladies' Lying-in
Institution. This was formed in March 1829; 'For Female attendance
upon Indigent Women at their own habitations - for supplying them
with Medicines, when needful - for supplying Women during their
Confinement - and for the proper instruction of respectable Women
Midwives'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
The patronesses of the Institution included many prominent women, who
endorsed fifteen practising midwives in central London.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a>
Among the patrons were; HRH Duchess of Kent, Duchess of Argyll,
Dowager Duchess of Richmond, Duchess of Richmond, the Countesses of;
Abingdon, Belfast, Mountcharles, Harrowby, various Ladies, and 'other
persons of distinction too numerous to mention'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a>
The Institution advised; 'This Institution was established in March
1829, by its noble patronesses, in consequence of the reduced number
and the oppressed state of respectable midwives. It offers
instruction and employment to well educated females, and it is
designed to replace the practice in the hands of that sex which
nature and female decorum alike point out, while it tends to arrest
the mischievous and desperate male adventurers'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66sym" name="sdendnote66anc"><sup>lxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The British Ladies' Lying-in Institution was
lampooned by the media, including this key 1829 letter linking
Carlisle, as President, to Mary Shelley, as author of <i>“The Last
Man”,</i> published in 1826. It would have been a small step to
link his research and then label Carlisle, 'Sir Anthony
Frankenstein'.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="break-before: auto; font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.48cm; margin-right: 0.21cm; page-break-before: auto;">
<span style="font-size: small;">To the Editor of the London Medical Gazette; </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="break-before: auto; font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.46cm; margin-right: 0.21cm; page-break-before: auto;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Sir, </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="break-before: auto; font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.48cm; margin-right: 0.66cm; page-break-before: auto;">
<span style="font-size: small;">The account of the British Ladies Lying-in Institution
caused me immediately to conceive, and had not my phreno-gestation
been interrupted professionally, I should have brought forth some
days ago. Whether my labour has been a natural one, and the bantling
legitimate, or you will consider it a lusus naturae, and refuse to
announce its birth, I am all anxiety to know. It is my first-born, Mr
Editor, do not deny it an existence; let it only breathe in your
columns, and I will be pregnant again (on some other subject) the
first opportunity. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="break-before: auto; font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.46cm; margin-right: 0.66cm; page-break-before: auto;">
<span style="font-size: small;">In the language of Earl Grey, 'I will stand or fall with
the order to which I belong.' Allow me to ask what is to be the fall
of men-midwives? Are we to be exterminated like the Janizaries, or
transformed, as were the Prussian lawyers, by making the tall ones
grenadiers and the short ones drummers and fifers? Shall we take the
places of those <i>midwives</i> who will step into our shoes, or, as
a climax are our bodies to be dissected <i>alive</i>, the vox populi
being inimical to examining <i>dead ones</i>. </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.24cm; margin-right: 0.21cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">'Hung be the heavens with black.' </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="break-before: auto; font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.48cm; margin-right: 0.64cm; page-break-before: auto;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><u>I know a lady, Mr Editor, who proposes to increase
the world without our sex. The author of the </u><i><u>Last Man </u></i><u>never
dreamt of such a crisis.</u> [my emphasis] The lords of the creation
to be no longer wanted! What is to become of us, either as <i>men </i>or<i>
midwives</i>, under such proposals, is earnestly enquired by, </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.48cm; margin-right: 0.64cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Yours in hope, </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.48cm; margin-right: 0.64cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Rusticus?, </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 1.48cm; margin-right: 0.64cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">July 16th 1829.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67sym" name="sdendnote67anc"><sup>lxvii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In promoting the British Lying-in Institution, Carlisle castigated
man-midwifery;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">We do also confidently assert, that
more women perish under the hands of men-midwives than among
female-midwives, who with sexual compassion, and from their personal
feelings, are induced to await, with more patience, the providential
course of nature. With these convictions, we publicly denounce the
employment of surgical instruments, and of every sort of manual
violence during the hallowed proceedings of labour. We dispute the
superior success of the best-informed among men-midwives, while we
deny the capability of </span><i>young</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
men, and abhor their indecent presence on such occasions.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68sym" name="sdendnote68anc"><sup>lxviii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle's effort on their behalf were not unrecognised by women in minor ways.
The Court Journal records an endorsement by Carlisle in favour of Mrs
Huntley, of 294 Regent Street, by special appointment Stay and Corset
Maker to her Majesty, who had the honour to announce to the Nobility
and Gentry that she had received from her correspondent in Paris
every new pattern of Parisian Corsets.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69sym" name="sdendnote69anc"><sup>lxix</sup></a>
A book endorsed by Carlisle was, <i>"Female
Beauty as preserved and improved by Regimen Cleanliness and Dress"</i>,
by Mrs A Walker,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70sym" name="sdendnote70anc"><sup>lxx</sup></a>
who expressed
various strong opinions, including on French women, although one can
assume she did not sell many copies in France! </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.39cm; margin-right: 0.39cm;">
<br />
The women of France considered generally, are the ugliest in Europe.
Their forms are angular, meagre, and arid; their skin of greenish
brown, or olive hue; their hair of an opaque dirty looking black, and
excessively coarse; their forehead low; the general configuration of
the head, as observed by Count Stendhal, like that of the monkey;
their eyebrows compressed; their upper lip frequently covered with
moustaches; and their voice rough. The most conspicuous point, in
their moral character, is a degree of vanity so excessive, that
combined with such an exterior, it seems to the calm and sensible
observer, at once ludicrous and contemptible, an affectation so
monstrous, and attended with such shrugs, shrivels, and grimaces,
with nasal ongs, and guttural hrrs, so brutal in sound, that on first
witnessing them, we begin by thinking it an unmerciful quiz, and end
by discovering it to be a disgusting reality. Strange to tell, it is
in this very ugliness and vanity, which have just been described that
originates French fashion.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71sym" name="sdendnote71anc"><sup>lxxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
In 1836, Donald Walker published, <i>Exercise
for Ladies,</i> dedicated to Carlisle's daughters, 'Miss Barbara Leonora Carlisle and
Miss Anna Bella Carlisle, for their amiable qualities and high
accomplishments'. Its content reflects opinions concerning exercise,
that now seem quaint. In
1867 the People's Magazine recalled Carlisle's feminist sympathies; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.35cm;">
<br />
Men accustomed to the sight of pain as a general rule are more impatient
under it in their own persons than any others. The late Sir Anthony
Carlisle, when President of the College of Surgeons, remarked that
butchers, doctors, soldiers, and sailors, roared louder under the
knife than any other class of patients. In general women support
serious operations with far greater courage than men; and singularly
enough, those women whose education and previous life have thrown
them less in the way of noticing bodily pain, endure operations
better than others.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72sym" name="sdendnote72anc"><sup>lxxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<b>Round 6 – The
Wider Battle</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
It is appropriate to record some other vituperative responses by the
medical media to Carlisle's paper, and to the paper, <i>"Eyes
for the Blind"</i> by Adams. In contemplating those responses,
it is relevant to consider, as with Wakley, whether the media had
ulterior motives; as with <i>"The Medico-chirurgical Review and
Journal of Medical Science", </i>edited by James Johnson. He was
Physician Extraordinary to the King, but in 1830 had his own axe to
grind against the RCS, of which Carlisle was President the previous
year. Although Carlisle is not named, it appears Johnson held him as
one responsible for blocking Johnson's appointment as physician to
King William IV. The background to Johnson's dispute is apparent in
questions by the 1834 Select Committee on Medical Education.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
3625 - When His present Majesty came to the throne, had you any
reason to expect an appointment as physician to His Majesty? A - Yes
I had; he had always been very kind to me, and I was his physician
extraordinary when Duke of Clarence; I expected therefore that the
appointment would be continued to me when he succeeded to the throne.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3626 - Has His Majesty kept his promise? A - I did not appear in the
physicians list when it first came out.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3627 - Had you any correspondence on this subject with the fellows of
the College? A - I wrote, in the first place, direct to the King, and
I was immediately gazetted.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3628 - Had you any correspondence on the subject with the fellows of
the College? A - I suspected, when I found myself omitted in the
list, that some influence was exerted to prevent my being placed upon
it, and I wrote to Sir Henry Halford to that effect; but, before I
got his answer from the country, I was gazetted, and I perfectly
acquit him of any influence prejudicial to me personally. I
understood that he had the making out of the list, and my name, and
those of all the other licentiates (except two, who had been
physicians to George the Fourth) were omitted. Sir William Burnett,
who was at the head of the Naval Medical Department, was omitted and
he has never been inserted to my knowledge.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3629 - What do you mean by your last answer, that you had reason to
believe, on the first making out of the list by the president of the
College of Physicians, the names of no licentiates were included in
it? A - Nothing but the simple fact that they were so with the
exception stated. I draw no inference from it.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3630 - You know that they were omitted? A - Yes, in the first
instance some licentiates were admitted afterwards. I refer to the
physicians extraordinary.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3631 - You mean that certain licentiate physicians, by His Majesty's
desire, had their names afterwards included? A - I do not know what
steps may have been taken to have these names admitted.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3632 - Did it happen that, after a certain list excluding licentiates
had first been made out, another list appeared, in which the names of
certain licentiates were included? A - Yes; one, two, or three (I am
not quite certain which,) appeared at irregular intervals on the list
afterwards.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3633 - Do you know whether Sir Gilbert Blane's name was not in the
list first made out? A - I speak of physicians extraordinary to the
Duke of Clarence. Sir Gilbert Blane was physician to the late King.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3634 - He is physician to the present King? A - Yes he is.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3635 - It would not follow as a matter of course that he should be
physician to the present King, from having been physician to the late
King? A - No certainly not.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3636 - Is there not a rank in which the physicians to His Majesty
stand; first, second, third, or fourth? A - Yes they are in order.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3637 - Do you know in what rank Sir Gilbert Blane stood as physician
to George the Fourth? A - I think he was either the first or second;
I think he was very near Sir Henry Halford, but I cannot speak
positively.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3638 - Do you know whether when he was appointed physician to His
present Majesty, any one was put over his head? A - Yes; I understand
that Sir Henry Halford was placed over his head.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
3639 - What is meant by the respective rank of King's physicians? A -
The numerical station on the list.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">3640 - You know that a certain
degree of importance is attached to the order in which they stand, as
first, second, and third, of His Majesty's physicians? A - I do not
know that there is any particular rank or distinction, except that it
naturally follows, that those high on the list are those most
immediately about His Majesty's person, and attendant upon him</span>.<span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73sym" name="sdendnote73anc"><sup>lxxiii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle's
paper thus presented Johnson with an opportunity to revenge himself;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
We attach very little importance to the names, or the want of names
in these pamphlets. The harangues of a late President of the College
of Surgeons (Sir A Carlisle) form a sufficient clue to the source
whence these detestable and dishonourable pamphlets emanate ... there
can be little question that it is either the product of the Knight's
brains - or that it has been concocted under his immediate auspices.
... We cannot of course assert that these pamphlets were written by
Sir Anthony Carlisle; but this we can assert, [he] shares, in no
small degree the disgrace of its 'beastly and indelicate' tendency.
We shall not occupy our pages, or the time of our readers, with any
analysis of these detestable productions, dishonourable alike to the
heads and hearts of their authors. Of all the addresses to the worst
feelings and prejudices of the ignorant which we have ever read,
these pamphlets bear off the palm. When we contemplate the
opprobrious epithets and the criminal accusations which this man
lavishes on his brethren, and when we reflect that there is not one
atom of fact for their foundation, we are at some loss to account for
the motives which could have led him to the publication of such
slanderous insinuations. ... That any man ... could have indited such
an epistle, or dared to insinuate such criminal conduct against
three-fourths - nay nine-tenths of the medical profession, we
fearlessly deny ... Where did Sir Anthony learn these things? He
never practised midwifery himself, and yet he has the presumption to
decide on the dangers, the violence, and the injuries occasioned by
the obstetric art!! … Sir Anthony's insinuation respecting
'unnecessary secret operations' - 'wounding the vital parts of a
mother', & etc. are so abominable and diabolical, we would not be
author of them for all the gems of Golconda's mines. If the writer of
the foregoing letter occupied the highest pinnacle of fame in the
medical profession, it would level him in the dust;- as it is, the
author has not much to fear from the depth of the fall.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74sym" name="sdendnote74anc"><sup>lxxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
As with
Wakley, it appears the comments by Johnson had little to do with
man-midwifery, and a lot to do with perceived personal injustice. An
even stronger, bias against Carlisle, was demonstrated by Michael
Ryan, author of <i>"A Manual on Midwifery",</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
published in 1828. In the book Ryan proposed the term obstetrician as
a replacement for man-midwife, one of the earlier references to the
word. Like Johnson, Ryan had a penchant for self-promotion and an
opinion of himself not shared by all. When it was published in 1828,
the London Medical Gazette noted in a scathing review the numerous
errors, and commented with irony on an experiment reminiscent of John
Hunter; </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
When an author [Ryan] favours us with his own opinion of his
productions, it saves the reviewer a world of trouble. It was,
therefore, with no small gratification that we perceived Dr Ryan had
adopted this judicious course. ... Some authors, like coy damsels,
like to have praises whispered in their ear, although pretending not
to hear, or, at least, to disbelieve them: but no such affectation
mars the complacent self-possession with which the writer before us
indicts the praises of Dr Michael Ryan. ... Let him expunge all
passages laudatory of his own productions. Then, and we fear not till
then, with the industry he has displayed, may we hope for a work
entitled to receive at the hands of impartial judges, a degree of
praise equivalent to that which the present edition has met with from
a less disinterested source'. … we are told that, under certain
circumstances, 'there is nothing to save the patient but that godlike
operation of restoring the flickering vital spark, transfusion'. ...
And again, 'The name of the man who employed it successfully, in
restoring human life will live for ever, the name of Blundell shall
be revered as long as the godlike science of medicine is cultivated.
What can be a more brilliant discovery than that which has the power
of restoring expiring nature, of recalling the fleeting breath, than
that which fearlessly and successfully robs the king of terrors of
his prey, and deprives the grave of its intended victim, and restores
the dead to life? Is not this unequalled operation more splendid,
more daring than even the poetic fiction of abstracting ethereal
fire, for the animation of inorganic matter?' When we found that Dr
Blundell restored 'the dead to life', we thought it merely a figure
of speech into which the writer bad been hurried by his poetic fury;
but turning to the next page, we find in sober prose, that he bled
dogs to 'asphyxia and death', after which he restored them by means
of transfusion.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75sym" name="sdendnote75anc"><sup>lxxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">In
attacking Carlisle, </span>Ryan breathed fire and brimstone even more
fiercely than Johnson:
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Of all the beastly, licentious, demoralizing, and mendacious
productions of this age, these before us stand unparalleled.
Miserable and half starved booksellers have often been indicted for
publications much less indecent and abhorrent. These are of course
anonymous, but rumour has ascribed one and both to a silly old man
named C---- not the notorious wretch who has so often debased man,
below the lowest of the brute creation by his horrible publications,
but an exact prototype. We shall not pollute our pages with the
filthy and disgusting trash contained in these miserable pamphlets,
but shall refute the groundless assertions which are maintained in
them. We must premise that the reputed author has never practised
midwifery, and consequently is ignorant of its dangers and
difficulties, though he has the effrontery to declare that man
midwifery "is a disgrace to morality and feminine dignity,' that
medical aid is unnecessary; and that medical men solicit the chastity
of their patients, and seduce them generally. What a doting, ignorant
person, the man must be, who seriously maintains such absurd
opinions. ... Has this licentious and profligate pamphleteer ever
perused a treatise on obstetricy? Has he ever considered that men a
thousand times more talented than he have published large volumes
upon the subject? Does he presume to think, that he is right, and
nine-tenths of the profession are wrong? If he be of this opinion,
some brace of mad doctors ought, out of sheer compassion and for the
maintenance of professional dignity, have him confined as a lunatic.
...<br />
He is a disgrace to his species, and a malignant libeller of his
profession and of humanity. He has forgotten the primeval diction,
which has for ever doomed the human female to the agonies of
child-bed, and he is ignorant, or pretends to be so, of the
innumerable difficulties which may aggravate her sufferings, and
which can only be removed by the aid of our profession. ... Happily
the opinion of the profession is against this author, who Goth as he
is, must yield to reason and to science, which he cannot control. The
voice of the profession, and the sanction of an enlightened public,
are against him ... [etc., etc., etc.!] He is much more obscene and
disgusting than the most infamous quack in this city of empirics. He
is the worst enemy of decency and public morals, and ought to be
prosecuted by the society for the suppression of vice, or by his
Majesty's Attorney-General. Fellows much less guilty have been
prosecuted, but he moves in respectable society; he is not a proper
object for prosecution, there being one law for the rich, and another
for the poor in this country. Had he been a starving bookseller
prosecution would speedily overtake him, and arrest his iniquitous
career.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote76sym" name="sdendnote76anc"><sup>lxxvi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
seems fortunate not to have been burned at the stake on a charge of
possession by the devil! The 1834 Report of the Select Committee on
Medical Education, contains Carlisle's evidence relating to
midwifery. In describing himself as a hospital surgeon, he gave
evidence that surgeons often s<span style="font-style: normal;">aw 'as
many patients in the character of a physician, as of as surgeon' and
in performing many post-mortems, he was well acquainted with the
errors and failures of medical men; </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
5966 - Do you
approve of excluding from the Council members of the College, who
practise midwifery or pharmacy? A - Their pursuits and habits of
business are widely different from those of surgeons. Neither Mr
Hunter, Mr Cheselden, nor Mr Cline, would have liked to have kept a
shop and to have sold medicine. Such offices are derogatory to the
dignity of persons who are to be rulers or legislators in their
profession.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
5967 - Is it not
often necessary, that the practitioners in midwifery should perform
dangerous and hazardous surgical operations? A - So they say.
Perhaps, I think a little differently; and that more surgery is
introduced into midwifery than is really necessary. Parturition, I
consider a natural operation, and that the less surgeons have to do
with it the better. If people interfere with these great ordinations
of nature, they generally do wrong. I know that I am not much
supported in my way of thinking by the profession; although many are
of the same way of thinking who, yet, dare not avow it.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
5968 - Are there not
cases in midwifery when the patient must either die, or undergo some
artificial succour? A - I have had no experience, except when called
in by others, but in all the cases in which I have been called in, it
has unfortunately turned out, that some obtrusive mistake, some
specious, artificial interference has first happened, and generally
that which was predicted, did not turn out to be true; so that the
interference was either destructive to the life of the child, or was
found afterwards to have been unnecessary. That is my experience: I
may therefore be said to be a prejudiced man; but I think my opinion
is confirmed when I consider that the whole empire of China, ranging
over the greatest space of any nation in the world, and through the
greatest variety of climate, comprehending the most refined people,
and the most uncivilized people, have even no women midwives and no
practitioners in midwifery at all. Of course the African nations; the
same and the Hindoos, the same.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
5969 - In the early
part of life, did you ever practise midwifery? A - Never.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
5970 - Is
parturition affected materially by climate? A - China ranges over the
snowy, and also over torrid regions.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
5971 - Are there not
countries where women bring forth in the field deliver themselves,
carry home their child, and undergo no interruption to their usual
occupations; and do such countries afford an example for us to
follow? A - I believe, in many countries, it is so said; and it is
assumed to be peculiar to one climate, but I understand from Captain
Ross, that among the northern Esquimaux people with whom he lived,
the females go to work, and lug the child about wrapped up in a bit
of bearskin, an hour or two after it is born. So also in Lapland, the
woman is brought to bed and there is neither man midwife nor woman
midwife.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
5972 - To what do
you ascribe this apparently slight degree of constitutional
suffering, which parturition occasions in certain countries? A - I
purposely mentioned the wide range of the empire of China, for the
sake of showing that it is not climate, or civilization. Because it
is the same in hot climates and in cold climates; in the highest
state of artificial life, among the refined orders of Chinese, and in
the rudest and least cultivated state, among the lowest orders of
Chinese. Still I have not heard that there is any scarcity of human
beings; for the population is increasing in all those places.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
5973 - Is it a fair
inference, that because no succour is necessary in one country, where
parturition is easy, therefore it is not wanting in this country,
where parturition is difficult? </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
A - There is a slight exception to that in our own country. We have been obliged to
make laws, to prevent clandestine parturition in women. Servant
girls, for example, who are got with child, if they do not give
notice of their condition, are amenable to punishment. Now that has
arisen from the notorious fact, that girls have been delivered,
sometimes, in the same chamber where another woman slept, without its
being discovered. In such cases, it was not known either that the
woman had been delivered, or that she had been with child. She
certainly could know nothing about man midwifery; and those things
are so frequent, and so within the compass of possibility, that it
has been found necessary to legislate upon it. <br />
5974 - Are you
opposed, not only to the admission of midwifery practitioners into
the Council, but also to the College examining on midwifery? A -
Entirely. I think the teachers of midwifery would never agree to it;
for it would subject their pupils to inquiries which would, perhaps,
lead to the rejection of a great many of the students who have been
instructed by men midwives of supposed capability.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
5975 - Is it because
it is below the dignity of the Council to receive such men into its
body, that you object to their reception? A - I consider it
derogatory to any liberal man to assume the office of a nurse, of an
old woman; and that it is an imposture to pretend that a medical man
is required at a labour. The craft therefore involves imposture,
mischievous interference, and gross indecency. Not only is it beneath
our dignity, but it is not within our province. <u>I do not consider
the delivery of a woman, as a surgical operation; it is a natural
operation</u>. [my emphasis] The men midwives have recourse to
surgical operations, to make themselves in request, and to make it
believed, that parturition is a surgical act, which it ought not to
be. All interference in my opinion is injurious, particularly
premature interference, or a meddling with the processes of nature.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote77sym" name="sdendnote77anc"><sup>lxxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Dr Dickson was one who endorsed the views of Carlisle and was
possibly the author of, <i>“Observations on the impropriety of Men
being employed in the Business of Midwifery”</i>;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
We look on the man midwife as neither more or less than an usurper
... He can boast of having expelled the whole race of matrons; a
gentle and a genial craft, whose ministry was at once so safe and so
soothing. What could be more decent than their attendance on the
mother elect? Their 'stealthy pace' as they glided from side to side,
appearing in a moment at any part of the couch, where the patient
might want their presence, would not have discomposed an eye-lash:
ever ready with their word of sympathy or comfort ... forbearing to
answer the frowardness of their pain-stricken companion, but taking
all in gentleness, and waiting her humour through the long, long
night, with unwinking vigilance. And then, when the danger is over
how their frown dissipates, and that low tender accent which seemed
to be but the echo of the patient's sigh, is changed to a tone of
congratulation: and in time, they ring out their grateful anecdote,
or rally the new mother upon past perils and distresses, making the
very bed-posts shiver with their modest mirth and simple
pleasantries. … Does then a real necessity exist for the employment
of accoucheurs; or is not the plea for that necessity altogether
delusive?
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Another
opposed to Carlisle was Dr J</span>ewell, but The Monthly Review
itself replied to Jewell;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
In this passage, we believe is compressed the whole case of the
accoucheurs. Because in one out of a vast number of cases. it is
possible that a man-midwife may be of use therefore, say they, employ
him in all instances. This is the reasoning of those gentlemen.
Suppose that once in eight hundred times, it becomes necessary to
perform such an operation in midwifery, as very dextrous and refined
surgery is alone equal to; we ask, will the attendance of the
operator in the other seven hundred and ninety-nine ordinary cases,
fit and prepare him to execute his part in the difficult one. No such
thing; but it is the art of the male-midwives to diffuse an opinion
that it will.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote78sym" name="sdendnote78anc"><sup>lxxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Round
7 – The Final Rounds</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
was ridiculed by many 19C, especially those who had made fortunes
from midwifery. One was James Blundell (1791-1878), who for years had
the largest class on midwifery in London, and died worth £350,000.
Blundell wrote in 183<span style="font-style: normal;">4; 'Of all the
obstetric operations, there is none, perhaps, more easily performed
than that of a perforation; and many a life, I fear has fallen a
sacrifice to this facility of execution'. Blundell did</span> not
appear to have realised his Freudian slip, in the use of the word
execution! Blundell went to make a joke of his remarks in discussing
the use of instruments;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Except the point, all other parts of the instrument should be smooth
and rounded. 'Thou shalt not kill' might perhaps with great propriety
be engraved on one blade of the instrument. To the obstetric
eulogist, Sir Anthony Carlisle, I commit the choice of a motto, from
the same decalogue, for the other blade.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote79sym" name="sdendnote79anc"><sup>lxxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<i>The Lancet</i> was not
alone in castigating Carlisle, <i>The British Medical Journal</i>
commenting;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br />
One can well imagine the delight with which the class would welcome
the allusion to Sir Anthony Carlisle, 'handsome and good-humoured but
very vain and crotchety', surgeon to Westminster Hospital, who had
written the pamphlet on <i>The Impropriety of Men being
Employed in the Business of Midwifery.</i> The delicate satire
of the phrase 'obstetric eulogoist' would be immediately perceived
by Blundell's hearers, and the duller students would ask the brighter
ones, or those with a more extensive acquaintance with the Ten
Commandments, 'What motto from the decalogue does he mean?' and would
receive as answer, 'Why, thou shalt not bear false witness against
thy neighbour to be sure." And, ever afterwards, in their
professional life, these students could hardly pick up a perforator
with feticidal intent, without seeming to see in burning letters on
the one blade, 'Thou shalt not kill', and on the other, printed in
green, the green of envy, 'Thou shalt not bear false witness against
thy neighbour', be he surgeon or obstetrician or physician'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote80sym" name="sdendnote80anc"><sup>lxxx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
As
indication of Blundell's bias, and his audience of men, Blundell
often recalled a story against midwives, a story which would have
been better qualified as; 'the exception that proves the rule';
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
A lady ... was seized with convulsions. Her attendant was sent for,
and decided that there were no indications of labour, and that a stay
was unnecessary. Quitting the house, then, the midwife returned on
the morrow, early in the morning, when the patient was found dead.
The child, too, the birth of which no one seems to have suspected,
lay lifeless beneath the clothes. In managing human affairs, the men
have done so many foolish things, that they have no claim whatsoever
to treat with severity the errors of the women. Allow me, however, to
remark that, in this instance, the error, a great one, was committed
by a female practitioner.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote81sym" name="sdendnote81anc"><sup>lxxxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
was even ridiculed in 1831 by a visitor to Pompeii; '<span style="font-style: normal;">...
the Pompeian ladies employed male accoucheurs, who had all the
implements of their art nearly similar to those of the modern men
midwives … What will Sir Anthony Carlisle say to this! I tried to
procure for him a pair of Pompeian Forceps, as a frontispiece for his
next anti-obstetric pamphlet, but was unsuccessful.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote82sym" name="sdendnote82anc"><sup>lxxxii</sup></a>
The ferocity of media attacks on Carlisle, was recalled after his
death by <i>The Medical Times</i>;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br />
After this <i>hideous</i> dissection we trust Mr Wakley will inter
his five witnesses with the utmost speed. Every step of this cunning
man is but another step for him in mischief and misfortune. He has a
fate to fill, and the mild Jobyns, poor Sir A Carlisle, and so many
others, died in vain if he escape it. Science and human worth cannot
always be the <i>victims</i> of a vulgar cupidity.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote83sym" name="sdendnote83anc"><sup>lxxxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
And again on 9 March 1844, in reporting upon medico-political
manoeuvring by Wakley;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br />
We will illustrate the transaction by an analogy. <i>The Lancet</i> has
published no small amount, of what some would think free strictures,
others low and vulgar blackguardisms, against the council of the
College of Surgeons. Suppose that 'corrupt and knavish' body headed
by the illustrious but much abused Abernethy, or that
half-assassinated surgeon, Sir Anthony Carlisle had treated Mr
Wakley, the sole proprietor and editor of the antagonistic Journal,
as Mr Wakley and his <i>Medical Reform</i> Committee have treated Mr
Weathers! How vulgarly vigorous, how mouthingly emphatic would have
been the declamation against such a <i>'cowardly'</i>, attack on the
freedom of the press! How strong an additional argument of the sordid
dishonesty, the 'wanton despotism' the shabby precipitate injustice,
of the 'wicked corruptionists'! Inconsistent, falsehearted brawler! -
'Mulato nomine de te Fabula narratur'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote84sym" name="sdendnote84anc"><sup>lxxxiv</sup></a><span style="font-style: normal;"> [Latin for, '</span><span style="font-size: small;">If
you merely change the name you will see that this story is about
you']</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
Wakley and <i>The Lancet</i> continued to regard Carlisle as a whipping boy
in an extraordinary outburst in 1854, fourteen years after Carlisle's
death. Wakley could not resist this attack, knowing it was impossible
for Carlisle to defend himself from his grave. The title for the
article was <i>Sir A Carlisle's Attacks on Accoucheurs</i>, but
<i>The Lancet</i> spitefully cross-indexed the article as <i>Gross attacks of the
late Sir A Carlisle on the wives and widows of medical men.</i></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.43cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
<span style="text-decoration: none;">With that singular sense of
equity which characterizes the clique who have sought to raise a</span>
crusade against <i>The Lancet</i>, a feeble contemporary last week selected
exactly twelve words from an article published in 1826, to show that
the whole career of The Lancet has been 'wrong and disgraceful'. We
propose to do ourselves the justice of quoting the article in
question <i>verbatim,</i> feeling confident that its perusal and a
knowledge of the circumstances under which it was written, will tell
against our opponents rather than against ourselves. It must be
premised that in 1826 Sir A Carlisle led a party in the College of
Surgeons opposed to all professional improvements, and that Sir
Anthony and his followers waged a furious war with the rest of the
Council respecting the attendance of lectures on midwifery by
students. At that time it was proposed that students should attend
two courses of midwifery, and the Carlisle party was in a minority.
Upon this subject Sir Anthony in a series of writings, calumniated
the body of men engaged in the general practice of surgery, including
midwifery, in the grossest terms. He did not scruple to mix up with
his abuse of accoucheurs the foulest aspersions upon British women.
The following quotations will bear out what we have now advanced:</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.82cm; margin-right: 0.74cm;">
'It is my firm conviction that the establishment and the further
prevalence of man-midwifery sanctioned as a branch of surgery would
compromise the justice of the country, by exposing the lives of
child-bed women and infants to many dangerous and unnecessary secret
operations. That educated men should submit to be associated with
nurses and gossips for whole days and nights, merely to wait
humiliating events of parturition, is contrary to decency and common
sense; man-midwives, therefore, teach their disciples to assume
directorial offices, and to be curiously or meddling, under various
pretences, by which the terrified and shocked distressed object is
rendered obedient and, when the operator's patience begins to fail,
or his predictions are at fault, he rushes into the perilous
adventure of using his conjectural desperate art; and I confidently
believe that the increasing number of deaths to mothers and infants,
as well as the pretended difficulties in midwifery, are mainly if not
altogether, imputable to such undue or improper interference.'</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.82cm; margin-right: 0.74cm;">
'It only remains to suggest a remedy for the humiliations,
indecencies, and mischiefs, which attend surgical male midwifery. I,
therefore, now propose the restoration of the practice of midwifery
to females, beginning with the introduction of the wives, widows, or
female kindred of medical practitioners, by which every surgeon or
apothecary may secure his female patients against the inroads of his
competitors, and establish a respectable maintenance for such female
in the event of his premature death, while his consequent freedom
from unnecessary confinement among gossips will allow him more time
to follow his proper vocations.'</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.82cm; margin-right: 0.74cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.58cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
[Says <i>The Lancet</i>] The 'dishonourable vocation' of the accoucheur was
compared with 'male ladies'-corn cutters,' 'male stay-makers' and
'male bathers', &c; and his opinion of women in general, and
aristocratic women in particular, he sums up in the following gross
way:- 'But for the kind offices of John the footman, and Thomas the
butler, the ancient house of _____ , and the noble house of _____ ,
would long since have been extinct. Accoucheurs, he supposes to be
devoured with lust, and only prevented from criminality by the
circumstance that “the principal part of the woman has ceased to be
attractive' at the time when the services of the accoucheur are
required. We feel that we sully our pages by reproducing such vile
and prurient slanders, and we should not do so unless compelled in
self-defence. Indignant at the horrible insinuations and proposals
contained in the Carlisle letters, we published the following
article; and perusing it at this distance of time, though there are
some expressions we may regret having used, we should feel ashamed if
we could now feel less indignation than we experienced at the time
the article was written.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.69cm; margin-right: 0.87cm;">
<br />
'Carlisle in his first letter to Mr (afterwards Sir Robert Peel)
says, 'If, however, the greediness of a few individuals should expose
this subject (man-midwifery) to free discussion, and the judgment of
married men and modest women should be copiously awakened, perhaps
the general custom of employing women may be again resorted to;' and
in his second letter, this disgusting egotist submits the following
proposition:- 'I, therefore, now propose the restoration of the
practice of midwifery to females, beginning with the introduction of
the <i>wives, widows, or female kindred of medical practitioners.</i>'
Hence, according to his own showing, he recommends that the wives,
widows, and female kindred of medical men should addict themselves to
'a degrading vocation', a 'dishonourable vocation'; that they be
'associated with nurses and gossips for whole days and nights, ... in
a lying- in room, where often none but ignorant women are present.'
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.69cm; margin-right: 0.73cm;">
'If the general practitioners of the British empire, previously to
the publication of this proposal, were ignorant of the opinion
entertained of them by the <i>hospital surgeons</i> of London they
cannot be so now. Sir Anthony confesses, indeed, that he has not
written<i> 'unadvisedly</i>', which implies, we presume, that his
letters have been sanctioned by his colleagues with 'enlarged
intellect'. One would have supposed that Carlisle could have
communicated his 'professional thoughts' to Mr Peel without mixing
them up with charges of the most horrible description, and
suggestions of the most insulting character, appertaining to the
professional avocations of general practitioners and their wives.
Pray who are the wives of general practitioners? Who? why the
daughters of the most respectable, the most wealthy, and independent
gentlemen and merchants of England; ladies who, in no single
circumstance are inferior to the 'wives, widows, and female relatives
of <u>the ignorant, conceited, malignant, lying, insulting, boasting
hospital surgeons of this metropolis</u>. [my emphasis] If Carlisle
had made it the chief object of his life to accomplish the
degradation of general practitioners, he could not more completely
execute his task than in the adoption of his proposal. The wife,
quoth this benighted oyster, 'may thus secure his female patients
against the inroads of his competitors, and establish a respectable
maintenance for such females;' so that we are to believe, first, that
the talents of the general practitioner are not a sufficient security
against the inroads of competitors; and, secondly, that he is
incapable of procuring for his wife those comforts which, from her
station in society, she requires; two inferences so truly insulting
to the feelings of this class of gentlemen, that it is with pain we
commit them to paper, although for the purpose of exposure and
refutation. In this country ... it is considered that nothing
bespeaks want of talent, want of energy, want of industry, want of a
correct and honourable spirit, more decidedly, than for a man to
require from his wife the execution of any portion of labour as a
necessary adjunct to his support, and we believe this feeling
pervades even the inferior grades of tradesmen. What, amongst such
people, is thought to be more reproachful than to say of a man that
his wife supports, or half supports his family? yet to this
disreputable condition would Carlisle reduce the general
practitioner! and thus render him a bankrupt in character, as well as
in pocket, whilst his wife and female relatives would be excluded
from all respectable society, through following a 'degrading and
dishonourable vocation'. Oh that there were; 'in every honest hand a
whip to lash the rascal naked through the world'.[from Shakespeare,
by Emilia in Othello]</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
[Says <i>The Lancet</i>] As we have already stated, we directed our
strictures against a knot of hospital surgeons who were striving to
prevent the recognition of midwifery lecturers at the College of
Surgeons; and we declared that we felt 'too indignant' at the letters
in question, 'to enter upon any serious discussion of the subject'.
Our indignation was shared at the time by ninety-nine hundredths of
the profession; and we ask hospital surgeons and general
practitioners - not to say the men exclusively engaged in the
practice of midwifery - whether any language could be too severe for
the condemnation of such infamous and insulting proposals as those
contained in the letters of Sir Anthony? We were not the only parties
to use 'strong language'. An accoucheur, the present Dr Waller, in
criticising the letters, stated of one slanderous paragraph, that
'The sentence must have been written in a temporary fit of insanity,
for no man possessed of reason would have committed himself by
uttering such a palpable falsehood.' The motive for writing these
letters was as base as the letters themselves were vile and immoral.
Sir Anthony wished the 'wives, widows, and female kindred' of general
practitioners to devote themselves to 'a dishonourable vocation' and
it came out afterwards that the writer kept a mistress, whom he was
very anxious to introduce into practice as a<i> sage femme</i>!</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.43cm;">
[Says <i>The Lancet</i>] - Such were the contests in which we were engaged
some thirty years ago. Would rose-water speeches or the flatteries of
euphuists have sufficed for victory? Let professional men ask
themselves what they would feel, write, or speak, or do, if such a
letter as that of Sir Anthony Carlisle upon midwifery practice
appeared in the Times newspaper on the 1st of May 1854 instead of on
the 1st of May 1826.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote85sym" name="sdendnote85anc"><sup>lxxxv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.43cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">At
a time when women could be neither doctors nor surgeons, Carlisle
foreshadowed the future, 'let me satisfy you that females are not
only capable of becoming as eminent, in the truest sense of the word,
but also more competent attendants'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote86sym" name="sdendnote86anc"><sup>lxxxvi</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
[Women] are mostly very quick in acquiring information, so much so,
that in short time, he would unhesitatingly place his patients in
their hands ... nor has he ever regretted such a of display of
confidence towards any of them. ... I have heard many women wish for
facilities in becoming acquainted with the practice of midwifery, and
I know some respectable widows who would gladly apply themselves to
acquire knowledge of that nature. ... In most public Lying-in
hospitals, the managers and matrons have the power of giving licences
to practice as midwives, to nurses who have been educated for the
occupation, and were the practice of employing females more general,
hundreds of them would readily desire instruction, and soon become as
competent, still more fitting, practitioners than any one of the
nondescripts.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote87sym" name="sdendnote87anc"><sup>lxxxvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<b>Round 8 Tallying
the Points</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: -0.05cm;">
Over 180 years
later, it is time to revisit Carlisle's opposition to man-midwifery.
The acid test is whether the impacts of man-midwifery, leading to the
dismantling of midwifery, benefited women's health. A fair method is
to compare what actually happened between 1730 and 1930, with what
could be reasonably expected to have happened. That is, had the
Church, or the State, encouraged midwifery as a profession, adopted a
training regime, as in Germany or France, and rendered as acceptable,
midwives use of forceps. If that had occurred, one would expect lower
maternal mortality for home births, than the actual average for
maternal mortality. This involves seeking statistics for home births,
to compare with the effect of the innovations initiated under
man-midwifery, e.g. hospital births. <span style="font-style: normal;">Statistics
for the 18C and 19C are limited, but it is possible to determine the
order of magnitude impact on maternal and infant mortality of the
trend away from home births. </span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: -0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: -0.05cm;">
A key definition in
midwifery and man-midwifery research is maternal mortality which
comprises maternal deaths before, during, and for a period after
delivery; from all causes and is described as the Maternal Mortality
Rate (MMR) per 10000 live births, but sometimes including the effect
of twins, stillbirths, miscarriages, and/or abortions. Relatively
consistent application means these particular omissions cause little
distortion. However, a factor not normally allowed for in MMR trends
across Britain and Ireland, but especially relevant in London and
other cities with medical schools, is the impact of resurrectionists
supplying cadavers to anatomists. Sources of subjects being;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
- bodies of babies, still born, smothered, or dying naturally, sold to
anatomists without interment</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
- bodies of children and adults dying naturally and supplied to
anatomists without interment</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
- bodies of victims specifically murdered for supply to anatomists
without interment</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
- bodies removed from hospitals and workhouses for supply to
anatomists without interment</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
- bodies removed from coffins, with stones and soil substituted, before
interment of the coffin </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
- bodies resurrected from graveyards after interment </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The first four
categories did not appear in parish registers, nor the London Bills
of Mortality. Once anatomical dissection was complete, the remains
were discarded or fed to animals, hence there was no burial, nor a
parish record. While it is difficult to calculate the effect of this
practice on the Bills of Mortality with any degree of precision, one
would expect the supply by resurrectionists to anatomists, to result
in a decline in mortality rates based upon interments, especially in
areas close to anatomy schools, as in fact happened. Robert Woods
quotes MMR for England as follows; 1700-1724 at 134; 1725-1749 at
123; 1750-1774 at 95; 1775-1799 at 90, and 1800-1824 at 63.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote88sym" name="sdendnote88anc"><sup>lxxxviii</sup></a>
It may be an exaggeration to say resurrectionists were the prime
reason for the fall, but the drop between 1725-1749 and 1750-1774
correlates with Hunter's school commencing in late 1746. Then a
decline until 1800-1824, with a drop coinciding with a need to train
surgeons during the Napoleonic Wars. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Generally, midwives
attended deliveries in the home. Fine if there were no complications,
but in the event of complications it was the practise to call for a
physician. More so than midwives, surgeons were conscious of the
potential income loss, if called away from their practice for any
length of time, as exacerbated by delays associated with protracted
labours. The logical answer was to bring the expectant mother into
the 'time' orbit of the physician. through the opening and promotion
of lying-in hospitals. Married women in the finals stages of
pregnancy could be admitted, monitored and delivered by in-house
midwives, with the man-midwife on the staff readily able to attend to
any difficult births. As reported in 1895; 'In the Memoir of William
Smellie by Dr McClintock we read “It seems highly probable that the
establishment of maternity hospitals about this time in London for
clinical teaching was in some measure the fruit of Smellie's
example.”<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote89sym" name="sdendnote89anc"><sup>lxxxix</sup></a>
William Hunter was no less responsible for their establishment, as a
founder of the British Lying-in Hospital. In principle this was a
fine solution, provided the hospital was well funded, and there was
no MMR increase. So what do the statistics show? Is there any
evidence that 'on-the-job' training of midwives produced better, or
worse, MMR, than the combination of lying-in hospitals and
'surgeon-apprentice training' as initiated by Smellie and Hunter?
Statistics are available to compare MMR for Physicians/hospitals
against Midwife/GP/home births;<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: small;">
</span><span style="font-size: small;">
</span><span style="font-size: small;">
</span><span style="font-size: small;">
</span><span style="font-size: small;">
</span><span style="font-size: small;">
</span><br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="242*"></col></colgroup><colgroup><col width="48*"></col></colgroup><colgroup><col width="43*"></col></colgroup><colgroup><col width="46*"></col></colgroup><colgroup><col width="47*"></col></colgroup><colgroup><col width="42*"></col></colgroup><colgroup><col width="49*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Study</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Physician/ hospital</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Physician/ hospital</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Physician/</span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">hospital</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Midwife/ GP/home</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Midwife/ GP/home</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Midwife/</span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">GP/home</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Live births or
deliveries </span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Maternal deaths </span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">MMR</span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">(per 10000)</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Live births or
deliveries</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Maternal deaths </span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">MMR</span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">(per 10000)</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Catharina Schrader - c1720-1740<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a></span></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3017</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">46</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Hotel Dieu – 1740-1741 - Adams<span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
</span></span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3753</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">5</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">13</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Hotel Dieu – c1747-1749 - Nihell</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2000</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">20</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">British Lying-in - 1749-1796<span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a></span></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">24079</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">385</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">160</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Paris Maternite - 1799-1809<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">17499</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">700</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">400</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Dublin Lying-in -
1781-1868<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">170972</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2373</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">139</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">General Lying-in -
1833-1856<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4950</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">146</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">295</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Vienna Lying-in -
1784-1859<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">262523</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">10282</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">392</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Gideon Mantell -
c1820-1835<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2410</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Philip Harper* -
Consultant - 1837-1858<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">16414</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">142</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">87</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Following 7 ex 1892
Select Committee<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Royal Maternity Charity
- 1850-1865</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">47600</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">133</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">28</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Royal Maternity Charity
- 1867-1892</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">84197</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">207</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">25</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">British Lying-in -
1867-1892</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4048</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">41</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">101</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">City of London Lying-in
- 1879-1891</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1923</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">96</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">499</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Guys Hospital - chiefly
midwives – 1882-1892 </span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">30229</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">83</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">27</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Hatfield District -
c1886-1892</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1152</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">5</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Hampstead - 1890</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">12565</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">20</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Glasgow Lying-in -
outpatient- 1852<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">8587</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">36</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">42</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Glasgow Royal Maternity
– 1925-1934<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a></span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">41559</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">999</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">240</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Following 16 ex
Loudon <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
and <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Hotel Dieu - 1802-1821</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1700</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">80</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">471</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Paris Maternite –
1810 - 1844</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">53895</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2645</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">491</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">London – Lying-in
1770-1842</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">18800</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">340</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">181</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">London – at home -
1860-1864 </span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">562623</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2194</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">39</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Edinburgh – at home -
1858</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">5486</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">27</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">50</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Westminster Gen at home
- 1818-1828</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">7717</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">17</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">22</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">City of Paris – at
home - 1861-1862</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">87277</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">445</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">51</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Queen Charlotte's - 1828-1863</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">7736</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">203</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">263</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Royal Maternity Charity -
1831-1843</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">33868</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">166</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">49</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Paris general hospitals -
1873-1875</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">9298</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">387</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">416</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Paris maternity hospitals -
1873-1875</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">6631</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">207</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">312</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Paris midwives – charity -
1873-1875</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">28006</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">53</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">19</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Paris midwives – other -
1873-1875</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">5020</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">25</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">50</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Group of GP's –
1788-1868</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">29119</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">40</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Four hospitals – in/out patients
1909-1914</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">12758</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">193</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">151</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">16016</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">63</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">39</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Queen's Institute midwives -
1905-1931</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">757526</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1420</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">19</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Following 4 ex
Freedman<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Newark - 1921</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3523</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">25</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">71</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4470</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">10</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">22</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Newark - 1916-1921</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">38706</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">267</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">69</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">30945</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">47</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">15</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Philadelphia - 1914-1930</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">593861</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4428</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">75</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">90923</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">77</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">9</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">New York - 1930-1932</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">318701</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1406</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">44</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">29519</span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">85</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">29</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="40%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Overall </b></span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1590119</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>24877</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>156</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>1943212</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="8%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>5320</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>27</b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Schrader, C, Marland, H, and van Lieburg, M J, <i>Mother
and Child Were Saved</i>, Amsterdam, Rodopi,
1987, p 30</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Adams, M, <i>Eyes for the Blind, Man-Midwifery Exposed! </i> London,
S W Forbes, 1830, p 17</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Duncan, Andrew, <i>Annals of Medicine for the Year 1797</i>,
Edinburgh, Mudie & son, 1798, p 416</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Merriman, Samuel, <i>A Synopsis of the Various Kinds of Difficult
Parturition</i>, London, Callow, 1820, p 306</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>The Tragedy of Childbed Fever</i>, Oxford, OUP,
2000, p 67</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Ranking, W H, <i>Half-yearly Abstract of Statistics</i>, Vol 41,
London, Churchill, 1865, p 241</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Wootton, David, <i>Bad Medicine,</i> Oxford, OUP, 2006, p 218</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Swinton, W E, <i>Outside Medicine</i>, London, BMJ<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">,
1975, p 505-507</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
Harper, Philip, <i>Transactions of the Obstetrical Society</i>,
London, Longman, 1860, p 181</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
<i>Select Committee on Midwives Registration</i>, 1892, p 36, p 50,
p 70, p 104, p 133-134, p 147</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
Pagan, J, <i>Glasgow Medical Journal,</i> Glasgow, MacKenzie, 1854,
p 208</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Woods, Robert, <i>Death before Birth,</i> Oxford, OUP, 2009, p 166</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>The Tragedy of Childbed Fever</i>, Oxford, OUP,
2000, p 61, 63, and 116</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>Death in Childbirth</i>, Oxford, OUP, 1992, p
187, 216 and 226</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Cahill, H A, <i>“Male Appropriation and Medicalisation of
Childbirth”</i> Journal of Advanced Nursing 33(3), 2001, 334-342,
in <i>“Frog Practice: Medicine, Midwifery, and the Exclusion of
Women”</i> by S A Freedman, Calgary, UC, 2005. [NB – Freedman's
tables show MMR as per 1000, but her calculated rates are actually
per 10000.] </span>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">[*
Harper was a consultant/GP; his deliveries include difficult, but
exclude normal deliveries by local midwives.]</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The different impacts on MMR of lying-in hospitals and man-midwifery
training are tricky to separate, so in this analysis, they are
jointly regarded as representing the outcome of a man-midwifery
social initiative which reduced the number of home births. Smellie
and Hunter are credited with establishing lying-in hospitals, so that
definition seems fair. The statistics suggest 18C MMR for midwives
fit within a trend not too dissimilar to 19C and early 20C MMR for
midwives. Thus, as the MMR for midwives trended in a relatively
constant manner between 1730 and 1930, it is reasonable to use
midwives as a benchmark in considering whether changes in the overall
MMR demonstrate benefits from the decline in home births. The studies
cover a wide period, and there is some differences in their bases,
but the totals represent 3,500,000 deliveries and are reasonably
indicative of MMR between 1730-1930. Being based upon available
records, the table has some statistical weakness, but the results are
so divergent, as between hospitals controlled by physicians, and home
births attended by midwives and GP's, they illustrate the trend.
Hotel Dieu care was by mainly midwives in the 18C, but was more akin
to a hospital in the 19C. Helpful are statistics from the
Netherlands, where midwives remained the prime birthing attendants
into the 20C. Loudon quotes MMR for the Netherlands of 41 for
1875-1879 and 24 for 1900-1904.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote105sym" name="sdendnote105anc"><sup>cv</sup></a>
This compares with Schrader at 46 in 1700-1740, so the Netherlands
infers a trend that would have occurred in Britain, if a midwife
predominant society had prevailed. In
USA and Britain, even by 1930 the majority of physicians were still
male. Freedman notes that, although
physicians in the USA likely attended more complicated cases,
deaths were ascribed into the midwife category if a midwife was at
all present. She quotes a study which found MMR decreased
dramatically during World War I, when 60% of male medical
practitioners had been drafted.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
studies show a decreasing MMR for midwives, with an average of 27 for
midwives/home births between 1730-1930. One can postulate that if
midwives had been formally recognised as a collegiate profession over
the entire period, the average MMR would have been even lower. In
evidence to the 1892 Select Committee on Midwives, Aveling reported
maternal mortality for trained midwives of 1 in 650, i.e. a MMR of
15, compared to 1 in 200 for all deliveries, i.e. a MMR of 50. Over
three times worse. For out-patients of the five largest lying-in
hospitals in London the MMR in 1889 was 14, or 1 in 729.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote106sym" name="sdendnote106anc"><sup>cvi</sup></a>
But what is striking, is the MMR for hospital care. Hospitals
do include emergencies, but these were minor. The
studies show MMR for hospitals at 156, six times worse than the 27
MMR for midwives/GP's. The poor outcome for hospitals was
attributable particularly to puerperal fever, itself an impact of the
trend away from home births, but also to 'obstetric meddling'.
Meddling is difficult to quantify, but Carlisle was outspoken on it.
The MMR for Britain and Ireland between 1850-1930 averaged around
47.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote107sym" name="sdendnote107anc"><sup>cvii</sup></a>
It was not until after World War II, there was decline in the MMR
from the 1730-1930 trend to the current level of MMR of less than 1.
An attempt can be made to convert the results to absolute figures by
applying the rates to an estimate of total population.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="32*"></col>
<col width="32*"></col>
<col width="32*"></col>
<col width="32*"></col>
<col width="32*"></col>
<col width="32*"></col>
<col width="28*"></col>
<col width="36*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Population</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">England</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Wales</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Scotland</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Ireland</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Total</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">London</span></div>
</td>
<td width="14%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">London of Total</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Estimates</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Million</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Million</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Million</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Million</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Million</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Million</span></div>
</td>
<td width="14%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">%</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1750</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">5</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">0.4</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1.1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4.6</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">12.1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">0.7</span></div>
</td>
<td width="14%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">6</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1801</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">8</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">0.6</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1.5</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">5.5</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">15.7</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="14%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">6</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1821</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">11</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">0.8</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2.1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">6.5</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">20.4</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1.5</span></div>
</td>
<td width="14%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">7</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1841</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">16</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1.1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2.6</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">8.1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">27.9</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2.2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="14%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">8</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1861</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">19</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1.3</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3.1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">5.8</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">29.2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3</span></div>
</td>
<td width="14%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">10</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1881</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">24</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1.6</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3.8</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">5.1</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">34.5</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4.8</span></div>
</td>
<td width="14%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">14</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1901</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">31</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4.5</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4.2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">41.7</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">6.5</span></div>
</td>
<td width="14%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">16</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1921</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">36</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">2.6</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4.9</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4.2</span></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">47.7</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">7.4</span></div>
</td>
<td width="14%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">16</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The
growing dominance of London is apparent. Although annual births
increased over time, it is estimated live births in London between
1730 and 1930 averaged about 100,000 per year, say, 20,000,000 births
in London in 200 years. Over the same period London represented
around one-tenth of annual births for Britain and Ireland which
equates to a total of, say, 200,000,000 births for all Britain and
Ireland between 1730 and 1930, with the bulk in the period 1840-1930.
Scholars may wish to refine the figures, but they represent a
preliminary benchmark. A revealing calculation is then how many
maternal deaths resulted in Britain and Ireland between 1730-1930,
from the substitution of home births, by hospitals controlled by
physicians. Or to put it another way, how many deaths could have been
avoided if midwives had retained prime responsibility for all
deliveries right up until 1930, with surgeons only called to
difficult deliveries. Applying the home birth average MMR of 27 to
total deliveries of 200 million, suggests 540,000 maternal deaths if
midwives had retained prime responsibility. In contrast, applying the
estimated actual average 47 MMR, derives 940,000 maternal deaths.
This suggests around 400,000 (940,000-540,000) maternal deaths
resulted from the trend away from home births. True, a proportion of
the 400,000 was due to puerperal fever outbreaks in hospital, but
they would not have eventuated had home births remained as the norm.
In 1833 Robert Lee, a noted London man-midwife even suggested all
lying-in hospitals be closed due to high MMR. Thus, even with its
statistical weaknesses, the conclusion is clear. The
other
statistic needing consideration is the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) as
a proportion of live births. The table reveals a 82 IMR for
hospitals, compared to 30 IMR for midwife/GP's, a net IMR of 52.
Again, far worse for hospitals. Although on a little different base,
a calculation for France over a period of five years, is relevant;
'Out of 52,883 hospital foundlings, the mortality was 72.2 per cent.
Out of 122,110 country ditto, the mortality was 11.5 per cent. This
conclusion proves that foundling hospitals, if established at all,
should always be placed in the country'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote108sym" name="sdendnote108anc"><sup>cviii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="209*"></col>
<col width="52*"></col>
<col width="53*"></col>
<col width="54*"></col>
<col width="57*"></col>
<col width="57*"></col>
<col width="54*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Study</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Phys/hosp </span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Phys/hosp </span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Physician/hosp </span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Midwife/GP </span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Midwife/GP</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Midwife/GP</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Live births </span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Deaths under 30 days</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Neonatal (IMR)
mortality rate (per 1000)</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Live </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">births</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Deaths under 30 days</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Neonatal (IMR)
mortality rate (per 1000)</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Catharina Schraders <span style="font-size: x-small;">c1720-1740</span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a></span></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3017</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">167</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">55</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Hotel Dieu - 1740-1741<span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
</span></span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3753</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">29</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">8</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Waltman, <span style="font-size: x-small;">Netherlands</span> <span style="font-size: x-small;">1842-1872</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">5000</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">211</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">42</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">P Harper*<span style="font-size: x-small;">Consult/GP 1837-1858</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">16654</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1121</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">67</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Netherlands<span style="font-size: x-small;"> 1906
(stillborn only)</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">61000</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3000</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">49</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">101000</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1775</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">18</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Next 2 ex 1892
Select Committee</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Royal Mat. Charity
- <span style="font-size: x-small;">1867-1892</span></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">84197</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3083</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">37</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div align="LEFT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">British Lying-in -
1867-1892</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4048</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">232</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">57</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Following 4 ex Woods<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">British Lying-in 1750-1799</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">25034</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1849</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">74</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Dublin Lying-in 1757-1786</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">21681</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4350</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">201</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Dublin Lying-in 1787-1793</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">10294</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1001</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">97</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Dublin Lying-in 1826-1833</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">15533</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">1405</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">90</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">-</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Freedman - Newark <span style="font-size: x-small;">1915-1916</span></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">11400</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">487</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">43</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">10996</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">276</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">25</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Freedman - Newark 1921</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">3523</span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">143</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">41</span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">4470</span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">144</span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">32</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="35%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Total</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>148465</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="9%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>12235</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>82</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="10%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>229087</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="11%"><div align="RIGHT" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>6804</b></span></div>
</td>
<td width="13%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>30</b></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Schrader, C, Marland, H, and van Lieburg, M J, <i>Mother
and Child Were Saved</i>, Amsterdam, Rodopi,
1987, p 36</span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Adams, M, <i>Eyes for the Blind, Man-Midwifery Exposed! </i> London,
S W Forbes, 1830, p 17</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Van Lieburg, M J, and Marland, H, <i>Midwife Regulation</i>, Med
Hist, 1989, 33, p 296-317</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Harper, Philip, <i>Transactions of the Obstetrical Society</i>,
London, Longman, 1860, p 181</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Van Lieburg, M J, and Marland, H, <i>Midwife Regulation</i>, Med
Hist, 1989, 33, p 296-317</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
<i>Select Committee on Midwives Registration</i>, 1892, p 133</span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">
</span>
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Woods, Robert, <i>Death before Birth,</i> Oxford, OUP, 2009, p 92</span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> [*Harper was a consultant/GP; his deliveries include difficult, but
exclude normal deliveries by local midwives.]</span></div>
</div>
</div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;"><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP"><td width="35%"><br /></td><td width="9%"><br /></td><td width="9%"><br /></td><td width="13%"><br /></td><td width="10%"><br /></td><td width="11%"><br /></td><td width="13%"><br /></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td width="35%"><br /></td><td width="9%"><br /></td><td width="9%"><br /></td><td width="13%"><br /></td><td width="10%"><br /></td><td width="11%"><br /></td><td width="13%"><br /></td></tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td width="35%"><br /></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
One reason for the decline in home births was the
trend to smaller families. In the 18C there were large families with
several births in every street, in every year. Nearly 50% of deaths
were of infants, so infant births and deaths within a family often
followed closely behind one another. Coupled with gradually falling
infant mortality, a decline in family sizes, and longer adult lives,
births became less routine as household events. By the mid 20C they
were more regarded as hospital conditions; aided by increasing
transport mobility if husbands had a car to take their wives to
hospital. Midwives less and less had a local catchment within walking
distance, although bicycles helped with mobility. Word of mouth
advertising for midwives declined, as did their workload, although
formal recognition after 1902 led to a revival. Loudon estimated home
births declined from around 80% in 1900 to 50% in 1950.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote116sym" name="sdendnote116anc"><sup>cxvi</sup></a>
Thus between 1730 and 1930 by far the majority of births were in the
home. To
judge the impact of the trend, it is assessed that 5% or 10,000,000,
of the 200,000,000 births in Britain and Ireland between 1730 and
1930, were not home births. Applying a net IMR of 52 (82-30) to this
figure derives 520,000 extra neonatal deaths across Britain and
Ireland.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
When added to the effect of the MMR, it suggests nearly 1,000,000 (400,000
maternal plus 520,000 neonatal) deaths between 1730-1930 resulted
from the trend away from home births. This invites more detailed
analysis, but the magnitude is evident. </div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Put
bluntly, the maternal and neonatal deaths are the 'legacy' of
man-midwifery in dismantling the pre 1730 structure of maternal home
care provided by midwives. A catalyst being Church inaction in
licensing midwives and disinterest in the work of resurrectionists.
Leaders in this were man-midwives, such as William Smellie and
William Hunter. Particularly Hunter as he was a founder of the first
dedicated lying-in hospital in London, and founder of the first
anatomy school to guarantee each student a body. The schools of
William and John Hunter, and the scale of dissections thereafter set
an example for anatomists; so that some 200,000 bodies were illegally
procured for dissection across Britain and Ireland between 1745 and
1832. Combining the legacy of maternal deaths, neonatal deaths, and
subjects illegally procured for dissection, we arrive at over one
million human deaths connected to man-midwifery initiatives of the
18C. Despite such compelling evidence of man-midwifery failures, as
late as 1952, R W Johnstone described the reasons for the rise of
man-midwifery as; firstly, man-midwifery knowledge, secondly fashion,
and; 'A third and much more specific influence resulted from the
disclosure of the secret of the midwifery forceps. An instrument of
that sort clearly called for more knowledge and skill in its use than
could be expected of a midwife'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote117sym" name="sdendnote117anc"><sup>cxvii</sup></a>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> It
is perhaps significant that the College of Obstetricians and
Gynaecologists was founded in September 1929.</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
It is
clear the work of Smellie and the Hunters warrants reassessment.
Although Irvine Loudon does not directly address, nor endorse, that
sentiment; in contrast to R W Johnstone, he does state;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
To return to the question of the effectiveness, or if you like, the
safety of the trained midwife. We have already seen favourable
evidence in this chapter in the case of Swedish midwives in the
mid-nineteenth century. And in previous chapters there was the
further evidence such as the Kentucky Frontier Nursing Service, the
Queen's Institute nurse-midwives in Britain, and the out-patient
lying-in charities which depended largely on the midwives trained by
those institutions. In fact, throughout the years I have spent on
this study, I have found – and it was not a finding I expected –
that wherever a city, a county, a region, or a nation had developed a
system of maternal care which was firmly based on a body of trained,
licensed, regulated, and respected midwives (especially when the
midwives worked in close and cordial co-operation with doctors and
lying-in hospitals) the standard of maternal care was at its highest
and maternal mortality was at its lowest. I cannot think of an
exception to that rule.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote118sym" name="sdendnote118anc"><sup>cxviii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
Given that view, coupled with the statistical analysis we have
presented, one must conclude Carlisle was correct to defend the role
of the midwife. A further observation from the 21C is that, judged by
the MMR trends, the obstetrics profession cannot claim to have come
of age until after World War II. The rapid fall in MMR after World
War II, albeit largely due to new drugs, therefore suggests
“Man-midwifery” continued as a profession between 1730-1930,
until replaced by the “Obstetrics” profession after 1930. That is
not to decry the efforts of talented and concerned GP's who worked
alongside midwives in the best interest of women's health between
1730 and 1930, but the statistical evidence supports Carlisle's view,
midwifery was a better alternative than man-midwifery.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The broader views of Carlisle too,
are closer to those of the 21C, than those expressed by Wakley.
Carlisle would now see that working wives are normal in the 21C, with
many female doctors. Whereas, to Wakley a working wife was a sign of
a man 'bankrupt in character, as well as in pocket, whose wife and
female relatives would be excluded from respectable society'.
Although Carlisle was criticised for being old-fashioned, the
description better fits Wakley. Carlisle failed to </span>halt the
transfer of midwifery from females to males, but his outspoken
comments did save lives, in making doctors more conscious of the
risks in accelerating the timing of deliveries and the misuse of
instruments, so assisting in the calls for a specialist midwifery
qualification. Carlisle was castigated by <i>The Lancet</i> for saying the birth of a child was a
natural process, but the press was silent when Florence Nightingale
expressed the view; 'Childbirth was not a surgical condition'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote119sym" name="sdendnote119anc"><sup>cxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Carlisle, Anthony,<i> The Lancet</i>, 5 May 1827, p 146</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Wollstonecraft, Mary, <i>Vindication of the Rights of Women</i>,
London, 1792, p 156</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Wakley, Thomas, <i>The Lancet</i>, Vol 1, London, T Wakley, 1854, p
344-345</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Southey, Charles Cuthbert, <i>Life and Correspondence of Robert
Southey</i>, New York Harper, 1851, p 111</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, in Bradley, T, <i>Medical and Physical Journal,</i>
London, R Phillips, 1800, p 193-194, 289-292</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Carlisle, A, quoted in Hamilton, J, <i>Observations on the Use and
Abuse,</i> Edinburgh, Archibald, 1819, p 128</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, 1829, p 127</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Carver, Mrs, Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Elizabeth,</i> Vol III, London,
Minerva, 1797, p 137-146
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
<i>London Lives</i>,
http://www.londonlives.org/browse.jsp?div=WACWIC65232IC652320376,
July 2010</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
Champney, Thomas, quoted in Loudon, Irvine, <i>Death in Childbirth</i>,
Oxford, OUP, 1992, p 189</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
<i>The Medico-Chirurgical Review</i>, Vol 6, London, James Johnson,
1825, p 399</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
For a large selection of images, see
http://www.fnco.it/L'arte%20ostetrica12a.htm</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Halford, H, quoted in Towler, J and Bramall, J, <i>Midwives in
History and Society,</i> London, Croom, 1986, p 145.
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
Ayrton, William, <i>The Harmonicum,</i> London, Samuel Leigh, May
1827</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Valpy, Abraham John, <i>Pamphleteer, </i>London, Sherwood, 1827, p
69</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
Anonymous, <i>Search - Stillborn, Elements, Art, Revolution,
Courage, Homeopathy, </i>London, L Booth, 1866, p 11</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
Anonymous, <i>Search - Stillborn, Elements, Art, Revolution,
Courage, Homeopathy, </i>London, L Booth, 1866, p 2, 6</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
<i>The Monthly Review</i>, London, Thomas Hurst, Edward Chance,
1827, p 17</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
<i>Niles' Weekly Register</i>, Baltimore, Niles, 1826, p 336</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
<i>The Monthly Review</i>, London, Thomas Hurst, Edward Chance,
1827, p 18</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
<i>London Medical Gazette</i>, Vol IV, London, Longmans, 1829, p 79</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in Langdon-Davies, John, <i>Westminster
Hospital</i>. London, John Murray, 1952, p 166</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>The Times, </i>London, 26 February, 1827</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Adams, M, <i>Eyes for the Blind, Man-Midwifery Exposed! </i>London,
S W Forbes, 1830, p 41-42</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Burns John, <i>The Principles of Midwifery</i>, London, Longmans,
1837, p 375</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, in Adams, M, <i>Eyes for the Blind, Man-Midwifery
Exposed! </i>London, S W Forbes, 1830, p 36-43</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, Wakley, 1827, p 177-179</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
<i>The Medico-chirurgical Review and Journal of Medical Science,</i>
Vol XI, London, James Johnson, 1829, p 571</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>The Times,</i> London, 24 June 1831</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in Adams, M, <i>Eyes for the Blind,
</i>London, S W Forbes, 1830, p 36-43</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
<i>The Monthly Review</i>, London, Thomas Hurst, Edward Chance,
1827, p 16</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
<i>The Medico-Chirurgical Review and Journal of Medical Science</i>,
Vol XIII, London, J Johnson, 1830, p 483
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Carver, Mrs, <i>The Old Woman</i>, London, Minerva, 1800, Vol II,
letter XII</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Lavater, J C, translated by Thomas Holcroft, <i>Essays on
Physiognomy</i>, London, G G J and J Robinson, 1789</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Southey, Robert, <i>The Collected Letters of Robert Southey:
Part One</i>, UMD,
http://www.rc.umd.edu/editions/southey_letters/Part_One/HTML/letterEEd.26.212.html
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>An Important Address to Wives and Mothers,
</i>London, 1830, p 22-23, 31</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
Coombe, George, <i>Essays on Phrenology</i>, Philadelphia, Carey,
1822, p vii</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
<i>Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine</i>, December 1821, p 75
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
Spurzheim, Johann Gaspar, <i>Phrenology, Or, The Doctrine of the
Mind</i>, London, Charles Knight, 1825, p 102</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
<i>The National Lunacy Inquiry and its Circumstances,</i> 1844,
http://studymore.org.uk/4_05.htm accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
Cooter, R J, <i>Phrenology and British Alienists c1825-1845,</i>
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1081688/pdf/medhist00112-0005.pdf</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
Cranioscopophilus, <i>The Lancet</i>, London. 30 December 1826, p
480</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>An Important Address to Wives and Mothers,
</i>London, 1830, p 22-23, 31</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
The Cabinet Lawyer, <i>A Treatise on the Police and Crimes of the
Metropolis</i>, London, Longmans, 1829, p 204</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
<i>The Literary Gazette</i>, London, 1838, p 621</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, Vol 2, London, Wakley, 1840, p 877</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
Shee, Martin Archer, <i>The Life of Sir Martin Artcher Shee</i>,
London, Longmans, 1860, p 168</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
<i>Medico-Chirurgical Review</i>, London, Highley, 1840, p 282 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a><i>
McLean's Monthly Sheet of Caricatures.</i> March 1, 1832.
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
Hansard, Licensed Lunatic Asylums Bill, 20 April 1842,
http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1842/apr/20/licensed-lunatic-asylums-bill
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
<i>The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology and Mesmerism</i>,
London, Bailliere, 1856, p 270</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a>
<i>The London Literary Gazette and Journal of Belles Lettres, Arts,
Sciences, Etc</i>, London, 1829, p 599
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>An Important Address to Wives and Mothers,
</i>London, 1830, p 7</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>An Important Address to Wives and Mothers,
</i>London, 1830, p 10</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>An Important Address to Wives and Mothers,
</i>London, 1830, p 18</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>An Important Address to Wives and Mothers,
</i>London, 1830, p 31</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>An Important Address to Wives and Mothers,
</i>London, 1830, p 26</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
Adams, M, <i>Eyes for the Blind, Man-Midwifery Exposed! </i> London,
S W Forbes, 1830, p 17</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>An Important Address to Wives and Mothers,
</i>London, 1830, p 33-34</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
Adams, M, <i>Eyes for the Blind, Man-Midwifery Exposed! </i> London,
S W Forbes, 1830</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a>
<i>The Monthly Review</i>, London, Thomas Hurst, Edward Chance,
1827, p 19</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a>
<i>The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,</i> Boston, John Cotton,
1830, p 193</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a>
An addendum to Adams, M, <i>Eyes for the Blind, Man-midwifery
Exposed</i>, London, S W Forbes, 1830, p 93-96</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
Chaplin, Arnold, <i>Medicine in England during the reign of George
III, </i>London, 1919, p 54
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
Adams, M, <i>Eyes for the Blind, </i> <i>Man-Midwifery Exposed!</i>
London, S W Forbes, 1830, p 94-95</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote66">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66anc" name="sdendnote66sym">lxvi</a>
An addendum to Adams, M, <i>Eyes for the Blind, Man-midwifery
Exposed</i>, London, S W Forbes, 1830, p 93-96</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote67">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67anc" name="sdendnote67sym">lxvii</a>
<i>London Medical Gazette</i>, Vol IV, London, Longmans, 1829, p 256
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote68">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68anc" name="sdendnote68sym">lxviii</a>
<i>London Medical Gazette</i>, Vol IV, London, Longmans, 1829, p 119</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote69">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69anc" name="sdendnote69sym">lxix</a>
Advertisement in <i>The Court Journal</i>, 1835, p 237, 398, and
621</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote70">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70anc" name="sdendnote70sym">lxx</a>
Advertisement in <i>The Literary Gazette</i>, London, 1837, p 101</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote71">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71anc" name="sdendnote71sym">lxxi</a>
<i>The Literary Gazette</i>, London, 1837, p 521</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote72">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72anc" name="sdendnote72sym">lxxii</a>
<i>People's Magazine,</i> London, Society for promoting Christian
knowledge, 1867, p 91
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote73">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73anc" name="sdendnote73sym">lxxiii</a>
Johnson, James, evidence to <i>1834 Select Committee on Medical
Education</i>, London, 1834,</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote74">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74anc" name="sdendnote74sym">lxxiv</a>
Johnson, James, <i>The Medico-chirurgical Review</i>, London, S
Highley, 1830, p 481-484</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote75">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75anc" name="sdendnote75sym">lxxv</a>
<i>London Medical Gazette Or, Journal of Practical Medicine</i>,
London, Longmans, 1828, p 714-715</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote76">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote76anc" name="sdendnote76sym">lxxvi</a>
Ryan, Michael, <i>The London Medical and Surgical Journal</i>,
London, Underwood, 1830, p 301-305
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote77">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote77anc" name="sdendnote77sym">lxxvii</a>
<i>Parliamentary Papers</i>, 1834 Select Committee on Medical
Education</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote78">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote78anc" name="sdendnote78sym">lxxviii</a>
<i>The Monthly Review</i>, London, Thomas Hurst, Edward Chance,
1827, p 14-15</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote79">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote79anc" name="sdendnote79sym">lxxix</a>
Blundell, James, quoted in <i>One Hundred Years Ago</i>, The British
Medical Journal July 4, 1914, p 21-23</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote80">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote80anc" name="sdendnote80sym">lxxx</a>
<i>One Hundred Years Ago</i>, The British Medical Journal July 4,
1914, p 21-23</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote81">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote81anc" name="sdendnote81sym">lxxxi</a>
Blundell, James, quoted in <i>One Hundred Years Ago</i>, The British
Medical Journal July 4, 1914, p 21-23</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote82">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote82anc" name="sdendnote82sym">lxxxii</a>
Johnson, James, <i>Change of Air</i>, London, Highley, 1831, p 212</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote83">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote83anc" name="sdendnote83sym">lxxxiii</a>
<i>The Medical Times</i>, London, J Angerstein, 1846, p 376</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote84">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote84anc" name="sdendnote84sym">lxxxiv</a>
<i>The Medical Times</i>, London, J Angerstein, 1846, p 419</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote85">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote85anc" name="sdendnote85sym">lxxxv</a>
Wakley, Thomas, <i>The Lancet</i>, Vol 1, London, T Wakley, 1854, p
344-345</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote86">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote86anc" name="sdendnote86sym">lxxxvi</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>An Important Address to Wives and Mothers,
</i>London, 1830, p 29</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote87">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote87anc" name="sdendnote87sym">lxxxvii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>An Important Address to Wives and Mothers,
</i>London, 1830, p 36-38</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote88">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote88anc" name="sdendnote88sym">lxxxviii</a>
Woods, Robert, <i>Death before Birth,</i> Oxford, OUP, 2009, p 96</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote89">
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote89anc" name="sdendnote89sym">lxxxix</a>
Napier, A Leith, <i>The British Gynaecological Journal</i>, Vol XI,
London, p 19</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote90">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote90anc" name="sdendnote90sym">xc</a>
Schrader, C, Marland, H, and van Lieburg, M J, <i>Mother
and Child Were Saved</i>, Amsterdam, Rodopi,
1987, p 30</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote91">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote91anc" name="sdendnote91sym">xci</a>
Adams, M, <i>Eyes for the Blind, Man-Midwifery Exposed! </i> London,
S W Forbes, 1830, p 17</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote92">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote92anc" name="sdendnote92sym">xcii</a>
Duncan, Andrew, <i>Annals of Medicine for the Year 1797</i>,
Edinburgh, Mudie & son, 1798, p 416</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote93">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote93anc" name="sdendnote93sym">xciii</a>
Merriman, Samuel, <i>A Synopsis of the Various Kinds of Difficult
Parturition</i>, London, Callow, 1820, p 306</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote94">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote94anc" name="sdendnote94sym">xciv</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>The Tragedy of Childbed Fever</i>, Oxford, OUP,
2000, p 67</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote95">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote95anc" name="sdendnote95sym">xcv</a>
Ranking, W H, <i>Half-yearly Abstract of Statistics</i>, Vol 41,
London, Churchill, 1865, p 241</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote96">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote96anc" name="sdendnote96sym">xcvi</a>
Wootton, David, <i>Bad Medicine,</i> Oxford, OUP, 2006, p 218</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote97">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote97anc" name="sdendnote97sym">xcvii</a>
Swinton, W E, <i>Outside Medicine</i>, London, BMJ<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">,
1975, p 505-507</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote98">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote98anc" name="sdendnote98sym">xcviii</a>
Harper, Philip, <i>Transactions of the Obstetrical Society</i>,
London, Longman, 1860, p 181</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote99">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote99anc" name="sdendnote99sym">xcix</a>
<i>Select Committee on Midwives Registration</i>, 1892, p 36, p 50,
p 70, p 104, p 133-134, p 147</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote100">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote100anc" name="sdendnote100sym">c</a>
Pagan, J, <i>Glasgow Medical Journal,</i> Glasgow, MacKenzie, 1854,
p 208</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote101">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote101anc" name="sdendnote101sym">ci</a>
Woods, Robert, <i>Death before Birth,</i> Oxford, OUP, 2009, p 166</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote102">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote102anc" name="sdendnote102sym">cii</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>The Tragedy of Childbed Fever</i>, Oxford, OUP,
2000, p 61, 63, and 116</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote103">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote103anc" name="sdendnote103sym">ciii</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>Death in Childbirth</i>, Oxford, OUP, 1992, p
187, 216 and 226</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote104">
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote104anc" name="sdendnote104sym">civ</a>
Cahill, H A, <i>“Male Appropriation and Medicalisation of
Childbirth”</i> Journal of Advanced Nursing 33(3), 2001, 334-342,
in <i>“Frog Practice: Medicine, Midwifery, and the Exclusion of
Women”</i> by S A Freedman, Calgary, UC, 2005. [NB – Freedman's
tables show MMR as per 1000, but her calculated rates are actually
per 10000.] </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote105">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote105anc" name="sdendnote105sym">cv</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>Death in Childbirth</i>, Oxford, OUP, 1992, p 449</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote106">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote106anc" name="sdendnote106sym">cvi</a>
<i>Select Committee on Midwives Registration</i>, 1892, p 17 and p
133</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote107">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote107anc" name="sdendnote107sym">cvii</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>Death in Childbirth</i>, Oxford,OUP, 1992, p
542-550</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote108">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote108anc" name="sdendnote108sym">cviii</a>
<i>British Medical Journal</i>, London, 1858, p 48</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote109">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote109anc" name="sdendnote109sym">cix</a>
Schrader, C, Marland, H, and van Lieburg, M J, <i>Mother
and Child Were Saved</i>, Amsterdam, Rodopi,
1987, p 36</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote110">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote110anc" name="sdendnote110sym">cx</a>
Adams, M, <i>Eyes for the Blind, Man-Midwifery Exposed! </i> London,
S W Forbes, 1830, p 17</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote111">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote111anc" name="sdendnote111sym">cxi</a>
Van Lieburg, M J, and Marland, H, <i>Midwife Regulation</i>, Med
Hist, 1989, 33, p 296-317</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote112">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote112anc" name="sdendnote112sym">cxii</a>
Harper, Philip, <i>Transactions of the Obstetrical Society</i>,
London, Longman, 1860, p 181</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote113">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote113anc" name="sdendnote113sym">cxiii</a>
Van Lieburg, M J, and Marland, H, <i>Midwife Regulation</i>, Med
Hist, 1989, 33, p 296-317</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote114">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote114anc" name="sdendnote114sym">cxiv</a>
<i>Select Committee on Midwives Registration</i>, 1892, p 133</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote115">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote115anc" name="sdendnote115sym">cxv</a>
Woods, Robert, <i>Death before Birth,</i> Oxford, OUP, 2009, p 92</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote116">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote116anc" name="sdendnote116sym">cxvi</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>Death in Childbirth</i>, Oxford,OUP, 1992, p 155</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote117">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote117anc" name="sdendnote117sym">cxvii</a>
Johnstone, R W, <i>William Smellie</i>,<i> The Master of British
Midwifery,</i> London, Livingstone, 1952, p 30
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote118">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote118anc" name="sdendnote118sym">cxviii</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>Death in Childbirth</i>, Oxford, OUP, 1992, p
426-427</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote119">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote119anc" name="sdendnote119sym">cxix</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>Death in Childbirth,</i> Oxford, OUP, 1992, p 202</span></div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-40013372965965060222015-04-05T20:30:00.002-07:002021-11-26T09:42:31.852-08:0016 - Pillars of Society? ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
There
have been many references to Sir Astley Cooper (1768-1841). He and
Thomas Wakley (1796-1862) of The Lancet, are regarded by many as
pillars of 19C medicine. We can learn more about the characters of Cooper and Wakley in
discussing events behind a fulsome memoir of Wakley, recorded in <i>The
Lancet</i> of 1862, which conceals more than it reveals; <br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
[Wakley]
continued to attend the Borough hospitals for two or three years
after becoming a member of the College, and then settled in
Argyle-street, having purchased an old established practice in that
locality. He remained in Argyle-street for about three years, in the
course of which he married the youngest daughter of Mr Joseph
Goodchild, a retired merchant of great wealth and respectability. In
the autumn of 1823 he retired from practice and projected and
published the first number of The Lancet.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
It is also relevant to compare how Carlisle and Cooper were treated by
the medical media, especially Wakley. In one of his milder comments,
Wakley said; 'Who can fail to see in this decision, that the spirit
of Sir Anthony Carlisle, who, within the last twenty years, publicly
declared that midwifery should only be practised by women has not yet
disappeared from Lincoln's Inn Fields'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
This bias is reflected in the views of later historians, such as Tony
Atkinson who in 1996 delivered an address;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Please don't get the impression that I have a poor view of surgeons, most of
whom are skilled, pleasant, even tempered and sometimes on time, so
different from a description of Dr Wakley, editor of the Lancet in
1881. He was describing Sir Anthony Carlyle [sic], president of the
Royal College of Surgeons. 'Sir Anthony Carlyle,' he said, 'is not
capable of performing any operation without danger to his patient. He
has been incompetent for the last ten years.' Dr Wakley was also a
part-time coroner so he spoke from experience.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
contrast to these negative views of Carlisle, Astley Cooper's star
shone brightly in 1832;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
It
requires no gift of prophecy to predict that Sir Astley Cooper's name
will go down to posterity as the brightest, we say advisedly the very
brightest, ornament of the science of surgery of the present century.
We fear not the accusation of flattery in making this assertion, for
such accusation would be repelled by the body of the profession …
These reflections have not inaptly been excited by the contemplation
of the career of Sir Astley Cooper. Let would-be aristocratic doctors
say what they will, he has proved himself an honour to the
profession, nor do we feel shame in proclaiming it. To have been the
most successful surgeon is little, for success might be owing to art
or accident, but to have written the best book on hernia... <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
However, as early as
1821, unsavoury rumours about Astley Cooper had prompted Richard
Reece to write more highly of Carlisle than of Cooper;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
The professor's
[Carlisle's] numerous scientific communications, prove indisputably
not only that he is a man of varied information, but that in his
investigations he does not pursue the beaten track; he has displayed
that originality of thinking which infallibly points out superior
genius; such a man never condescends to the mean <i>arts</i> of
practice, which have disgraced many of his contemporaries, and
reduced the profession in the opinion of men of discernment, below
the meanest mechanic, even of a <i>Cooper,</i> [a cooper was a maker
of barrels, and so also an allusion to Cooper as “an empty vessel”]
or a shoemaker.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
To
rank Astley Cooper as below 'the meanest mechanic' or 'shoemaker',
cutting, even for the 19C. Both
Wakley and Cooper were keen disciples of phrenology, whereas Carlisle
ridiculed fringe medicine. If
Carlisle had been less willing to deride phrenology; a stance Wakley
took personally, history might now view Carlisle more positively.
Instead, Wakley's 'mud has stuck' to Carlisle, with even
a biographer of Wakley inferring many of Wakley's attacks were
unjustified, if not malicious;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
At
the time when Wakley waged his ruthless campaign against the
malpractice and jobbery in the hospitals and scored so many
successes, the Law of Libel was not as strict as it is today. It was
just as well, for the “Lancet” would not have long survived its
birth pangs and Thomas Wakley would have soon have faded into
insignificance.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.07cm;">
<br />
Other
pointed opinions of Wakley have been expressed, as with the author
George Eliot who referred to Wakley in her novel <i>Middlemarch,</i>
where she wrote with irony;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
"I disapprove of Wakley," interposed Dr. Sprague, "no man
more: he is an ill-intentioned fellow, who would sacrifice the
respectability of the profession, which everybody knows depends on
the London Colleges, for the sake of getting some notoriety for
himself. There are men who don't mind about being kicked blue if they
can only get talked about. But Wakley is right sometimes," the
Doctor added, judicially. "I could mention one or two points in
which Wakley is in the right."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.56cm; text-decoration: none;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="cite_ref-brook_1-0"></a>
Two points where Wakley was not 'in the right', involve phrenology and
insurance. For over twenty years Wakley
was a disciple of the pseudo-science of phrenology, and in Wakley's
background there is evidence of insurance fraud.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
From his home town in Devon, Wakley moved to London where he attended anatomy classes under Astley
Cooper. Wakley was a sportsman, and a boxer: he fought bare-fisted in
public houses. He qualified in 1817 and in February 1820 married Miss
Goodchild.<br />
<br />
Wakley then established himself as a doctor at 5 Argyll
Street, one of the most expensive areas in London. He was a man of
aggressive personality, and his career soon led to a sensational
court case. In February 1820 he increased his home and contents
insurance from £600 to £1200. Six months later, on 27 August
Wakley's house and contents were destroyed in a suspicious fire, with
Wakley injured. This occurred following an execution on 1 May, 1820;
when five members of the Cato Street Conspiracy, including the
leader, Arthur Thistlewood, were hanged and decapitated at Newgate in
front of a crowd, after being found guilty of a plot to assassinate
the Prime Minister.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
After the hanging, probably as a joke, a rumour was started that Wakley was
the hooded assistant of the hangman, with this the reason for an
attack on Wakley's home by supporters of Thistlewood. Wakley saw
benefit in feeding this rumour, as an opportunity to blame supporters
of Thistlewood, and so divert the suspicion of arson from himself. He
therefore complained to Sheriff Parkins;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Sept 21, 1820. Sir, From the period of my late catastrophe in
Argyle-street, to add to my anxiety, I have been currently charged by
a multitude of malignant slanderers as being the person who
decapitated Thistlewood and his deluded companions in May last. Your
official contradiction of this disgusting falsehood, as sheriff of
London, will confer a lasting favour. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Parkins,
as Sheriff of London and Middlesex, replied </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Sept 25, 1820. ... the man who decapitated the unfortunate Thistlewood and
his companions, was procured for that purpose by the prison surgeon,
and his terms £20, ... also £5 he paid to the man who held up the
heads. ... Mr Turner informed me that he was a resurrection man who
obtained bodies for the hospitals; and that when he asked him if he
could perform the task of cutting off the heads, he replied, “Oh,
yes! that he could do it very well, as he was in the habit of cutting
off nobs (heads) for the purpose of obtaining nackers (teeth).”<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Wakley's
claim on the Insurance Company was refused on account of the
incredible manner in which the fire had occurred. The case went to
Court, but while waiting for the hearing, Wakley moved to become a
doctor in a less prosperous part of London, pursued by suspicions he
had started the fire after finding it difficult to attract patients
in the Argyll Street area due to his aggressive personality. Wakley's
failure as a practising doctor left him with a chip on his shoulder,
leading to a long crusade against the medical establishment. During
the hearing, a gentleman [William King] was called who had attended
to Wakley's business for him during an absence of ten days from
London; King told the jury that in the course of the whole ten days,
he had attended but upon one patient, a woman in a menial station of
life.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a>
There were many doubts about Wakley's evidence; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
For furniture which had cost at most £450, £735 were charged; for plate
[i.e. sterling silver]£168 was claimed, and all the melted metal
found in the ruins had weighed only 73 ounces; and articles had been
put into the inventory as silver, remnants of which had been found,
and found to be merely plated. Again, the difference between the
property alleged, and the bills of purchase, showed an audacious
attempt at fraud. The alleged property was £1542, but the vouchers
only warranted £708. ... It had been suggested by the plaintiff,
that he had lost a quantity of guineas contained in a writing-desk.
The writing desk had been burned, but the guineas would not burn,
they would not even melt; and yet no guinea could ever be found among
the ruins, although the rubbish had been sifted. Still the unknown
stranger might have stolen the guineas. There were two circumstances
against that: first, he had left untouched a pair of silver
candlesticks close to the desk; and next, although the desk had been
burned, the lock had been found in a locked state; a thief, after
stealing the guineas would scarcely have taken the trouble to lock
the desk after him.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Wakley
claimed he was stabbed by the intruder, but a police officer
reported; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
There are two cuts in the shirt, where only one appears in the waistcoat.
There is a considerable stain on the cut part of the shirt; but there
is no corresponding stain on the inside of the waistcoat. The stain
here upon the shirt is certainly made by a mixture of blood and
water. If the stain had been made by blood flowing from a wound, it
would no doubt have been of a much deeper colour.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Mr Thomas Harvey, a surgeon, agreed the stains were made by a lighter
fluid than blood. Dr Stephen Luke found two very slight wounds on
Wakley's body, but not sufficient to produce the stains on his shirt.
In defence, Wakley also claimed he had received threatening letters
before the fire, but was unable to produce them. Despite all this,
the jury found in favour of Wakley, but thenceforth he was tainted
with a sense of 'where there is smoke, there is fire' and the
sobriquet
"the fireproof and invulnerable Mr Wakley".<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
Due to his belligerent character, Wakley reacted furiously whenever
the facts of the case were republished.
In May 1826 he initiated an action for libel against Ann Millard (who
we will meet below), for merely republishing the facts of the
insurance claim; and despite her filing an affidavit showing she had
net assets of less than three pounds.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Wakley's spitefulness against Ann was noted, and suspicion of arson followed
him for over thirty years, even though in 1826, as Editor and
Proprietor of The Lancet, he took a successful action for libel
against James Johnston, Editor and Proprietor of the
Medico-Chirurgical Review. The article in dispute had discussed Mr
Bell's lectures and went on;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
We
understood that, previously to the admission of visitors, the
appearance of a Salamander [a mythical reptilian creature supposed to
live in fire] in the gallery, among the students, excited
considerable ferment there, and that, at one time, there was every
reason to believe the fallen angel's ambition would be gratified by
an aerial flight over the heads of members, council, and all. The
threatened expulsion of Lucifer from the presence of the gods on high
Olympus, spread dismay among the inhabitants of the lower regions,
but happily they were spared a visit from this fire-brand, rather
fire-factor, as he is now generally denominated, who willingly, for
once made his exit through the postern gate. The defendant had here
made a note on the word Lucifer, which ran thus: The common
derivation of this word is wrong. It is not from lux and fero, but
from ignis and facio. Vide 'Secret Memoirs of the House of Argyll.'
... 'A New Mode of Lighting the Streets without Lamps and
Extinguishing Debts by means of Fire-engines.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The bitter rivalry with Johnson was illustrated when
a witness for Wakley was asked in cross examination, if he knew that
Wakley had frequently published in <i>The Lancet</i>, matters reflecting on
the character of Johnston.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
A letter also appeared, under the non de plume, Thistlewood's Head;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Since you directed attention to it, I have read the report of the trial in
the <i>Times</i> of June 22, 1821, and I fully concur with you in
thinking it most material that all medical men, whose professional
reputation Wakley has attacked, or may hereafter seek to destroy,
should peruse these details. You have, with the candour which is
characteristic of your publication, abstained from entering into the
nature of the evidence adduced by the Hope Insurance Company further
than it bore upon the point strictly at issue, namely, the
vindication of medical character, by the exposure of Wakley's
professional inexperience, and consequent unfitness for the office he
had assumed; and by contrasting them with his absurd pretensions, you
have afforded such hints as enabled your readers to judge for
themselves who was the IMPOSTER?<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Wakley's victory was Pyrrhic, and he became fair game for all other
publications which doubted his version; referring to the fire as a
phoenix arising from flames, and to Wakley's failure as a surgeon.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
<b>London
Medical Gazette</b> -1829 - Nay, the most confiding of our provincial brethren must, we
apprehend, occasionally marvel how it happened that a man should
suddenly become qualified to criticise medical treatment and surgical
operations, of whose practice no instance was ever made public -
excepting only in describing the events of that dreadful night when
his house was set on fire by an incendiary; and with regard to
surgery, who was never accused of having performed any operation
saving that of decapitating Thistlewood the traitor. That he had been
charged even with this exploit in chirurgery we should not have
known, nor probably would any one else, but for the declaration of Mr
Wakley himself, under circumstances to which it is unnecessary at
present to allude. <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
<b>The
Medico-chirurgical Review</b> - 1829 - None but a salamander could have withstood the fiery torrent
of indignant denunciation that flowed from the plaintiff's counsel on
this memorable occasion. [a reference to Wakleys' defence]<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<br />
<b>The Lady's Magazine</b> - 1830 - A Mr Wakley, who was, we believe, a doctor while he could
get a patient, but who for cogent reasons left his profession, and
afterwards, for some other reason, libelled Bransby Cooper.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<br />
<b>The Court Journal</b> - 1835 - During the late interregnum, some facetious person said the
King had better send for Mr Wakley. 'Oh,' observed a Member, 'Wakley
will never set the Thames on fire.' 'Certainly not,' exclaimed the
wag, 'unless it was insured.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<br />
<b>Blackwood's Magazine</b> - 1837 - One of our colleagues, Mr Wakley, who had for a long time
doubted, was now thoroughly convinced of the truth of Dr Von
Schneke's pretensions, and as a proof of his confidence offered to
set fire to his own house. But this generous offer was magnanimously
refused.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<br />
<b>Blackwood's
Magazine</b> - 1838 - Wakley is deficient in real fire, albeit not inured to
flame.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<br />
<b>The
Medical Times</b> - 1840 - It has been reported, we say not with how much truth, that
Mr Herbert Mayo offered to fight Wakley with fire-engines, as the
latter declared himself no fire-eater. Mr Wakley however declined the
hydraulic encounter, on account of antipathy to the pure element, and
further that it gave rise to unpleasant reflections.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<br />
<b>The
Medical Times</b> – 1841 – (ironically) They generously joined to rescue [Wakley]
from what we sincerely believe to be the undeserved obloquy leaped
upon him for the accidental destruction of his drug shop by fire.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
<b>Portraits of Public Figures</b> – 1841 – 'Tell us how to set a house on fire,' shouted a gruff
voice ... 'London's in a blaze, Wakley,' vociferated another … 'Out
with the fire-king' growled a third. ... 'The house is on fire,
Wakley'. [by hecklers of Wakley] <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
<b>The Medical Times </b> - 1846 - that ornithological wonder whose palpable reality sets at rest
all naturalists doubts as to the existence of a phoenix, Mr Thomas
Wakley. … Like Belial to Lucifer, he is Mr Wakley's good angel; and
the Indian vulture's vision, detecting carrion from thousands of
miles, is not keener than that which placed Mills [of The Lancet] in
his talons. As the world can hold but one phœnix, the earth might
have been scoured for another Mills.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
<b>The Zoist </b>– 1852 - Mr Wakley, in his Lancet, once compared him to a
Phoenix: but he, (Mr Parker) knew that he had not been burnt and
revived from his ashes, but had lived twenty years in his house
without its having yet been on fire.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Wakley reacted angrily to these allegations, as late as 1854 initiating a
court case against the printers and publishers of The Medical Times
for a reference to 'the fiery Wakley' and an allegation that;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.52cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br />
The case was tried in a civil, not in a criminal court. The jury awarded
the sum claimed, but the company obtained fresh evidence after the
trial. The present Lord Truro was counsel for the company, and on the
strength of the new evidence, called upon the gainer of the cause
with the money in one hand and a halter in the other. The risk of
exhibiting at Newgate was too great, and the money was not accepted,
and has never been paid.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
Wakley claimed for damages and was awarded forty shillings, as The Medical
Times was unable to prove the allegation. However, the token award
showed his version of the events was doubted. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1821, the year after the Argyll Street fire, Wakley met the radical
journalist William Cobbett, publisher of the weekly newspaper,
<i>Political
Register</i>.
Smarting from his lack of success in establishing a medical practice,
Wakley opined to Cobbett the need for reform in the medical
profession. Cobbett suggested Wakley campaign for reform. Wakley
liked the idea and with his insurance proceeds, in October 1823 began
publishing <i>The
Lancet</i>.
In the journal Wakley criticised the autocratic powers of the RCS,
campaigning for a united profession of apothecaries, physicians and
surgeons, and a system of medical qualification to improve standards.
Astley Cooper came within Wakley's sights, when Wakely was looking
for causes to champion, to assist in building circulation. As later
noted; 'It has been long known to a few that in Bedford-street [The
Lancet] all the finer professional feelings and all past vauntings
have been sacrificed to low trade instincts'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Most biographies of Astley Cooper draw heavily on the story of his life
written by his nephew, Bransby Cooper. That and similar biographical
references, are readily available and lack of space precludes full
coverage of Cooper's life here. However, those biographies of Cooper
omit mention of his well documented actions against the Grainger
brothers and William Millard. Those events, and Wakley's insurance
claim, help reveal the underlying characters of Cooper and Wakley.
Early evidence of Cooper's character is seen in an account of 1802 by
Hampton Weekes;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Mr Cooper … laughed with us and said that Mr Pohill, a great
Tobacconist at St Margaret's Hill, (with whom this Woman had been
living), had sent word that she shd. not be inspected, (Mr P is also
a governor of this Hospital) But ye answer shd. be to him that she
had been open'd before his message had arrived, but wh. was not ye
case, (This shd. not be told to your country Neddy's, neither to any
one) so we were very merry about it.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Comparison
of Bransby's biography of Cooper with known facts, is helpful as a
litmus in reviewing other 19C biographies. We have seen parts of
Southey's letters concerning atheism were omitted by his nephew, when
compiling Southey's correspondence. There may then be good reason to
expect biographies of Smellie and the Hunters, might also omit
aspects not conducive to their reputation. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Cooper,
was an exact contemporary of Carlisle, even to sharing the same birth
year and initials; both served as RCS President and both were
knighted. Cooper focused more on surgery, than did Carlisle, who
spent sixteen years as RA Professor of Anatomy. Though described,
along with Mr Andrews, as<span style="font-style: normal;"> 'the three
handsome surgeons',</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a>
it seems Carlisle and Cooper were not close. It was said by Pichot
Cooper was one;
'who, from his intense passion for post-mortem inspection, joined to
his physical beauty, might be compared, not to Aesculapius, but
rather to Apollo his father, flaying Marsyas; used to relate with
complacency the adventures of his hateful purveyors, and the regular
traffic in which he employed them. As he paid liberally, he was
always well supplied [with corpses]'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a>
Cooper, along with other well-known an</div>
atomists, features in a
poem perpetuating the legend of Mary, <i>"The Invisible Girl"</i>
whose ghost was believed to haunt Sir Charles Bell's anatomical
rooms, after being dissected on the night preceding her marriage day,
and saying as below, 'Sir Astley has my heart'.
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm;">
<br />
<b>The Invisible
Girl </b>
</div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="306*"></col>
<col width="300*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="41%">'Twas in the middle of the night</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
To sleep young William tried;<br />
When Mary's ghost came stealing in<br />
And stood at his bedside
<br />
Oh, William, dear! Oh, William, dear! <br />
My rest eternal ceases;
Alas!<br />
My everlasting peace
Is broken into pieces.<br />
I thought the last of all my cares <br />
Would end with my last minute,<br />
But when I went to my last home,<br />
I didn't long stay in it.<br />
The body-snatchers, they have come <br />
And made a snatch at me;<br />
It's very hard them kind of men<br />
Can't let a body be.<br />
You thought that I was buried deep, <br />
Quite Christian-like and chary;<br />
But from her grave in Mary-le-bone,<br />
They've come and boned your Mary.<br />
<br />
The arm that used to take your arm<br />
Is took to Dr. Vyse;<br />
And both my legs are gone to walk<br />
The hospital at Guy's.<br />
I vowed that you should take my hand,<br />
But fate gave us denial;<br />
You'll find it there at Dr. Bell's,<br />
In spirits and a phial.<br />
As for my feet, my little feet,<br />
You used to call so pretty,<br />
There's one, I know, in Bedford Row,<br />
The t'other's in the city.<br />
I can't tell where my head is gone,<br />
But Dr. Carpue can;<br />
As for my trunk, it's all packed up<br />
To go by Pickford's van.<br />
I wish you'd go to Mr. Paget;<br />
And save me such a ride;<br />
I don't half like the outside place<br />
They've took for my inside.<br />
The cock, it crows, I must be gone;<br />
My William, we must part;<br />
But I'll be your's in death,<br />
although
Sir Astley has my heart.<br />
Don't go to weep upon my grave<br />
And think that there I be;<br />
They haven't left an atom there<br />
Of my anatomy.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
Senior surgeons in the 19C were often obsequious with wealthy patients, the source of their income, but adopted a harsh and ruthless treatment of people who got in their way. A major reason Cooper is highly regarded by history, in contrast to Carlisle, is due to Wakley criticisms of Carlisle. However, in comparing the issues about which Carlisle was criticised, in contrast with uncriticised issues associated with Cooper, there is evidence Wakley protected Cooper. Bransby Cooper inherited the title of his uncle, under a special dispensation, so predictably, his biography of Cooper covers the positives of Cooper's career in detail, and skips the negatives. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The biography is reminiscent of Sir Pertinax Macsycophant, who in the 1781 play, <i>The Man of the World</i> by Charles Macklin (1699-1797)<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a>, 'bowed, and bowed, and bowed', and cringed, and fawned, to obtain his ambition. As an indication of Bransby's biographical purging, the Medical Times recorded that during all his career there was one task which Cooper never neglected to fulfil. For upwards of forty years he made notes of every case in any way remarkable, and was still doing so in 1840. But in his biography of Cooper, Druin Birch, espouses the belief Bransby burned all his uncle's papers as he was convinced that destroying them was the most honourable way to preserve his uncle's memory.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Cooper's papers and
the Bransby biography, are thus silent on what 'did not show his
uncle in the proper light', but from other sources evidence
concerning Cooper does emerge. They show Cooper as
arrogant, as his evidence to the 1828 Anatomy Committee, when he
claimed he could obtain for dissection the body of any man in
England, if he so desired.<br />
<br />
Cooper was vindictive and his spite is
evidenced in a well documented instance, involving Edward Grainger
(1797-1824) a young surgeon, who Cooper passed over for promotion as
a surgeon in 1818, instead favouring his then inexperienced nephew,
Bransby. The choice backfired several years later in 1828, when
Bransby featured in a celebrated libel case against Wakley arising
from a lithotomy performed by Bransby which went badly wrong and the
patient died.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
Wakley avoided attacking Cooper directly, but Wakley accused Bransby
of incompetence and a barbaric disregard for the suffering of his
patient;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
The unfortunate patient lost his life, not because his case was one
of extraordinary difficulty, but because it was the turn of a
surgeon to operate, who is indebted for his elevation to the
influence of a corrupt system, and who, whatever may be his private
virtues, would never have been placed in a situation of deep
responsibility as that which he now occupies, had he not been the
nephew of Sir Astley Cooper.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Bransby
made a claim of libel, with the
jury not heeding the words of Wakley's counsel. "If", said
Sir James Scarlett in his address to the jury, ... "you give
moderate damages in this case, you will afford an opportunity of
triumph to the Periodical Press, such as it has never yet achieved,
and you will hold up the plaintiff to the contempt and scorn of the
public."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a>
The jury awarded Bransby only £100 against the £2000 claimed which
was at the lower end of the 'moderate damages' alluded to by
Scarlett. It being reported, 'One universal sense of surprise has
been evinced at the smallness of the damages, the general
anticipation having been that £500 at least would have been
awarded'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a>
Thus it was a doubtful victory for Wakley. </div>
<br />
Both
parties issued detailed pamphlets on the case,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
but Wakley did not forget the incident. Later, after
the death of Astley Cooper, all bets were off and Wakley took aim at
Astley Cooper, firing a salvo in a manner he had avoided while Cooper
lived;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Well do we recollect
what occurred when the renowned Sir Astley Cooper was examined in a
court of law relative to the incompetency of one of the surgeons
[Bransby Cooper] belonging to a great hospital of this metropolis.
'Give him time, give him time', was the supplicatory reply of Sir
Astley to his examiner, 'do not crush him in the outset of his
career. I do not say that he is a perfectly good surgeon'. But when
the honourable baronet was asked what was to become of the patients
while the surgeon was afforded time, the silence of the witness
conveyed to every spectator an awful intimation of the direful
results.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.07cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.07cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
The caption on the
cartoon reads; "The Cooper's Adz!! versus the Lancet!!</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br />
"That cursed
Lancet has cut so deep, I fear the wound will never be closed Oh! my
posteriors! - My Seal of Honor! - My latter end! - Oh! dear - Oh!
dear - Oh!" </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
"A Lancet is
far superior to a Cooper's Adz it is so sharp at the Point - besides
it will perform a Scientific Operation with Expedition!" </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Although
Wakley was scathing about Bransby Cooper, he avoided a similar
opportunity involving his own son, also named Thomas; 'Mr Thomas
Wakley was for some days last week confined to his house to escape
the ferocious threatenings of a madman whose child's leg the
unfortunate parent conceived the surgeon to the Royal Free Hospital
to have unnecessarily amputated'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>
There was another major misjudgement by Astley
Cooper. Grainger was a popular man and in 1819, as a result of
encouragement from his students, he opened his own anatomy school,
adding in a new concept, that of summer dissections. During the
summer months, he had no competition from other schools for students,
nor for bodies, so became a favourite with the resurrectionists, for
he had extended the harvesting season. The financial return from his
school was so great, that within three years he bought a disused
chapel and converted it into a Dissecting Academy.<br />
<br />
Grainger died in
1824, but his younger brother Richard Grainger took over the academy
and continued the success. So popular was the school, the pupils gave
him testimonial dinners throughout the 1820s. Cooper saw this from
the sideline and as often happens with successful men, his arrogance
was accompanied by a fury that an upstart surgeon like Grainger
could do so well. Cooper was so irate, he told his staff to do
everything they could to ruin Grainger's academy. His paranoia led to
the death of William Millard, who worked for Cooper for many years as
procurer of corpses from the resurrectionists, and as superintendent
of the theatre of anatomy, the anatomical museum, and the dissecting
room.
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
circumstances of Millard's death were outlined in a 63 page pamphlet
published in 1825, by his wife, Ann Millard, with help from a
knowledgeable reporter, perhaps William Cobbett. The paper has a
title which abbreviates to; <i>An Account of the Circumstances
Attending the Imprisonment and Death of the Late William Millard.</i><span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
The charges were</span> deemed credible by the media of the day;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
Sir Astley Cooper, Sir William Blizard, Mr Green, Mr Webbe, surgeon
to the Middlesex county jail, Mr Wakley, and others, are all called
on to refute, if they can, the charges preferred against them in this
pamphlet. We have no means of confuting one word; and indeed the
details are so minute and circumstantial, and the charges
corroborated by so many letters and documents, that the effect on our
minds is very strongly in favour of their veracity. ... if true, and
the internal evidence very strongly supports it, it places these men
on lower footing than any savages now dwelling on the earth and
condemns them to public abhorrence.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The
account records that William Millard had been a servant to Henry
Cline and in 1809 went to work for Cooper and other surgeons at St
Thomas's, where in 1814, he became superintendent of the new anatomy
theatre. The theatre was built to hold 400 students for lectures, and
room for 200 students working around small tables in its dissecting
rooms. As hospital superintendent, Millard operated his own little
fiefdom. He was responsible for obtaining bodies, but could do a
little trading on the side; selling overalls, dissecting tools, and
boxes for students. He was an ex-pugilist and, to protect his fiefdom
he drove a hard bargain with the resurrectionists, ensuring the
suitable quality of subjects received. Millard was superintendent at
St Thomas during the time the Grainger school prospered. When Richard
Grainger became aware Cooper was intending to try to shut the school,
he determined to keep it open. Grainger let it be known he would pay
over the then market price for bodies to ensure a continuing supply.
At once the price was raised to six guineas.<br />
<br />
For Cooper this amounted
to a declaration of war, so he decided to retaliate and take business
away from Grainger, by himself commencing summer dissections. Cooper
sent for Millard and<span style="font-style: normal;"> said, 'Now,
Millard, we must not allow this; we must depose this man, if he takes
our students in the summer, he will take them in the winter. Can't
you find a place to build a room for summer dissections?'</span>
Millard mentioned a piece of ground that could be used for the
purpose at the back of his own residence, near St Thomas's Hospital.
Cooper asked Millard to build the place as soon as possible and
Millard erected a building, although without a formal agreement, and
incurring a capital expense of £200. The facility was used for
dissection by various apprentices of Cooper, some even related to
him. However, at the end of the first summer Millard could not obtain
payment from Cooper of the rent due. As a result Millard refused to
admit the students to the premises until a surgeon named Morgan
signed a lease for the premises, even then, Millard had great
difficulty in collecting any rent.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
About
this time, in 1821, Millard fell ill for a lengthy period and his
position was filled by a replacement, who was much more lenient in
negotiating prices. A major supplier, Murphy, was thus upset when
Millard resumed work in 1822 and recommenced his tough negotiating
style. As a result of this, and to try and eliminate Millard, Murphy
laid a false complaint with Cooper, that Millard was supplying bodies
to Grainger. This was an unlikely action for Millard, as Millard had
spent his own money on Cooper's summer facility and needed a good
supply of bodies for that, as well to supply Cooper's main anatomy
theatre. However, Cooper's paranoia about Grainger erupted and he
arranged for Millard's employment to be terminated. Although hurt by
his expulsion, and being told by another surgeon, Mr Green, his
thirteen years of service to Cooper and himself had given entire
satisfaction, Millard decided to try a different occupation, that of
an inn keeper. Millard proved unsuccessful in this and decided to
revert to what he knew best. There was now no expectation of Cooper
re-employing him, thus Grainger employed Millard at his academy with
responsibility for obtaining subjects, a practice at which he
excelled.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
When
Cooper became aware Millard, was working for Grainger, he was even
more incensed. Soon after this, Millard was cautioned by a police
contact to be on his guard, as the police had received information
from a certain high quarter, that Millard was in the habit of
accompanying Grainger to procure subjects and orders had been given
to the police to apprehend both Millard and Grainger, if possible,
while they were so engaged.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
There is little doubt that the 'certain high quarter' was Cooper.
Even though forewarned, Millard was snared in a prearranged trap in
August 1823. He had responded to a request from London Hospital,
saying a body was available for collection, but on entering the
hospital grounds to collect the body, Millard was set upon by police.
He was hurried off to the Worship Street Police Office and charged
with being found in, or near, the premises of the London Hospital,
and of refusing to account for being there. The magistrate was on the
point of allowing Millard the bail normal in such circumstances, when
he received a private communication from Cooper.<br />
<br />
Instead, the
magistrate committed Millard for three months to the House of
Correction in Cold Bath Fields.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
Being known to the constabulary, normally a nod and wink would get
Millard released, but this time Cooper had conveyed to the
authorities, the view Millard should be detained. On Millard's
arrival in prison, he at once informed the surgeon of the prison, a
Mr Webbe, that he, Millard, had been in the service of Cooper for
many years. Webbe thus gave orders for a 'soft' admission into the
Infirmary rather than the main prison. However, Webbe also enquired
from Cooper the truth of Millard's statement. On the following
morning Webbe came to Millard and addressed h<span style="font-style: normal;">im,
'"Mr Millard!" said he, "You have told me a damned
infernal lie, Sir Astley Cooper says he does not know anything of
you!"'</span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
When it is remembered Millard had for thirteen years been in the
service of Copper and during that time spoke to him daily, the spite
of Cooper is clear. Several days later, when Millard appealed his
denial of bail, the magistrate said sympathetically to him, <span style="font-style: normal;">"Are
you the man I committed on Saturday last?" "I am, sir!"
"Well, the London Hospital have taken all the responsibility off
my hands, but if they wish well to their school of anatomy they will
let this matter drop."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a></span>
Despite this sympathy, the appeal was unsuccessful and bail again
denied.
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
At this,
Millard's wife, Ann who was unaware of the depth of Cooper's
vindictiveness, approached a gentleman (probably Green) for help.
<span style="font-style: normal;">After hearing her plea, he advised
her to apply to Cooper. "However", he added, "Above
all, Mrs Millard, say not a word to Sir Astley about Grainger, he
would be ready to hang your husband if he thought he had any thing to
do with that young man. Sir Astley would give £10,000, if he could
ruin Grainger."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
</span>Ann accordingly approached Cooper seeking support for the
release of Millard. However, she obtained neither consolation nor
relief. Cooper adopted the mask of Janus, promising action, so as to
get rid of her, but taking no action. At subsequent meetings with
Cooper, Ann fared no better and her husband died while serving the
three month prison term. An intriguing question from Cooper to Ann
Millard after her husband's death was; <span style="font-style: normal;">"Pray
Mrs Millard, did your husband ever say any thing to you about his
being poisoned, when in the Infirmary?" She replied he had not,
so Cooper continued,"For he said something to this effect when
my nephew visited him, but it was perhaps nothing but the effects of
a disordered mind."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
I</span>t seems unlikely Cooper would go to poisoning as an extreme,
but otherwise his question is puzzling.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
When Ann Millard told Wakley that Millard had just died and explained the
circumstances, Wakley expressed abhorrence of the cruelty and
ingratitude with which Millard had been treated. Wakley then seized
on the Grainger and Millard incident as an opportunity to target
Cooper, as a member of the medical establishment, and to help build
The Lancet's circulation.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
"Good God," said [Wakley], "why was there no one to
come forward and speak on his behalf? I am sure there are fifty of
the most respectable practitioners in and near London who would have
done so. Where were Cooper and Green, his old employers who offered
on his leaving their service to furnish him with testimonials of good
conduct whenever he should require them? Why did not they come
forward or why were they not subpoenaed?"<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
With this
display of friendly zeal and warm sympathy Wakley sensed a story for
<i>The Lancet</i>, then only a year old, and went to the prison to follow up
her report. He arrived there whilst the body of Millard was lying
preparatory to its interment, and, on being informed further of the
circumstances of his death, Wakley appeared surprised and shocked
beyond measure, exclaiming,<span style="font-style: normal;"> 'Good
God they have murdered him! Has Mrs Millard had his body opened?'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
Wakley said he would take up the case on Ann's behalf and
As a 'teaser' in <i>The Lancet</i>, Wakley wrote; </span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Notice to Correspondents - BZU is much deceived if he imagines we have
forgotten the cruel treatment of the late Wm Millard. We shall very
shortly investigate this affair most fully, and if we should succeed
in getting into our possession some original letters and documents
which we understand are in existence, they shall at an early period,
be presented to our professional brethren. We feel confident that the
particulars of this extraordinary transaction will excite the
greatest disgust and indignation.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
However,
within days, Cooper and Wakley came to an accommodation, with nothing
further in <i>The Lancet.</i> Their accommodation was connected to lecture
notes of Cooper's which Wakley had commenced publishing in <i>The Lancet</i>
without permission. Cooper was furious at the publication of his
notes and threatened to take legal action, saying the publi<span style="font-style: normal;">cation
'looked so much like quackery, so much like puffing, that I am unable
to tell you how much it annoyed me'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a>
Cooper visited</span> Wakley determined to stop it. But after they
met, Wakley continued publishing the lectures, the Millard case was
quietly dropped by Wakley, and there was never a direct attack on
Cooper in <i>The Lancet</i> on any subject. Some interpret this as
evidence of a mutual friendship developing between Cooper and Wakley,
others see it as puzzling, as both men were of an abrasive nature.
Given the intensity of Cooper's feeling about Grainger, Millard, and
Wakley, the logical deduction is that Cooper was black-mailed by
Wakley, being forced to grant permission for Wakley to continue
printing the lecture notes, conditional upon <i>The Lancet</i> not printing
the Millard affair in its columns.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
One can
sense that when Cooper confronted Wakley, insisting he stop
publishing the lecture notes, or face legal action, Wakley likely
replied, '<span style="font-style: normal;">Certainly! I will stop
publishing the lecture notes. It suits me to do so, as I have a
better story involving you, and the false imprisonment and death of
William Millard, which I will gladly print instead and will sell many
more copies over coming weeks'. A</span>fter the agreement, while
Cooper lived, nepotism was as close as Wakley ever came to a
criticism of Cooper. Implicit, is that Wakley and Cooper did not like
each other, but recognised through their arrangement they were bound
together as if Siamese twins.<br />
<br />
When
Ann called on Wakley to seek the publishing assistance he had
promised, he instead expressed disinterest, now observing he was
'now on the most intimate terms with Sir Astley Cooper, who was a
most magnanimous person and she should call on him to seek
assistance'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
Ann
was then fobbed off by various surgeons. Cooper's actions do seem to
have led to Millard's arrest and incarceration, but whether he had
arranged with the resurrectionist, Murphy, for Millard to be poisoned
out of spite, can only be speculation. If Astley Cooper was been
prepared, as he said, to pay £10,000 for Richard Grainger's removal,
even a mere £100 to remove Millard would have had many takers
amongst Cooper's resurrectionist contacts. In her
efforts to obtain justice, Ann told Bransby she had ascertained
Cooper had instigated the proceedings against her husband, but
Bransby <span style="font-style: normal;">declared; 'his belief that
it was a damned lie and that his uncle never could have been guilty
of the baseness and duplicity attributed to him'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The story
of Cooper's lecture notes re-emerged in October 1839, well after the
death of George IV. <i>The Medical Times</i> wrote of Wakley, includin<span style="font-style: normal;">g;
'Wielding a powerful pen in defence of the mass of his professional
brethren, he has but too frequently steeped it in gall rather than
ink'. The story of the lecture notes was recounted in an apocryphal
manner; </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Cooper ... resolved to discover the purloiner of his discourses. From
a suspicion entertained of Master Wakley, he watched him narrowly at
lecture, and perceiving him always very busy with his pen. Sir A had
the curiosity to pay Mr Tom an evening visit. On entering Wakley's
studio abruptly and unannounced, he discovered that gentleman hard at
work correcting a proof of one of the sheets of the obnoxious
“Lancet”, which said sheet contained one of Sir A's lectures.
“Oh, oh!” cries Sir A, “I have caught you at last. This is too
bad. I'll put a stop to it, Mr Wakley.” Tom leered at his old
teacher and said, "Well try, Sir Astley; for until I am
compelled by the law to desist from publishing your lectures I shall
continue them. You have at last obtained possession of my secret. You
now know I am the editor of the Lancet and so shall the world.” Sir
A looked unutterable things and departed, threatening vengeance on
Wakley.”<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">A</span>
follow-up article has a similar apocryphal ring, perhaps told by
Cooper to put himself in the best light for posterity; at a time when
the King was no longer alive to contradict Cooper's account;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
Sir Astley was called to Court, when his Majesty thus addressed him;
“Why Cooper, what is this I hear? I understand you are about
appealing to the law, against the publication of your lectures in The
Lancet.” “Your Majesty is correct; I am endeavouring to put a
stop to the publication of my lectures in the journal to which your
Majesty alludes. But may I request to be informed by what means your
Majesty became acquainted with my intentions on that subject?” “Oh
certainly,” returned his Majesty, “I peruse that work, and admire
your lectures. In consequence of perceiving a notice from the editor
of that journal relative to your threats to appeal to the law, I sent
for you to ask if you are ashamed or doubt the accuracy of your own
doctrines?” “I ashamed,” stammered out Sir Astley, “I doubt.
Why surely your Majesty cannot suppose I am after so many years of
espe--.” “Well then, Cooper,” interrupted the King, “if you
are not ashamed of your discourses, why prevent your opinions from
being disseminated to the world. I am quite certain,” continued his
Majesty, significantly, "that I should feel very much
disappointed if deprived of the pleasure of perusing your
discourses.” Sir Astley bowed in submission and took leave. Mr
Wakley pursued his course, wondering what strange chance prevented
Sir A Cooper from proceeding against him.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Despite
this report, the concept of an 'arrangement' between Wakley and
Cooper, concerning Millard and the lecture notes, better fits the
facts and is more credible. </span>In the same year, 1839, The
Medical Times expressed the view Bransby Cooper's own lectures 'were
better suited to the closet, [toilet];
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
Bransby Cooper was born to good luck, being the nephew of the
celebrated surgeon Sir Astley Paston Cooper. Bransby, at the proper
age, was duly bound apprentice to Uncle Astley, attended Uncle
Astley's lectures at St Thomas's Hospital, followed Uncle Astley in
his walks in the wards of Guy's, and when the proper time arrived,
was examined by Uncle Astley and his colleagues at the college, and
lastly, was installed as lecturer on anatomy, and surgeon at Guy's
Hospital through Uncle Astley's influence. Uncle Astley modestly
retiring from the office of surgeon to the hospital and from bis
private practice in favour of nephew Bransby, fortunate man so far.
Let us examine his pretensions to the medical honours they thrust
upon his youthful head, as an anatomist he deserves all praise. His
lectures, based upon the excellent anatomical system, as regards the
bones, arteries, and nerves, of the late talented Joshua Brookes, and
his published course of lectures, should be in the hands of every
sedulous, student as they are, perhaps, equal to any anatomical work
extant. His lectures on surgery contain much valuable matter, so far
so good, but <u>he is a tedious lecturer, and his discourses are
better calculated for the closet than the theatre</u>. [my emphasis]
As a surgeon he may, no doubt, prescribe correctly in a case of
erysipelas, or any similar disease. But after witnessing his talents
as an operator, in the case of poor Pollard in 1828, we should be
very sorry to place ourselves under his knife.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Ann
Millard's account reveals more about Bransby and Cooper; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
Mr Bransby Cooper
now resides with his uncle, for the purpose of receiving the crumbs
which fall from the latter's table; in other words to profit by the
overflow of his wealthy relative's practice. This arrangement is an
extremely fortunate circumstance for the crowds of credulous people
who flock to Sir A C's house, under the impression that there is but
one skilful surgeon in England; for although Mr Bransby Cooper has
never been charged with excessive acuteness or dexterity, yet his
advice mast be preferable to that of Sir Astley Cooper's valet or
porter. Charles Balderson, who for many years opened the door to Sir
Astley's patients, and who has been permitted, by Sir Astley, to
prescribe for them? 'La vrai n'est pas toujours vraisembeable',
[things are not always as they appear] yet such was the fact. A
medical student, some few years since, had a patient for whom he
wished the benefit of Sir Astley's advice. His indignation may be
conceived, when he discovered that another person, who turned out to
be Charles Balderson, Sir Astley's footman had taken the fee, and
prescribed for his patient. ... Charles would have retired long
since, to enjoy the fruits of his ingenuity, but that, like a
minister of state, he cannot easily bring himself to relinquish the
sweets of office. We have only in conclusion to recommend any of our
readers who may wish to consult Sir Astley, to propitiate Charles by
a free will offering, varying according to to urgency of the case,
from a crown piece to a sovereign, otherwise they will have little
chance of seeing the idol.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
There
is little reason to doubt Ann Millard's account of events, she was
obviously assisted in writing it by someone familiar with the medical
infighting of the day and conscious of the possibly of libel. The
account has the ring of truth, and so many people are mentioned by
their real names, there would have been a ruction if it was found to
be grossly inaccurate. Ann's situation became desperate after her
husband's death. The <i>Times</i> reported her plea for poor relief, when
she stated she lived for many years in a state of comfort and
respectability until the death of her husband, when she was left with
a family of six young children. Her situation by 1827 was grim, and
she was a pauper.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
With the
continuing accommodation between Wakley and Cooper in place over his
lectures, it is likely Cooper was the lecturer quoted by Wakley in
The Lancet in 1829, under the heading <i>'Human Carcass Butchers';</i>
with Wakley agreeing to protect Cooper's identity in relating the
story;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Nothing can be more ridiculous than to suppose, that the members of
the medical profession generally, uphold the practice of human
dissections, either for their benefit, or for their amusement. ...
Far different, however, is it with many of our <i>teachers</i> of
anatomy, the nature of whose commerce furnishes an explanation of
that cold-blooded and monstrous indifference, with which have kept
their <i>shambles</i> open as temptations to Burkites, during the
late and painful state of public excitement. From these men we hear
little or relative to the difficulties of procuring subjects. No!
They enjoy a profitable monopoly. Hence their aversion to an
alteration of the system. They may be denominated <i>human carcass
butchers,</i> and regulate their scare of charges to the plundered
and impoverished student, by the demands of the resurrectionist and
murderer, as does the cattle butcher by the demands of the farmer and
grazier. This is their plan. They are supplied with bodies, or
portions of bodies, from friends in country hospitals, infirmaries,
and work-houses, at no other cost than that of package and carriage.
The body, or piece of a body, thus procured is then sold to the
unfortunate student, at the resurrectionist's or murderer's price!
<u>One lecturer told us that he had taken a </u><i><u>burial ground,</u></i><u>
and a small house adjoining. From this place he said he obtained a
famous supply</u>, [my emphasis] and that it was altogether a “very
good thing;” for as it was a <i>secure</i> and “comfortable
resting place,” as the saints have it, <u>he could charge pretty
handsomely for burying a body there, and afterwards get from his
pupils from eight to twelve guineas for taking it up again</u>! [my
emphasis] Such is the profitable traffic of the human carcass
butcher; a traffic which <u>has led, in </u><i><u>some schools</u></i><u>,
to the dissection of thrice as many bodies as were required for the
purposes of science</u>.[my emphasis]<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Further reason to
link this incident with Cooper, is that when polled by Sir Robert
Peel on alternative sources of supply, Cooper did not advocate
'economy of corpses', whereas Carlisle did.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">A</span>nother incident, suppressed
by Wakley, illustrated Cooper's arrogance on his retirement; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Sir Astley Cooper recently resigned the lectureship of St Thomas's, in the full persuasion that like his title and fortune it was to be hereditary, and that his nephew would of course succeed to it. On the resignation of any eminent lecturer, we believe, it is customary for the students to subscribe to present him with a piece of plate, as a testimony of regard and respect. It appears, however, that on the season preceding his resignation, Sir Astley Cooper had not only omitted to lecture, but had not even honoured the students with a single attendance, although his name had been announced as one of the lecturers, and the subscriptions paid under that impression. When the students were therefore applied to for the purpose of subscribing, they universally declined making any contribution for the purpose above mentioned, and Sir Astley was thus mulcted for the neglect of his duties.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a><br />
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
While the arrangement lasted, nepotism was the only matter on which The Lancet was willing to imply criticism; 'Sir Astley Copper has contrived by the aid of a corrupt system to get the whole surgical patronage of the Borough hospitals distributed among his nephews and connexions'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66sym" name="sdendnote66anc"><sup>lxvi</sup></a> However, Cooper was not always successful with his nepotism, as when a competitor to his nephew for the lectureship Cooper had vacated, appeared in the person of John South and was successful. What inclined the scale in favour of John South, was the treasurer of St Thomas's Hospital, 'the autocrat of that establishment', having a fair daughter, whom South pursued in strains, which;
<br />
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Came over her ear like the Sweet South<br />
That breathes upon a bank of violets<br />
Stealing and giving odour.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67sym" name="sdendnote67anc"><sup>lxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Cooper's
paranoia again surfaced; 'Furious,
Astley demanded the governors allow him to retract his resignation.
They refused'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68sym" name="sdendnote68anc"><sup>lxviii</sup></a> This was the last straw for Cooper, who again acted
petulantly;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
As a chain of causes and effects, accounting for the success of the
new lecturer, nothing has been more satisfactorily deduced since the
discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton. Sir Astley Cooper, it may be
imagined, has not borne very calmly this second disappointment and
intimation of declining influence. An old adage declares that
'revenge is sweet'; and in order to enjoy these sweets, Sir Astley
has determined to create a schism between the hitherto united
hospitals of Guy's and St Thomas, by opening a new school of anatomy
in the former. Relinquishing his customary enjoyments at this season
of the year, of killing and maiming hares and pheasants, he is moving
(as the phrase is) heaven and earth to get ready, by the commencement
of the autumnal season, a new theatre of anatomy 'with entirely new
scenery and decorations', at which himself and his nephew may make
their first appearance. ... the theatre of anatomy, alluded to
including spacious dissecting rooms has been built by the treasurer
of Guy's Hospital, and opened by Sir Astley Cooper for the reception
of students. ... It is a melancholy fact that hundreds of the sick
poor are turned away weekly from St Thomas's and Guy's Hospital
unrelieved and unassisted, because there is no room to receive them,
whilst the funds of these richly endowed institutions ... are devoted
in secret to the erection of anatomical theatres and dissecting
rooms, in order to gratify the spleen and caprice, and to fill the
coffers of private individuals, who are already rolling in wealth.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69sym" name="sdendnote69anc"><sup>lxix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Carlisle's
death was unmarked by <i>The Lancet</i>, but Wakley remained loyal to Cooper
until his death; 'It is with inexpressible regret that we have to
record the death of the most eminent of modern British surgeons, Sir
Astley Cooper; of one whose distinctions were the merited reward of
industry, perseverance, knowledge, and the constant exercise of
kindliness and amenity of disposition …. [and much more].<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70sym" name="sdendnote70anc"><sup>lxx</sup></a>
Wakley died in 1862, and was buried at Kensal Green Cemetery, by
chance also the resting place of Carlisle. The incidents recounted
here may seem biased against Cooper and Wakley, so should be read in
conjunction with traditional biographies of the two men. The intent
here, is as a benchmark to compare Wakley's treatment of Cooper and
Carlisle, with the incidents suggesting revision of the heights of
the historical 'pedestals' accorded to Cooper and Wakley. </div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, 1862, p 609</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Wakley, Thomas, <i>The Lancet,</i> George Churchill, 1852, London,
p 550</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Atkinson, Tony, <i>The Paranoia of Pioneer Anaethetists,</i>
Melbourne, 1996,</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
<i>The Medico-chirurgical Review</i>, London, Johnson, 1832, p
139-140</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Reece, Richard, <i>The Monthly Gazette of Health</i>, London,
Sherwood, Neely, and Jones, 1821, p 753</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Brook, Charles, <i>Battling Surgeon</i>, Glasgow, Strickland, 1945,
p 72</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Eliot, George,<i> Middlemarch</i>, p 116</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances Attending the
Imprisonment and Death of the Late William Millard, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 59</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
<i>The Annual Register</i>, London, Baldwin, 1822, p 440-442</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
Burke, Peter, <i>Celebrated Trials Associated with the Upper
Classes</i>, London, Benning, 1851, p 309</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 61-62</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, title page</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
<i>The Examiner</i>, London, John Hunt, 1826, p 330-331</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
Hunt, Leigh, <i>The Examiner,</i> London, John Hunt, 1826, p 412</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Ryan, Edward, and Moody, William, <i>Reports of Cases</i>, London, J
Butterworth, 1827, p 422</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a><i>
London Medical Gazette,</i> Vol V, London, Longmans, 1830, p 55</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a><i>
London Medical Gazette,</i> Vol IV, London, Longmans, 1829, p 217</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
<i>The Medico-chirurgical Review,</i> London, J Johnson, 1829, p 303</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
<i>The Lady's Magazine,</i> London, 1830, p 103</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a><i>
The Court Journal, </i>London, Henry Colburn, 1835, p 274</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
<i>Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine</i>, Edinburgh, Blackwood, 1837, p
393</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a><i>
Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine</i>, Edinburgh, Blackwood, 1838, p
519</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
<i>Medical Times</i>, Vol I, London, Sydney Smith, 1840, p 230</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a><i>
Medical Times,</i> Vol V, London, McRitchie, 1842, p 90</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Grant, James, <i>Portraits of Public Figures</i>, Vol I, London,
Suanders and Otley, 1841, p 161-168</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
Medical Times, Vol IX. London, J Angerstein, Carfrae, 1846, p 221</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
<i>The Zoist, A Journal of Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism</i>,
London, Hyppolyte Baillere, 1852, p 141</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, Wakley, 1854, p 680</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
<i>The Medical Press & Circular</i>, London, Medical Press,
1868, p 440</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Richardson, Ruth, Death, <i>Dissection and the Destitute,</i>
Chicago, CUP, 2000, p 199</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
<i>Medical Times</i>, Vol III, London, Thomas Bailey, 1841, p 79</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
Pichot, Amedee, <i>The Life and Labours of Sir Charles Bell</i>,
London, Richard Bentley, 1860, p 53-55
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Keen, William, <i>A sketch, early history of practical anatomy</i>,
October 6, 1874, Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1874, p 5
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Macklin, Charles, <i>The Man of the World,</i> London, Thomas Hailes
Lacy, after 1851</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Burch, Druin, <i>Digging up the Dead,</i> London, Chatto &
Windus, 2007, p 253-254</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
Gurney, W B and Cooper, Bransby B, <i>Report of the Trial, Cooper
Versus Wakle</i>, London, S Highley, 1829
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
Wakley, Thomas, <i>A report of the Trial, Cooper v Wakley,</i>
London, The Lancet, 1829</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Wakley, Thomas, <i>A report of the Trial, Cooper v Wakley,</i>
London, The Lancet, 1829, p 147</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
<i>The Medico-Chirurgical Review,</i> New York, Johnson, 1829, p 304</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
Gurney, W B and Cooper, Bransby B, <i>Report of the Trial, Cooper
Versus Wakley, for Libel</i>, London, Highley, 1829
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
<i>The Lancet,</i> London, November, 1841</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
<i>The Medical Times</i>, London, Churchill, 1852, p 25</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
<i>The Monthly Magazine</i>, January to June, 1826, London, Geo B
Whittaker, 1826, p 416</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 17-20</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 24</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 29</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 30</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 29</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 33</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 44</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 44</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 44</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 45</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
Burch, Druin, <i>Digging up the Dead,</i> London, Chatto &
Windus, 2007, p 213</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 46</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 53</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
<i>The Medical Times, </i>No 3 Vol 1, October 12, 1839, p 17</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
<i>The Medical Times, </i>No 5 Vol 1, October 26, 1839, p 34</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a><i>
The Medical Times, </i>No 4 Vol 1, October 19, 1839, p 28</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 53</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a>
<i>The Times,</i> London, 22 March 1827</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a>
<i>The Lancet,</i> London, Wakley, 1829, p 563</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
Richardson, Ruth, <i>Death, Dissection, and the Destitute,</i>
London, CUP, 2000, p 163</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 54</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote66">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66anc" name="sdendnote66sym">lxvi</a><i>
The Lancet</i>, London, Wakley, 1829, p 593</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote67">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67anc" name="sdendnote67sym">lxvii</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 54</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote68">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68anc" name="sdendnote68sym">lxviii</a>
Burch, Druin, <i>Digging up the Dead,</i> London, Chatto &
Windus, 2007, p 224</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote69">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69anc" name="sdendnote69sym">lxix</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Ann Millard, 1825, p 55</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote70">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70anc" name="sdendnote70sym">lxx</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, 1841, p 764</span></div>
</div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-49043118727913727802015-04-05T19:07:00.003-07:002021-11-26T09:43:00.206-08:0017 - Carlisle, his Reform Attempts, and more Wakley Venom ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
From his
appointment as Surgeon at Westminster Hospital in 1793 Carlisle
retained the position for 47 years and was a founder member of the
RCS. Although his Westminster appointment was of long duration, it
should be remembered it was honorary and his predecessor, Henry
Watson, had still been on the staff when he died at the age of 91.
Carlisle was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1804, to the
Horticultural Society in 1812, and the Geological Society in 1820. He
was appointed Professor of Anatomy at the RA in 1808, which he held
for sixteen years. <br />
<br />
Carlisle's
rise in status was rapid. Queen Charlotte died on November 17, 1818.
The funeral procession was followed by a ceremony within the Royal
Chapel where mourners included;</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Surgeons to the Prince Regent – Ogle, S Howard, F Thomson,
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
T
Chevalier, T Luxmore, A Carlisle, J P Tupper, & W Wadd, Esqrs. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
His
first Royal appointment being as surgeon to the Duke of Gloucester,
and he became Surgeon Extraordinary (1820-1830) to King George IV, by
whom he was knighted.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Carlisle was for many years a curator of the Hunterian Museum,
including the three years commencing 1822, the year that George IV
presented the RCS with a ceremonial mace 'of exquisite design and
execution'. Carlisle
was a Member of the Court of Assistants of the RCS from 1815 to 1840,
an Examiner from 1825 onwards, Professor of Anatomy, Physiology and
Surgery from 1817 to 1818, Hunterian Orator in 1820 and 1826,
Vice-President in 1826, 1827, 1835, and 1836, and President in 1828
and 1837.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
During
his study with John Hunter, Carlisle developed an interest in
comparative anatomy and wrote many papers on the subject. His first
published paper,<i> “A Case of Unusual Formation in a Part of the
Brain,</i> was read for Carlisle by Dr Baillie to the Society for the
Improvement of Medical and Chirugical Knowledge on 25 October 1791
when Carlisle was only 23. In 1793 Carlisle became a fellow of the
Linnaean Society and in 1794 contributed a paper to the Linnaean
Society journal, titled <i>“Observations upon the Structure and
Economy of those intestinal worms called Taeniae”</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
His comparative anatomy knowledge was so remarked upon that, on John
Hunter's death in 1793, Carlisle was offered the position of Curator
to the Hunterian Collection. Although he declined the offer, Carlisle
used his growing influence to ensure the Government purchased the
Collection, which it did in 1799 for £15,000, even though John
Hunter had stated it cost him £70,000. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
his lectures, Carlisle focussed on surgery and
comparative anatomy, rather than human anatomy. <i>The Times</i> of 17
September 1794 advertised; 'Mr Carlisle will give a general
introductory lecture on Saturday October 4th, at 11 o'clock, wherein
he proposes to point out the most advantageous mode of acquiring
Surgical Knowledge. Mr Lynn and Mr Carlisle will afterwards continue
to give such occasional Lectures on Surgery, as may be thought most
useful to the Pupils; and Chemical Lectures upon every Operation, or
important Case which falls under their Care.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
The following year;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.54cm; margin-right: 0.54cm;">
<br />
Comparative Anatomy - Mr A Carlisle will repeat his Course of
Lectures on the general Mechanism of Animal Bodies. The first Lecture
will be given on Monday, Nov 16, at 2 o'clock, and continued every
Wednesday, Friday, and Monday following, as the same hour, until the
end of the course. Tickets for the Course, price two guineas, may be
had of Mr Carlisle, No 52, Frith Street, Soho; where any further
particulars, may be known. The whole subject will occupy about 12
Lectures, each of one hour's continuance.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Perhaps as he had not attracted sufficient pupils in 1795, in 1796 he sought a wider audience, adding an extra six lectures, while maintaining the two guinea course fee;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
Comparative Anatomy - Mr Carlisle will repeat his Course of Lectures
on the Elements of Anatomy accompanied with suitable Demonstrations
from various animals. their principle intention is to exhibit the
Sciences of Anatomy as a Branch of Natural Philosophy. The Plan has
been arranged so as to be adapted to two classes of hearers; the
first, Gentlemen of general information who may be desirous of
gaining knowledge of the Structure and Phaenomena of Animal Bodies.
The second, young persons who are designed over [sic] the Study of
Medicine. The whole Course will occupy about eighteen lectures, each
of an hour.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
By
1799, he had gained public attention; "Mr Carlisle, a distinguished
anatomist in London, has often dissected the monkies and apes which
had died at Exeter Change, and hardly remembers to have examined one
that was free from scrophulous affections in the lungs. Most of them,
he thinks, had evidently died of true consumption."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Carlisle experimented on animals, in the belief that
what he learned was transferable to the study of humans. Even so, due
to his limited income, his studies had an emphasis on tapeworms,
small fish, molluscs, and hedgehogs, whereas it was said of Astley
Cooper; any dogs or cats he saw in the neighbourhood were captured on
sight and hidden in his home until they reached his dissection table,
regardless of whether or not they were strays. Many students were
casual in approach and lax in attending lectures, often preferring to
play cards. Thus, in his lectures, Carlisle drew an analogy between
whist and surgery;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.32cm; margin-right: 0.41cm;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Тhe practice of physic and surgery;
gentlemen, may be compared to a game of whist. In order to play at
whist, you are well aware it is necessary, first to know the cards
and the value of them, and secondly, to know the rules of the game. I
suppose anatomy to be the first, and pathology and the theory of
physic to be the second. If a person is well acquainted, then, with
the value of the cards he holds, and understands thoroughly the rules
of the game, he will always play a good game, however bad may be the
cards dealt to him. It will sometimes be necessary to play trumps, as
when in difficult cases you are forced to have recourse to
extraordinary measures of treatment. But you will have a hundred
ordinary games in which the common rules will serve your turn, and it
will only be the hundred and first case, perhaps, that may be
considered one of difficulty - and in which your fortune may depend
on a correct judgement.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
In
October 1824, Carlisle remarked;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
I have always
observed that the mind of a young man has a tragic turn, if I might
so express myself; that he is fond of running about after operations,
often performed as a last resource, and frequently unjustifiable in
themselves, instead of attending to the more useful, but less
striking surgical cases of everyday occurrence. Operations indeed are
but seldom wanted in general practice; not one man in twenty living
in the country ever performs them. Even in towns, unless a man is an
hospital surgeon they rarely fall under his care.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
casual arrogance of early19C surgeons towards amputations, is
illustrated by the action of George Guthrie, who had conducted many
amputations during army service in the Napoleonic Wars;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
Mr Guthrie was at no pains to conceal his contempt for his civil
brethren, who 'lived at home at ease' and, as he ironically observed,
acquired a great deal of useful information, but adhered to a timid
operóse, and what the vulgar would call a pottering style of
surgery. When he came home, he invited Sir Charles Bell and Sir
Anthony Carlisle to witness an amputation at the shoulder-joint at
the York Hospital. To their desperate alarm, he used no tourniquet
nor compression at all; and that they might the better remember their
lesson, he let the axillary artery spurt a quantity of blood over
their faces as they were looking on, that they might see how easily
and completely the bleeding was immediately checked by the finger and
thumb.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Carlisle's concern about surgical standards led him to seek reform of
RCS from within. In
1826 he proposed a regular journal publication by the Royal College
of Surgeons 'stamped with the authority of the most distinguished men
in our profession and authenticated by their names'. However, the
idea foundered when he could not obtain support.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle's high public profile, saw him as logical chief whipping boy
for The Lancet. A focus of the criticism was that ordinary members
were required to enter the RCS through the back-door in the manner of
tradesmen. Wakley, sensed an opportunity to build circulation,
encouraged member dissent and published the following letter in
February 1826, with an accompanying comment which set the scene for
the ensuing disaster;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
To Sir Anthony Carlisle, Sir, When you delivered the Hunterian
Oration, two or three years ago, I was one of your hearers, and was
exceedingly gratified by it; and it is out of no personal disrespect
to you, either as a man or as a surgeon, that I signify to you my
intention of not being present at the next anniversary; for,
independently of the detestation with which I view the various
disgraceful and arbitrary acts which proceed continually from the
Corporate Body of the College Of Surgeons, I consider it extremely
degrading to be obliged to pass down Portugal-street, celebrated only
for its stables, butchers, shambles, and dirt, that I may enter at
the <i>back door</i> of a building, which has a handsome portal,
through which pass none but a self-elected body of about twenty
individuals, and some of their very particular friends. James Morse
Churchill.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
We [wrote <i>The Lancet</i>] readily give insertion to the letter of Mr
Churchill, and highly approve of the indignant manner in which he
alludes to the oppressive and insulting conduct of the Court of the
College; but we entirely <i>disapprove</i> of his determination not
to attend the Oration on Tuesday next, even at the sacrifice of
entering the College at the <i>back doo</i>r; the Oration will be
delivered only <i>four days</i> previous to the Meeting, which is to
be held at the Freemason's Tavern, for the purpose of applying an
antidote to the College abuses, and it probable that on Tuesday some
preliminary measure may be adopted. At all events, we hope there wilt
be a very full attendance of the Members at the delivery of the
Oration, that the Council and Court of Examiners may receive
<i>unequivocal testimony</i> of the detestation with which their
proceedings are viewed by the great body of the surgical profession.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">As
a result of Wakley's jealous incitement, over 500 turned up for Carlisle's
Oration, not with a view to listening to him, but as eager spectators
for the expected verbal fireworks with the Council. In this climate
Carlisle was doomed before he began, and the themes he developed in
the Oration were not fine music to his already agitated audience;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Young surgeons
delighted with the simplicity of practical anatomy, are too apt to
consider the transit from the dissecting to the operating table as a
continuation of the same scene; but it is my duty to state, from long
experience, that even a comprehensive and ready acquaintance with our
natural structure, is an inadequate preparation for those
vicissitudes which diseased structure and displacements present in
many operations. I am free to confess that I never yet performed a
single surgical operation which might not have been better done if
all the occurrences had been foreseen, and that I never witnessed an
operation without some incident arising, which demanded the ready
judgement and moral courage of experienced persons in addition to the
views of anatomy. ... I am induced to submit these cautionary remarks
from a conviction that false confidence arising out of anatomical
pedantry is very prevalent, and, unless it be restrained, some of our
members may become liable to severe, and perhaps the deserved blame
of legal authorities. … The physical sciences are now rapidly
dispelling the unworthy mysteries of the healing art, and we may soon
expect the doctrines of physiology, pathology, surgery, and
therapeutics, to be established on the clear evidence of anatomical
structures and of chemical agencies, neither of them being in itself
sufficient to explain the meaning of many diseases, or the manner in
which our remedies become efficacious.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
could not have anticipated the readiness for RCS blood by his
audience, but their volatile mood was exacerbated on hearing Carlisle
had chosen as his subject the oyster, a creature so small viewers
could not follow his actions. As a result minds wandered and members
of the audience started to speculate why he had chosen oysters. When
Lord Colchester was discovered among the audience, it was deduced by
the more restless section that the oyster had been chosen up in
compliment to Lord Colchester, whose title was associated with the
mollusc.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
In fact, it was more likely the reverse, Carlisle selected the oyster
as his subject, and then invited Lord Colchester. In any event, the
audience became more and more restless, and before the end Carlisle
was hissed at so much, he could not continue and left the room. It
was said he had so many oysters in the room, it looked like a fish
shop. One to write positively was E H Cornelius; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
The oration is
fairly long, and it appears that, whilst reading his oration,
Carlisle dissected an oyster to illustrate points he wanted to make,
thereby upsetting the appetites of some of his audience for the
dinner which was to follow the Oration. It is clear the Oration went
over the heads of his audience, which did not appreciate a detailed
scientific lecture. This surely argues poverty in the intellectual
capacity of the audience rather than that of the orator, as The
Lancet would have one believe. It seems this attack has coloured the
picture of Carlisle to an absurd extent. He was by no means the vain
and bumbling person depicted in this and other attacks in The Lancet.
He had imbibed Hunter's teaching extremely thoroughly and his papers
show a great attention to detail and a lively, inquiring mind.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
It
is apparent from <i>The Lancet</i> report of the Oration, that Wakley's
purpose was to incite and rouse his readers, preparatory to a meeting
held on the evening of <i>The Lancet's</i> next publication. To encourage
more dissent, Wakley reported sarcastically on the Oration, as by Sir
Anthony Oyster, adding "This <i>reading
Orator</i>
was known, previous to Tuesday last, by the name of Carlisle.";</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
The Orator, in the most gracious and condescending manner, first <i>informed</i> the <i>Members,</i> that the name oyster, is from the Latin word <i>ostrea</i>, which is a derivation from the Greek. We were next favoured with the name given to the oyster by the Persians, Africans, Russians, Egyptians, Brazilians, Laplanders, Calabrians, Dutch Esquimaux, and the Chinese, the last of which, he <i>learnedly</i> stated, had a word to signify a <i>large</i> oyster, another a <i>small</i> oyster, and a third a <i>round</i> oyster. Of the harmonious and agreeable terms given to the oyster by the nations just mentioned we will here submit a few of the <i>Orator's</i> specimens: Fdrfdhb, Ffffggghhh, Mmmhf, Pfk, Gsgsgsgsgsgsgs, Pgfwbtwrgwfrbx, Bahbfxytpmbzd, Xhg Nnnnwwbbggxxbfbffggw; [sic!] with many others of similar beauty. … The Orator having thus concluded his <i>Babylonish</i> display of etymological industry, learning, and foolery, proceeded to the poor oyster's dissection and whilst tearing asunder its bivales, lacerating its ligaments, and inflating its rectum, piously observed, that the benevolence of an omnipotent power is exhibited in all the works of nature. Without questioning the propriety of this remark, 'we may, we think, be permitted to say, that it was at least ill timed, and we are inclined to believe, that had the oyster spoken, it would have given a flat denial of the Orator's proposition. Sir Anthony demonstrated, with the most obstinate and tedious minuteness, the different structures of which it is composed, its ligaments, muscles, lips, liver, and rectum, until his entire auditory, amounting probably to upwards of five hundred, and who, at that hour of the day, it is most likely had entered the Theatre with a keen appetite, were absolutely glutted by a single oyster. This fact will doubtless be highly acceptable to the <i>Saints,</i> as it tends to confirm by analogical induction, the indisputable truth of the “loaves and fishes” miracle, recorded elsewhere. For if one oyster can <i>cram</i> five hundred persons even to sickening, and the <i>whole</i> of the oyster still remain untouched, we see no reason why a few thousand persons might not have their appetites satisfied by “three barley loaves and two small fishes,” and that several baskets of fragments might remain ... Sir Anthony persisted in his stupid and uninteresting detail, until the expressions of disapprobation became so violent that he was compelled abruptly to conclude amidst loud and general hissing. The orator was, at one period, sufficiently indiscreet to inform his auditory that he had miscalculated their patience, but he should have recollected that;<br />
<br />
Patience is the virtue of an ass,<br />
Which trots beneath his burthen, and is quiet. …</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
As shown earlier, through the letters of Southey, Carlisle was an atheist, hence one may observe in his comment; "the benevolence of an omnipotent power is exhibited in all the works of nature", a humorous aside, of a nature often made by lecturers when an experiment takes longer than intended. Overall, it was a calamity for Carlisle and, apart from the tense mood of the audience, there is a sense that his Asperger's Syndrome was a contributing factor in his content. With the audience roused to hissing, there was uproar when Carlisle gave up and exited.<br />
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
Immediately after the noise had subsided which attended the exit of Sir Anthony Carlisle, “the ruling powers” and the members continued to gaze on each other with apparently mutual astonishment, but within a very short space of time the theatre became a second Babel, and, amidst the general din, the following vociferations occasionally caught our ear, “No more back-door work,” “Farewell to the back door,” “We will not again suffer this insult and degradation,” “Attend the Meeting at the Freemason's Tavern on Saturday evening next,” “Three cheers for Lawrence and <i>The Lancet</i>,” (which were accordingly given) “Oysters, oysters,” “Mr Clift, have you any more oysters?” “A blue pill for the college,” (at which Mr Abernethy laughed heartily.) After this scene had continued for a considerable time, one of the Members descended from the body of the college, passed over the rail which separates “the ruling powers” and their front-door friends from the degraded members, and demanded of Mr Abernethy and Sir Wm Blizard “whether he should be permitted to proceed through the college and pass out at the front door,” to which demand these gentlemen were mute, and appeared in a considerable state of alarm; the Member assured them that they need not apprehend any violence; that he was merely desirous of claiming that which he conceived to be his right. “Oh! hang it,” said Mr Abernethy, smiling, “what is the matter? what is all this noise about? what a pity it is.” “Look, Gentlemen,” said the Member, pointing to Mr Abernethy's smiling countenance, “you see Mr Abernethy does not approve of these regulations,” upon which the spectators gave the old gentleman three hearty cheers. During this time Sir W Blizard, whose face resembled a piece of “rough granite” stood motionless, which was the more surprising as the democrat who had dared to approach his throne did not “take off his hat.” After desiring the Members to bear witness of his having been refused a passage through the same door with the Hospital Surgeons and their cronies, the Member who made the demand left the Theatre, and soon afterwards the rest of the audience passed through the back-door, expressing the utmost indignation at the conduct of “the ruling powers” and a confident hope that the measures which will probably be adopted at the MEETING OF THE MEMBERS OF THE COLLEGE, to be held THIS EVENING, will effect a radical reform in the College government, and as a new charter is the ONLY means by which that end can be obtained, we once more caution the Members against being deluded into the adoption of any measure which has not that object in view.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Despite the setback, Carlisle persevered with his endeavours to
reform aspects of the medical profession. His criticisms of
man-midwifery and phrenology are dealt with separately, but in 1827
he challenged medical fees with a letter to the Times. Carlisle
proposed a scale of medical fees based upon experience, as he
recognised the increasing complexity of medical knowledge. He took
army practice as a model, as the army itself published Rates of Daily
Pay, e.g. in 1841;</div>
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</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="52%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
RANKS</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
After
25 years actual service</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
After
20, but under 25, service</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
After
10, but under 20, service</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
Under
10 years actual service</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="52%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
£
s d</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
£
s d</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
£
s d</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
£
s d</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="52%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
Assistant
Surgeon</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
0
10 0</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
0
10 0</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
0
10 0</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
0
7 6</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="52%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
Regimental
Surgeon and Staff Surgeon, 2<sup>nd</sup> class</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
1
2 0</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
0
19 0</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
0
15 0</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
0
13 0</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="52%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
Staff
Surgeon, 1<sup>st</sup> class</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
1
4 0</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
1
2 0</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
0
19 0</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
-</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="52%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
Deputy
Inspector-General of Hospitals</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
1
10 0</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
1
8 0</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
1
4 0</div>
</td>
<td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
-</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP"><td width="52%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
Inspector-General
of Hospitals</div>
</td><td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
2
0 0</div>
</td><td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
1
18 0</div>
</td><td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
1
16 0</div>
</td><td width="12%"><div align="CENTER" class="western">
-</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Carlisle's proposal was prescient in recognising the growing gulf
between rich and poor, anticipating by a century, public health
reforms which followed the granting of universal suffrage;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br />
It seems to me that most of the contentions and abusive disputes
which now dishonour the whole medical profession are occasioned by
sordid passions, and that a prurient greediness of money-getting fame
is the principal source of our notoriously disturbed condition. …
The division of the officers of health into physicians, surgeons, and
apothecaries, is convenient, and if not invidiously defined, those
several distinctions may be wisely continued; but I presently intend
to suggest a more rational mode of payment, according to their
respective accomplishments in learning and science, and their
progressive attainments from experience … It is absurd to regard
the value of the knowledge possessed by a beginner as equal to that
of the experienced practitioner, or to suppose that a youthful
graduate in medicine, whose education has been chiefly directed to
the classics and elementary sciences, can be equally well informed
and qualified to practise physic as an apothecary, who has had more
than ten years of continued experience, or that such a youth should
be entitled to the same fee as an old established physician, or well
educated surgeon. … I therefore propose
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;"><b>Physicians Fees</b></span><span style="font-style: normal;">
should be as follows, viz.: </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
- For every occasion of giving advice, or for visiting attendances,
during the first five years of practice – fee, half a sovereign.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
- For each of the same occasions after the first five years of
practice, and until the end of twenty years from its commencement -
one sovereign.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
- After the experience of twenty years in continued practice, every
physician is to be regarded as a referee, and when so employed in
consultations, his fee to be two sovereigns, provided he does not
assume the daily charge of the patient.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
- Payments for journeys to remain as they now stand.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;"><b>Surgeons Fees</b></span><span style="font-style: normal;">
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
- For each time of advice, attendance, or ministration, during the
first five years - five shillings.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
- After ten years of continued experience - half a sovereign.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
- From the end of ten years - one sovereign.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
- For operations dangerous to life, a scale should be fixed, tending
to repress unjustifiable enterprises. I think the plan of daily fees
would prove the best security.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
- Payments for journeys to remain as they now stand.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;"><b>Apothecaries Fees</b></span><span style="font-style: normal;">
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
- All apothecaries who practise as sub-physicians and hold the entire
responsibility of treating patients, to be paid by fees, and the
frequency of their visits to be at the discretion of their patients.
It should be understood that those fees supersede charges for
medicines.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
- For each time of giving advice, or attendance during the first five
years of practice- half a crown.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
- After five years and onward to ten years - fee five shillings.</div>
<ul><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
- For ten years and onward - ten shillings.</div>
</ul>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
… <span style="font-style: normal;">I cannot neglect to add my
opinion, that if a wise system of jurisprudence and of moral
direction, were assigned to this important calling, it would bring
forth the exertions of medical philosophers, introduce more of
scientific precision into its several branches, and tend to exhibit
the whole art as one common service dedicated to humanity. ... A
Carlisle, May 27.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Wakley republished the letter under the heading, <i>“Gapings of an
Oyster”</i> with the comment, "The letter of that silly creature
Carlisle on the fees of medical practitioners will be found at page
459. We shall not crush the Oyster until next week."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
Instead of endorsing Carlisle's proposal for reform, Wakley ridiculed
Carlisle, before later hijacking the platform of medical reform, and
re-badging it as his own. The reason for Wakley's venom is implicit
in Carlisle's reference to "a prurient greediness of money-getting
fame", as the main aim of Wakley was building circulation for <i>The Lancet</i>.
Whereas Carlisle recognised the increasing complexity of knowledge
and need for education, Wakley argued that; "a similar test of
competency be established, as it ought undoubtedly to be, for all
classes of practitioners". Wakley did not understand the impact of
increasing medical knowledge, which required more training and
attendant medical specialisation. Thus Carlisle anticipated the
medical and social situation of the 21C, much more so than had Wakley
in <i>The Lancet </i>on 19 July, 1828;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Whatever difference of opinion may
exist as to the present state of the medical profession, there is one
sentiment, we believe, in which nearly all classes of that profession
must cordially agree - and that is a feeling of the most entire
contempt for the observations and suggestions which have recently
been put forth on this subject, by that exceedingly vain,
narrow-minded, and twaddling orator upon oysters, and perpetrator of
drivelling epistles, Sir Anthony Carlisle. ... it is a notoriety
which can have no other effect, except that of diffusing over a wider
surface the species of fame which the author acquired in the theatre
of the College of Surgeons, by his celebrated Oysterian Oration. …
Ninnyhammer and fish were both before them; and it would have been
impossible to determine, whether there were more intelligence in the
Orator who addressed them, or in the Oyster which formed the subject
of bis most impertinent and imbecile oration. … It must, of
course, happen in the medical, as in other professions, that there
will, in general, be some few individuals surpassing, and others
falling short, of the average ability of their contemporaries; but</span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="text-decoration: none;">
if a similar test of competency be established, as it ought
undoubtedly to be, for all classes of practitioners, the attainments
of all classes would, with these exceptions, be substantially equal.</span></span><span style="font-style: normal;">
The separation of the medical profession into classes is a mere
matter of form and convenience, and is only deserving of legislative
regulation, in so far as it affects, at present, the civil rights of
particular practitioners. But equality of attainments in all classes,
to be ascertained by adequate tests of competency, is of the very
essence and substance of the argument in favour of medical reform. …
</span><span style="font-style: normal;"><u>The principle of
recognising gradations in medical skill, is shocking to humanity, and
unknown</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;">, [my emphasis] we
believe, even to the extent in which it may be said to exist here, in
any other civilised country of Europe. ...</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Here we have not only a distinct
recognition of the several classes of physicians, surgeons, and
apothecaries, but a scale of fees minutely graduated according to the
</span><i>age!</i><span style="font-style: normal;"> (mark that) of
the different practitioners. ... Carlisle recommends that the
individuals of that body, of which he is, </span><i>quoad hoc,</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
a most unworthy member, should be paid at one half the rate of
remuneration which he is desirous of extending to physicians. … We
will not impute motives, but we may conjecture, them and our
conjecture is, that as the fame of Sir Anthony's eloquence may have
had some influence on his practice, he would willingly propitiate one
class of practitioners at the expense of the honour and
respectability of another. There is the stronger reason for
suspecting that the Orator has an eye to his own interest in
proposing this scheme, since he lays so much stress on the superior
claims and merits of senility, “Ever while you live,” says the
Orator, “let age be your test of medical ability, and let the
amount of fees be proportioned to the years of the practitioner.”
The lion in the fable found a pretext for appropriating every share
of the spoil to himself; but Carlisle is no lion. He is content with
the ass's share and rests his claim even to that on the length of his
ears. (Query, </span><i>years?</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
saith the printer's devil. But the devil has made the </span><i>ears</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
for Sir Anthony, and besides the ears of an ass grow with his growth;
therefore let them stand.) ... But we have already extended our
observations to a length which the character of Sir Anthony
Carlisle's production can scarcely justify; and we now consign that
production to the contempt and derision which it will assuredly
receive from all classes of the profession.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1829 Wakley was scathing of another letter by Carlisle promoting
reform under the title, <i>Regulation of Hospitals</i>. Carlisle made
a call for better training and the collection, amalgamation, and
publishing of hospital patient returns to encourage record keeping
and enable statistical analysis. From the 21C, Carlisle's proposal
for hospital regulation looks simplistic, but it was then radical. He
went public with his views, as he had been unable to persuade the RCS
for the need for reform;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">After 36 years of experience as an
hospital surgeon in the metropolis, I may perhaps be allowed to state
my thoughts upon the better regulation of their surgical department.
… I submit the following proposals for the better regulation of the
surgical appointments in hospitals, viz. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
- That there should be three classes of surgeons in every general
medical hospital. The junior class to be styled assistant surgeons,
who shall not be eligible for that office until the completion of
twenty-five years of age, nor if they have any defect in the eyes, or
be obliged to use glasses. The second class to be styled principal
surgeons, each of whom should be thirty years of age at the least,
having been previously an assistant surgeon in the same hospital for
three years, and to remain principal or operating surgeons until they
respectively arrive at the age of sixty years; afterwards they shall
be eligible to become consulting surgeons, and cease to do those
operations which demand the utmost precision.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
- That there shall be one principal surgeon and one assistant surgeon
allotted to take the charge of every fifty promiscuous indoor
patients which the hospital may be capable of receiving.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
- The especial duties of assistant surgeons to be the daily care of
the inpatients under the direction of their respective principal
surgeons, the attendance upon accidents and outpatients, and the
preparatory arrangements for all dangerous operations.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
- In every case of proposed dangerous operation, or of one of
questionable expediency, the principal surgeons and the consulting
surgeons to hold a conference in the presence of their pupils, and
determine by a majority of the votes of such surgeons the measures to
be adopted.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
… To prove that this exposition is now demanded, I subjoin an
address to the hospital surgeons of England, and which I have not
been able to carry into effect, although <u>I have laboured against
its sluggish opponents for eight years</u>.[my emphasis] I am
therefore at last compelled to submit the measure to public opinion,
under a hope that some powerful influence may command its adoption.
Many of your readers will be startled to learn that the most violent
objector to those hospital reports, is the child and champion of
surgical demagogues. [Sir William Lawrence (1783-1867)] He argues
“that such reports would be of no use”; that “the hospital
surgeons of England hate their own College too ardently to expect any
co operation from them”; that “the style of the address would be
disgraceful to the College;” and lastly, “that such reports would
only display the comparative mortality in the different hospitals”,
a fact which I consider to be of the utmost importance to the public.
A Carlisle, Jan 20, 1829.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle accompanied the letter with a proposed survey questionnaire
for hospital surgeons.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.44cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">One of the principal impediments to
the interchange and to the diffusion of surgical knowledge, appears
to have been the want of liberal and frequent communication among
hospital practitioners … By adding the valuable results of your
public practice to the contribution of the other English hospitals,
the College expects to obtain a regular continuation of authentic and
impartial evidence, which may do honour to our profession, and
improve every branch of the healing art. With a view to spare
trouble, and to give uniformity to the intended reports, we enclose
the form of a tabulated register … A printed copy of each
half-yearly report will be sent to the surgical library of every
contributing hospital. ...In addition to the providing and keeping
tabulated accounts of the principal cases under your care, it is
desirable that you should annex every peculiar occurrence,
vicissitude, or remarkable accident, whether favourable or otherwise,
not reducible to the above tabulated form.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br />
Predictably, Wakley leapt to mock Carlisle, but the Bransby Cooper
libel case intervened;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">We had intended to make a few
remarks on the “publication of hospital reports by hospital
surgeons themselves,” and on the twaddle of Sir Anthony Carlisle,
but the lawyer [re libel case] has engaged so much of our attention,
that the Oyster has escaped from us, and we must postpone the opening
of the crustaceous Knight to another opportunity.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br />
As expected, Wakley and <i>The Lancet</i> soon renewed their attacks on
Carlisle;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm; margin-right: 0.47cm;">
<br />
… we humbly conceive Sir Anthony to be the most unmitigated ass
that ever disgraced the character, and exhausted the patience of the
profession. Estimating his intellectual size by the Oysterian
Oration, we know of nothing low enough in the animal or vegetable
kingdoms which we should not disparage by likening to the
capabilities of Sir Anthony: judging of him by the Oysterian Oration,
we should have no hesitation in saying, that he stands confessed the
Thersites, the jack- pudding, the wooden spoon, the boots of the
medical profession. This is our honest opinion of the sayings of Sir
Anthony. … we shall not notice the impotent twaddle which fell from
him, on a late occasion, further than by observing, that he is the
last person in the world who has a right to complain of the
licentiousness of the press, seeing that he has had the indecency to
propose that obstetric practice throughout the kingdom should be
transferred to the wives and daughters of medical men.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<i>The Lancet</i> ended this round of attacks with an epigram, supposedly by
a pupil of Westminster Hospital, but more likely by Wakley himself.</div>
<dl><dd><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="356*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="TOP" width="100%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
Said the crusty, crafty,
foul-tongu'd Knight,<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
“If The Lancet 'report',
no more will I gape!”</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
Huzza, then! we'll try with
all our might </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
To close firmly the mouth of
this whining ape. </div>
</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</dd></dl>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Other reports of the time took a more positive view of Carlisle's consultative approach to reform;<br />
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
Sir A Carlisle is the first to have introduced the important practice of public consultations upon the propriety of operating at the Westminster Hospital: a practice which has been found to be productive of very beneficial results, and to have been since adopted at various other similar establishments. He has ever professed his anxiety to advance his profession, and the interests of humanity. With the most laudable motive, he submitted, in 1829, a plan relative to the publication of hospital reports, to be collected together from all general medical hospitals, metropolitan and provincial, and addressed to the Royal College of Surgeons, and published by them half-yearly. The plan, however, was not supported by his colleagues in the council, and fell to the ground. The separate publication of the Reports of St. Thomas's and Guy's Hospitals, and the establishment of provincial journals, have, in some measure, though imperfectly, supplied the desideratum Sir Anthony pointed out.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
opposing man-midwifery and phrenology, he also had no time for
quackery, nor fringe medicine;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
The passive submission of the public to mere popular medical idols,
sometimes created by fashion, at other times by trickery, has injured
the character of the whole profession, and encouraged ignorant
adventurers ... many plausible men, without science or much
professional knowledge, and possessing no other remarkable attributes
beyond assurance and cunning, have flourished and made fortunes,
without leaving any recorded proofs of either skill or sagacity ...
It is incompatible with the general infirmities of human nature to
expect that the medical profession ... can be filled with men of
science, with philosophers, or even with honourable gentlemen, while
the greatest number are remunerated according to the quantity of
drugs they craftily sell at random as pretended antidotes … <span style="font-style: normal;">The
animal magnetism of Mesmer, the metallic tractors of Perkins, and the
homoeopathic nonsense of the passing day are extreme examples; but
these absurdities are not greater than some of the mysteries of the
modern schools: and the only way to rescue the public from these
destroyers, is to advance medicine into a rational science, by
generalizing the appropriate evidences, and reducing the art to plain
demonstrations, amenable to common sense. …The absurd scheme of Dr
John Brown for reducing the whole range of medical theory and
practice to two abstract causes, was a temptation to idle students
and to juvenile vanity; and accordingly his follies were suited to
those who were in haste to rush into the fearful responsibilities of
practice from neediness, greediness, or idleness. … The
metaphysical pedantry of Cullen, although promulgated with prudence
and ability, did no more than expose the insufficiency of his scheme.
We seem to be now divided between mystical vitalists and a set of
desperate adventurers in violence who have no sooner quitted the
school rooms of anatomy than they rush into unjustifiable surgical
operations or dash at the sources of life with poisonous drugs in all
stages of diseased action when it is known that the same poisons
would prove destructive in vigorous health.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Mesmerism,
the study of animal magnetism, had been propounded by Franz Mesmer
(1734-1815) in France where it was widely followed. In opposing
Mesmer, Carlisle was again in conflict with Wakley, who was friendly
with Professor John Elliotson (1791-1868), author of <i>Surgical
Operations in the Mesmeric State without Pain</i>.
Carlisle opposed John
Brown who held that healthy life consisted in a balance between
excitement and excitability, which were inversely proportional. Too
much or too little of either was unhealthy and eventually fatal.
Diminished excitement created ‘direct debility’ and required
systematic treatment with stimulants; greatly increased excitement
produced ‘indirect debility’, a point at which the body lost its
sensitivity to stimuli due to over-indulgence. In the 21C, one can
recognise in Brown the medical practitioner willing to prescribe
'uppers' and 'downers'. Carlisle took issue with Cullen, teacher of
William Hunter, who taught that life was a function of nervous
energy, and muscle was a continuation of nerve. Cullen proposed
classifications including febrile diseases, nervous diseases,
diseases produced by bad bodily habits, and local disease, but his
medical theories became obsolete.
In 1833 Wakley quoted Carlisle under the heading; 'Westminster
Hospital, The Harley-Street Slaughterer'; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.63cm;">
<br />
[T]he indignation of Sir Anthony
Carlisle was warmly excited, by being told that John Long had quoted
him in the preface to his book, and ascribed to him the saying, that,
<i>medicine was a
science founded on conjecture and improved by murder.</i>
“Now,” said Sir Anthony, “it was only the other day that I
publicly ascribed the proverb to Dr Haslam, the rightful parent of
it; but I am not surprised; it is not the first lie John Long has
told of me. Two years ago he published a case of a lady “cured”
by his magic art and whose bones I was represented to say were
rotten. This was utterly false … She was as far as I could discover
as well in health as any woman in the world ... She then asked me if
I had any objection to her drinking a bottle of claret a day, as she
could not do with less. I replied, that I was not a judge of the
effect of wine drunk by bottles. Finding nothing to ail her, I made
my bow and retired. Yet this was the case blazed abroad as a miracle
of cure. It is a singular fact that impostors often exercise as much
labour and ingenuity in deluding the public as would suffice for the
acquirement of the art which they counterfeit … Now this John Long
is a devilish artful fellow, and bamboozles the people in fine style.
The theorem which he pilfered and promulgated as his own, is as old
as Methuselah, and he has had the boldness to claim even a greater
antiquity for it.”<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
To the
1834 Select Committee on Medical Education,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
Carlisle echoed his published comments of 1800 and 1824, decrying the
outrageously daring and hazardous operations performed by younger
men, who he feared were seeking notoriety by hazardous feats. Some
anatomists counselled against amputations, but others saw them as an
opportunity to demonstrate the speed with which they could remove a
limb. At a time when anaesthetics had not been invented and
operations were exceedingly painful, young surgeons were proud to
broadcast they could amputate a patient's leg in under thirty
seconds. Then be intent upon finding more examples, to achieve even
faster times. Statistics show there was greater probability of dying
from an amputation within a city hospital, than under a country
surgeon. Infection was partly the reason, with a report of 1867 by
Sir James Simpson, noting that of 2089 amputations in hospitals, 835
or 40% of the patients died, whereas for an identical number of 2089
amputations in country practices, only 226 or 11% died.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
A factor, being that in a country practice, in all probability, the
operating doctor knew the victim's family as regular patients,
whereas in a city hospital, a surgeon was unlikely to know the
patient.
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
did initiate notable advances to the practice of surgery, introducing
thin straight-bladed amputation knives, instead of the previous
heavy, curved, and clumsy blades. He also introduced the carpenter's
saw into surgery. Carlisle was generous in his efforts to establish
the RCS library. When the Barbers and Surgeons parted company in
1745, their library was sold for £13, as neither side would pay for
it. In 1786 John Hunter tried without success, to encourage the
Corporation of Surgeons to commence a library, so in 1800 when it
reformed as the RCS there was still no library. From 1807 Carlisle
was determined to commence a library and sought donations. As a
result, the RCS library was fortunate in securing a number of
founding collections, including that of William Sharpe with 600
books.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a><br />
<br />
Carlisle's personal library included a number of fine Renaissance
books, chief among which the first edition of Vesalius's Fabrica of
1543 as appearing in his miniature portrait. Carlisle sold his
library to the College library for £190. As the catalogue of his
collection lists over 650 titles, including four incunabula, the sum
paid, even in 1821, was ludicrously small.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
It is due to these and other early donors that the College's
historical collection now ranks among the top dozen medical
collections in the world. <span style="font-style: normal;">Another
gift from Carlisle now in the RCS, is a historic surgical pocket</span>
case which belonged to the African explorer, Mungo Park (1771-1806),
who presented the case to Carlisle in 1805. In turn, Carlisle
presented it to a Mr Bartley of Surrey; a covering letter dated 8
April 1816 rea<span style="font-style: normal;">ds; 'I beg to thank
you for your great kindness, skill and attention to Mrs Carlisle's
unfortunate health. Allow me to offer you a small remembrance of me.
It is the pocket case of instruments which belonged to Mungo Park and
which he gave to me as a professional memento. In using this case,
think of both of us.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
was still champion of the RCS library in 1826 when steps were taken
to improve facilities. The first building suffered from dry rot and the invention by John Howard
Kyan (1774-1850) of a process to combat dry rot, attracted great
attention. In 1835 the Admiralty held an inquiry into the value of
the new method. The patent process consisted of using corrosive
sublimate on the timbers. Carlisle, "an
enthusiast on the subject, informed the committee that he had chewed
a mouthful of sawdust from timber so treated, and could distinctly
taste the sublimate".<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
In 1828 the library was opened, with Carlisle saying, 'It is absurd
to think of educating yourself to become a surgeon by merely reading
the medical classics, the real value of the library is to the
experienced man.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a>
Two years
later, still seeking reform of the College, Carlisle was hurt by
intransigent RCS opposition; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Sir A Carlisle presents his compliments to the Board of Curators and
being unable to attend their meeting today, he takes this method of
submitting his mind. After twelve years of service in the Board of
Curators he looks back with regret at the few and feeble exertions it
has made to improve the profession of surgery or to advance the
College. Without assuming to be wiser than others, Sir A Carlisle is
entitled to claim the merit of having mainly promoted the library, an
institution of unquestionable good to every branch of the healing art
and a truly scientific establishment. Notwithstanding his unabated
indignation against many affronts and a flagrant false accusation,
Sir A Carlisle still cherishes hopes of better times;<span style="text-decoration: none;">
when all the members of the Council may be classed and employed for
the public benefit according to their several talents,</span> and
when the claims of the College to hold a potent charter may not
depend on the personal favour of any individual but be demanded by
public acclamation. With these feelings Sir A Carlisle deems it
proper to resign his seat in the Board of Curators, and to add his
intention never more to dine at the expense of the College, which the
finance committee may fairly put down as saving of ten guineas per
annum.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Reading
between the lines, it appears Carlisle was hurt by the accusation,
despite his efforts and generous donations of books. There may have
been an apology, as a Library Sub-Committee was set up comprising
Cooper, Carlisle and Robert Keate. By 1834 the library had 18,000
volumes, with several thousand more added when it reopened. But
Wakley continued sniping at Carlisle;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Yet it appears in 1831-1833, when
the greatest accession was made to the library, only £430 a year
were expended on the library, about one-thirtieth of the total
expenditure, one-seventh of the fees paid to the council,
considerably less than the salary of a worthless secretary, and only
twice the amount of the College dinners, expenses of venison under
royal warrants eked out with coffee and muffins.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Carlisle's efforts in promoting the library saved the College over a
hundred years later. In 1941, when the College was hit by an
incendiary bomb, it was only thanks to the strength of the cast-iron
fire doors of the library, that the front of the College survived.
Carlisle was also a key fund raiser in the rebuilding of Westminster
Hospital in 1834 at a cost of £40,000. At the time, it was
considered state-of-the art, with each ward having its own water
closet. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<b>Carlisle on Insanity</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
In the 19C admittance to an insane asylum was haphazard, with many
people wrongly committed. Although an alcoholic, the father of Sir
Arthur Conan Doyle, Charles Altamont Doyle (1832–1893), was
confined for many years as a lunatic at Montrose. Carlisle argued
madness was not a state of being possessed, but was a medical
condition, whereas, over the centuries the belief of possession by
the Devil had led to thousands of people being executed by drowning,
burning at the stake, or hanging. In 1827 Carlisle gave evidence to a
Select Committee on the treatment of Pauper Lunatics.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Sir Anthony Carlisle is decidedly of
opinion that the visitation appointed by law, being so very brief and
infrequent, is very inefficient to determine upon the propriety or
impropriety of the confinement of so large a number of persons; that
there must be a great number entirely overlooked, the examination
being altogether insufficient to decide upon the cases of those who
ought to be liberated or continued in confinement.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a>
It would be very important to the medical art, to the healing art
altogether, if the public were made better acquainted with the
history, the progress, and the treatment of insanity; it has been
</span><i>kept a secret</i><span style="font-style: normal;">, it has
been kept close, and in the hands of individuals </span><i>for a
purpose which it is not necessary to mention</i><span style="font-style: normal;">.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a></span><br />
<span style="font-style: normal;"><sup> </sup>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle's reference alluded to committal in order to remove sane
persons from society, to enable new liaisons, or take to control of
their assets, even resulting in murder; as another author exampled;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
When the author was a keeper at a lunatic asylum in the country, he
was sent in a carriage along with a female keeper to re move to the
establishment a lady, said to be a lunatic, under the order of a
medical gentleman in the vicinity. He found the lady confined by a
strait-waistcoat, and in a state the most violent delirium. Her face
and head were excessively hot and flushed; she was talking
incoherently; one of her eyes appeared starting from its socket, and
the corner of it was opaque. Her pulse was very quick, small, and
wiry. She was about forty years of age, of a gross habit of body, and
had complained violent head-aches for several months, but had only
become unmanageable the day before. A blister had been then
prescribed to the nape of the neck by the medical man who was called
in, and upon her becoming outrageous he ordered the strait-waistcoat
and recommended her to be removed to the asylum immediately. Mr J
accordingly removed her, though contrary to his own opinion of her
case; ... The poor lady expired in few hours after arriving at the
asylum, and the medical gentleman who had prescribed the blister and
signed the order for her removal, refused to open the body, and
treated her death as a matter of course. The lady in plain language
appears to have been literally murdered, though no coroner's inquest
was held upon the body.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
The account appears to imply this was a deliberate poisoning, but was
concealed as insanity. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Carlisle
argued that insanity was a disease, thus explaining his thinking
behind events in 1838, when he was accused by Wakley of incompetence
over the diagnosis of a patient with delirium tremens. </span>Over
three consecutive numbers <i>The Lancet</i> published an account of Thomas
Holmes, admitted to Westminster Hospital with an injured arm, but who
developed delirium tremens. Passing through the ward, Carlisle
noticed Holmes in delirium and causing discomfort to other patients.
He signed a provisional certificate of insanity which he left with
the house surgeon. Carlisle's stated intention was that if Holmes
gave further trouble, the certificate could be counter-signed, and
Holmes removed from Westminster to a mental hospital.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
The Lancet claimed Carlisle mistook delirium tremens for insanity,
based rumours circulated by a friend of Wakley, Hale Thomson, who was
angling for Carlisle's position. <i>The Lancet</i> was a firm supporter of
Hale Thomson, even though in 1827 it had awarded him the epithet
'Bullet-proof Thomson' after he made an insulting remark to Sir
Charles Ferguson Forbes regarding the running of the Westminster Eye
Infirmary. Thomson was immediately called out by Forbes and they
fought a pistol duel on Clapham Common, where they each fired three
shots, but all missed.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
In person Thomson was about middle height and strongly built. He was
said to have remarkable dark hair and eyes, with a somewhat florid
complexion, his manner was haughty and brusque and he was intensely
ambitious. Thomson was a poor surgeon; 'even Clarke, who later
befriended Thomson, said he possessed only one attribute necessary
for a surgeon, that was bravery, and he would have made an excellent
surgeon to a cavalry regiment!'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<i>The
Lancet</i> attack on Carlisle necessitated a response, so the hospital
Board met on 9 October 1838. In the opening skirmishes, J C Wood s<span style="font-style: normal;">aid
'he objected to trying Sir Anthony on evidence collected from a
periodical [The Lancet] when evidence could be perfectly well
collected from the hospital staff',<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a>
but went on to ask for a searching enquiry. With reference to Holmes,
Wood said he had 'conversed with Thomas Holmes, who, it appeared to
me, was as sane as any man in Westminster'. T</span>his opinion was
chall<span style="font-style: normal;">enged by Mr Bicknell said he
too had seen Holmes and considered him at the time to have been 'as
mad as any maniac in Bedlam'. Carlisle requested a inquiry and this
was agreed. Two doctors, Dr Bright and Mr White, both contemporaries
of Carlisle, argued against calls for an inquiry, for fear they would
be drawn in. This was revealed in a letter from a hospital Governor
published in <i>The Lancet</i> on 3 November 1838. It disclosed that a
number of patients with the name of Bright over their beds had
admitted that Dr Bright was a total stranger to them all, not one of
them even knew him by sight. And in the surgical ward, some patients
had not been seen by their designated surgeons for four or five
weeks, with White's patients declaring he was totally unknown to
them.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a>
This was a significant comment, although predictably and conveniently
overlooked by Wakley and <i>The Lancet</i>, as it revealed that, unlike
other some doctors, Carlisle did actually visit his patients, rather
than leaving their care totally to assistants and medical students.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
indicated there was no dispute about most of the material facts.
Holmes, an elderly man, had come to the hospital, where ...<span style="font-style: normal;">
'the injury of the wrist was not itself of sufficient importance to
justify his admission, but there was something about the general
appearance of the man which warned me of the occurrence of some
subsequent constitutional mischief'. On the Friday evening Holmes was
given some opium to sleep by Bury Dasent the house surgeon, as he was
mildly delirious and kept seeing a face staring at him. On the
Saturday he was suffering from 'not very furious delirium' when
Carlisle made his routine tour of the wards. Carlisle told Dasent to
continue with the opiate, telling the committee, 'I had no doubt in
my mind that the case was the common one of drunken lunacy, to which
the mechanics and labourers who drink spirituous and malt liquors in
great quantity are liable'. Between then and Monday, Holmes became
violent, was straight waist-coated and removed from the rest of the
patients. On Monday night he was given an opiate and on the Tuesday
morning he awoke convalescent. Bicknall declared that, although he
was not himself medically qualified, he had come to the conclusion
that Holmes was mad and unfit to remain in the hospital, so had
spoken to Carlisle, who agreed, and at Bicknall's request, wrote the
certificate. Bicknall added, 'I do not pretend to be a judge of the
nature of the mental affliction, but as the patient had been violent
for three days, his remaining any longer in the institution seemed to
me inconsistent with Rule 11. The certificate given by Sir Anthony
Carlisle was not a provisional one, but intended to be acted upon
forthwith by the Board, and the Board acted accordingly'.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">It
seems Bicknall and Carlisle differed as to whether the certificate
was certain or provisional. In the event, the certificate was sent to
Mr Wilson, secretary of the House Committee, who was legally obliged
to have the patient removed from the hospital, which he set out to
do; 'but he was arrested in his proceedings, by a remonstrance from
the assistant surgeon (Thomson) and the house surgeon (Dasent), who
declared that the certificate was most unwarrantable, and that the
patient Holmes was as sane as any man in the house'. In reading
between the lines, it seems Thomson saw an opportunity to embarrass
Carlisle by challenging Carlisle's action. In evidence, Thomson said
it was a clear case of delirium tremens and 'he should not, at any
stage of the treatment, have given a certificate such as that of Sir
Anthony'. </span>The hand of Thomson is also apparent in the evidence
of D O Edwards, the hospital apothecary who was revealed as the
secret source of the leaks to <i>The Lancet</i>:
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Having become, in some degree, the unwitting cause of this inquiry,
by being the author of the history of the case of Holmes, published
in The Lancet, I feel bound to add my testimony to the evidence
already adduced in support of the charges against Sir Anthony
Carlisle. The history of the case which appeared in that journal was
drawn up conjointly by my friend Mr Dasent and myself. Our only
object in publishing the case was to preserve an instance of the
efficiency of large doses of opium in the treatment of delirium
tremens. When the case was written out for the printer, one of the
Governors brought me a copy of the certificate of Sir Anthony
Carlisle, which has already been read, and he stated that I should
not publish the whole truth if I omitted that certificate; it was
therefore appended to the case without comment.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The
author John Langdon-Davies speculated in his history of Westminster
Hospital the unnamed governor was J F Clarke, assistant editor of The
Lancet. But against that is that he had no reason to be in possession
of a copy of the certificate, whereas, '<span style="font-style: normal;">Mr
Thomson, in 1827 became an active member of the managing board of
[Westminster Hospital]'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
Thus the unnamed governor was clearly Thomson, as was obvious to the
House Committee and the tenor of the meeting changed after Edwards
gave his evidence. </span>In response Mr Harrison rose, and after
some sarcastic remarks at Edwards' expense, declared there never was
a clearer case of insanity than Holmes and Carlisle deserved a vote
of thanks, rather than a censure. This was supported by Mr Lynn.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
But
Thomson's supporters were not finished, and Dr Burne gave a
remarkable speech, four-fifths in favour of Carlisle, but one-fifth
soundly against. Burne was a student of insanity and said, from the
evidence, it was quite impossible to give an opinion as to whether
Holmes suffered from delirium or insanity. A portion of his speech
against Carlisle was not well received by those present;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
I feel myself called upon, as a physician to this establishment, to
declare publicly, that I have long and strongly felt that my
admirable colleague, Sir Anthony Carlisle, though an ornament to his
profession in the last century, is now rendered unfit for the due
performance of the duties of his office in this establishment. He is
not only incapable of performing any capital operation, but even any
ordinary operation, without danger to his patients. He is not only
now incompetent,. but he has been so for the last ten years, and his
daily increasing imbecility and senility, render him more and more
useless.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
That was manna from heaven for Wakley<span style="font-style: normal;">;
'Sir Anthony Carlyle (sic) is not capable of performing any operation
without danger to his patient. He has been incompetent for the last
ten years'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>
However Burne and Thomson were friends, with Burne himself later
accused of intrigue in 1842, for underhand tactics in the appointment
of his successor. </span>Although Thomson had masterminded the scheme
against Carlisle, he now made a tactical withdrawal, sarcastically
stating, there was no doubt in his mind whatsoever that the charges
against Carlisle had been proved to the hilt, but could anybody
suppose that any medical man would be so lacking in <i>esprit de
corps</i> as to vote against an old and beloved colleague? <span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
It</span> was unanimously agree<span style="font-style: normal;">d; "That the charges against Sir Anthony Carlisle are not proven, and
that this Board do adjourn sine die".</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>The Royal College of Surgeons</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
However,
for Wakley in <i>The Lancet</i>, 'sine die', instead of meaning 'without a
day', seemed to mean 'sins undead', as he resumed his 1839 attacks
on Carlisle together with an assault on the RCS. Wakley condemned
'Oyster' Carlisle, while continuing to avoid criticising Astley
Cooper;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Since the day when the London College of Surgeons sprung from the
ashes of the barbers ... its career has been marked by mean duplicity
and grasping fraud; by insolence, avarice, and hypocrisy. The
self-elected and self-perpetuating junto, yclept the Council, that
product of moral incest, whereby teacher begets teacher, and hospital
noodle begets hospital doodle, commenced its depredations on the
pockets of the medical profession in this country with an
hypocritical profession of faith in the form of 'regulations'. … In
the year 1824 a more open attempt at monopoly was made. The Court of
Examiners, '<i>in pursuance of their </i>DUTY, <i>to promote the
cultivation of </i>SOUND<i> chirurgical knowledge,</i> and to
discountenance practices which have a 'contrary tendency' resolved,
that London should be the only 'school of surgery' <i>recognised</i>
in England. ... We would willingly throw a veil over occurrences
which exhibit human passions in their darkest and most disgusting
point of view, <u>but past deeds must be brought to light for the
benefit of present and future generations</u>. [My emphasis] ... The
cloven foot has been again put forth; and the 'regulations' are now
converted into 'ordinances.' The following is a verbatim copy of a
paper which lies before us:-</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
ORDINANCE OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS IN LONDON
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
Established on the first day of November 1836
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.79cm; margin-right: 0.82cm;">
That in future no person be recognised by this College as a teacher
in Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology, or in Surgery, in England and
Wales, until he shall have undergone an examination before the
Council of the College on two separate days; the first examination to
be in Anatomy and Physiology, the second on Pathology and the
Principles and Practice of Surgery.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
An <i>ordinance</i>, forsooth! Do the fellows imagine themselves to
be <i>kings</i>? or have they added to their 'armamentum' the knout
and the bowstring? And by whom has this 'Royal ordinance' been
issued? By eighteen monopolists, <i>fifteen</i> of whom are attached
to London hospitals, while <i>nine</i> are themselves actually
engaged as teachers either of anatomy or surgery in the metropolis.
The names of the latter <i>disinterested</i> despots are worthy of
being placed upon record. They are led on by the <span style="font-weight: normal;">'Oyster.'</span>
The 'Renegade' closes the rear. Be it then known to all whom it may
concern that Messrs. Carlisle, Guthrie, Brodie, <span style="text-decoration: none;">Cooper
(not Sir Astley, but the bayonet-man)</span> Howship, Travers,
Stanley, Babington, and Lawrence, being teachers of anatomy or
surgery, and therefore desirous of extending sound chirurgical
knowledge by keeping the market to themselves - have ordained that
henceforward no person shall presume to teach their branches of
education without having received a license from them, the said
'Oyster,' 'Renegade,' etc. Was ever a more jesuitical or impertinent
paragraph put forth in the shape of ordinance? If the teachers of
anatomy and surgery throughout England submit to be rough ridden by
this 'Oyster,' or mystified by a 'JUDAS ISCARIOT,' then, indeed, do
we despair of the cause of honesty and independence … Would even
the porter of Westminster Hospital suffer the 'Oyster' to ask him,
'What is the difference between insanity and traumatic delirium?'
Assuredly not.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
By 1839
Carlisle was terminally ill, although seen as mentally alert to his
students. <i>The Medical Times</i> quoted from <i>The Lancet</i> on the bedside
manner of Carlisle, and his sense of humour;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
We will commence with Sir Anthony Carlisle. Scene, Wards of
Westminster Hospital, Oct 6; The venerable knight passes by several
beds and looks at his patient or not, as it suits his humour. If a
bandage is about to be removed, to show any disease or injury he
exclaims, "Tut man, I don't want to see it." At length he
comes to the bedside of a poor cadaverous looking youth who had been
affected with syphilis, and some time since had taken mercury. "This
patient" said the dresser, "is only weak now, Sir."
"Then keep him in a week and he will be stronger,"
exclaimed the facetious Sir Tony. "Let's look at your tongue,"
the organ is protruded, "Zounds man you've a red tongue."
Feeling his pulse, "This is an irritable pulse. What's that
from? Is it the mercury, think you?" "No Sir he has left
off the mercury a long time since." "Then what is he
taking?" - "Sarsaparilla." "And what other drug?"
"Hydriodate of potash." "Fiddlestick! that's the cause
of the state of the pulse; let him take nothing." And with this
another bed is visited at which Mr Lynn exhibits a patient whom he
has reason to suspect has stone in the bladder, but he would not
consent to be sounded. Sir Anthony speaks, "Now, friend, you'd
better let us try to find a stone; sounding's nothing man, only like
putting a feather up your nose, nothing worse. Besides its a hard
matter to cure a disease when we don't know what it is; it's hard
enough when we do know, but harder when we don't." One of the
pupils here said that sounding was not worse than tickling the nose
with a feather. "Oh! you've tried it have you; that's a good
plan the common people have of stopping haemorrhage from the nose, by
taking a little vinegar in the palm of the hand and snuffing it up
the nostril; its a sharp plan though; it gives a smart twinge to the
eyes, and so does the carbonic acid that rises after you've swallowed
a bottle of soda water." Turning to Mr Lynn, "Have you
given him any excisable articles for I know you're fond of them?"
"He's been taking a little gin." "Well that's
excisable ain't it? Would a little wine do him any good?"
"Nothing will do him any good," said the junior surgeon,
"he's going as fast as he can." And with this consolatory
valediction the senior and junior surgeons moved on. It was
discovered however in a few minutes that the man had been taking six
ounces of wine daily. "That's a large quantity," said Sir
Anthony, as he stopped the students at the ward door to ask them if
they had heard the "epigram" of the man who was asked why
his nose was red. "I drink so much red wine," said the man.
"I drink it red and piss it white and leave the red behind on my
nose."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;"><i>The Lancet</i> later chose to report
this as; 'The reverend Rector of St Margaret's did not inform the
Governors whether he deemed St Anthony - we beg his pardon - </span><i>Sir</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
Anthony's bawdry essential to the welfare of the Westminster
Hospital, or to the ingenuous youth who frequent its wards'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
</span>Carlisle did not take kindly to Wakley's various comments and
<i>The Lancet</i> reported;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br />
... on Saturday last [9 Oct 1839] Sir A Carlisle made an inflammatory
address to the students, in reference to a report which had appeared
in <i>The Lancet</i> headed “Specimens of Clinical Instruction.” The
accuracy of the report was not denied but the senior surgeon declared
that it was an insult both to himself and to the students, that
anything said by him in the wards of the hospital should be
published! He had heard that a gentleman had been seen taking notes
of what he said, and he, Sir A, then publicly declared that the
students had his full authority, should they observe a note-taker on
any future occasion, to drive him from the hospital with 'large
sticks'. He requested, however, that they would not do the
'delinquent' <i>much</i> bodily harm; the students smiled, and the
senior surgeon proceeded to instruct them at the bedside.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A view of
Carlisle's still alert mental state at this time was recorded by the
author Thomas Carlyle, a man who did not suffer fools gladly, and
said of Carlis<span style="font-style: normal;">le, 'the man didn't
want for shrewd sense in his way'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
</span>Carlisle's sharp sense of humour was even reported by <i>The
Lancet</i>;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br />
On going round the wards, last Saturday, Mr Lynn remarked to Sir A
Carlisle, that they had not had the pleasure of seeing him in the
library of late. The worthy knight replied, that there was a 'book'
in the room, the presence of which was quite sufficient to account
for his absence; he had so great an aversion to The Lancet, his
idiosyncrasy on the point being so strong, that he could not possibly
go into a room where it was!<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">But
Thomson and Wakley were continuing to look for opportunities to
attack</span></span> Carlisle.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">That Mr Thomson has not the fear of
<i>The Lancet</i> before his eyes is easily accounted for seeing that he is
intimate with Mr Wakley, who has got a blind side for his friends on
whose behalf he will swallow a camel, though his conscience would
make him scruple at a gnat on the behalf of an enemy. Mr H Thomson
may rest assured that he never will be what Sir Anthony Carlisle
undoubtedly has been, a man of first-rate talent. <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Tho</span>mson
waited until late 1839, before making a further tilt to unseat
Carlisle. The attempt is dealt with in detail, as it was shortly
before Carlisle's death and has lain for 170 years as a besmirching
stain. Hospital records of the 1839 tetanus case,<span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
</span>overlook the accompanying conflict.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The facts are these. In the first
case tetanus had supervened on a lacerated wound of the hand. Sir AC
had prescribed for the patient, and his dresser had written down the
prescription at his dictation. Within half an hour Mr Thomson entered
the ward, perused the ordinance of Sir Anthony, which was
authenticated by the dresser who was present, and then deliberately
scored it through and through, and replaced it with a prescription of
his own, uttering sundry comments much to the edification of the
by-standers. Sir Anthony, at his next visit, was naturally surprised
and indignant; nor would the matter have been passed over, but for
the mediation of other parties. The second instance occurred last
Monday, the 13th. A case of incarcerated hernia was admitted under
Sir Anthony Carlisle, who after seeing it, ordered certain
preliminary remedial means to be used, and after a certain time the
house surgeon was to apply the taxis. ... Previous to the appointed
time, Mr Thomson having got inkling of the case, went to the
hospital, and of his own authority took upon himself to reduce the
said hernia, knowing the patient to be Sir Anthony's. It is notorious
through the hospital that Sir Anthony strictly objects to Mr
Thomson's interfering with his patients; his acting thus is therefore
a matter of surprise, and we anticipate will prove somewhat difficult
to justify. We are no partisans nor admirers of the worthy knight,
but while he does retain the post of chief surgeon to Westminster
Hospital, and assiduously performs the duties of his appointment to
the best of his ability, we should be sorry to see him bearded and
insulted with impunity even by Mr Thomson. We doubt not that Sir
Anthony Carlisle will assert his rights.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
A week later <i>The Medical Times</i> followed up, noting <i>The Lancet </i>as the
vehicle of attack on Carlisle.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The grey hairs of Sir Anthony should
have been his protection - he is a gentleman and we doubt not, keenly
feels the malice of his enemies. The Lancet has been the vehicle of
one attack which refers to two cases which were under the care of Sir
Anthony Carlisle. ... In conclusion we commend to the attention of Mr
Hale Thomson the old saw that 'people who live in glasshouses should
beware how they throw stones' and assure him that in the eyes of all
unprejudiced persons he has enacted a part which confers as little
honour on his feelings as a man as upon his judgement and character
as a gentleman.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Carlisle held the position of Surgeon at Westminster Hospital for 47
years, but this was by no means a record, as Sir William Lawrence was
on the staff of St Bartholomew's Hospital for 62 years (1803-1865).
Wakley next attacked Carlisle with a report subsequently described as
<span style="font-style: normal;"> '</span><i>essentially</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
fictitious'</span>;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
The medical officer to whose proceedings we shall refer, is Sir
Anthony Carlisle, the senior surgeon of the institution, who obtained
his election in 1793, forty-seven years ago. Five years since, the
governors, ... passed a law, that, in future, no physician or surgeon
should be considered eligible to practise medicine in the hospital
after he had attained the age of 65 years. Sir Anthony Carlisle at
that time numbering more than seventy winters [sic – in January
1835, he was 66], and having been a principal surgeon of the hospital
during 42 years, “a pretty good innings,” as it was observed,
“for one man,” and which it was expected that Sir Anthony would
close, on this hint by at once falling hack on the office of
'consulting surgeon' in which be could play only a very harmless
game. ... A man named Mayo, William Mayo, was admitted with a severe
contused wound on the front of the leg, which bud been jammed between
two barges. The tibia was extensively denuded, and the muscles were
much torn. During the first two days the case was treated by the
assistant-surgeon, [Hale Thomson] who ordered for the wound, light
dressing, and the application of a poultice. On the third day Sir
Anthony Carlisle himself took the patient in hand and ordered the leg
<i>to be strapped</i>. This torture the man could bear for only a few
hours, when the house-surgeon, very properly, by removing the
pressure, relieved him from pain. But at his next visit Sir Anthony
condemned the 'modern innovation' and insisted that the plaister
should be replaced. The result was manifested, as before, in a high
degree of irritation, threatening erysipela,s and the house-surgeon,
of course, declined pursuing the directions of the surgeon. Yet was
it necessary to keep Sir Anthony quiet, day by day, for several days,
by going through the farce of strapping the wound just previous to
the visit of Sir Anthony, this treatment being superseded immediately
on his departure from the hospital, by the more humane and judicious
practice which he had just forbidden.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Not quite so long since as this,
about seven weeks back, John James, another patient, was labouring
under sloughing of the hand, from erysipelatous inflammation, to such
an extent, that it became necessary to remove the index finger, and
Sir Anthony Carlisle valourously resolved to do the deed. The
house-surgeon and pupils being summoned, Sir Anthony said to the
patient, “Now my good fellow, this finger, you see, is never likely
to be of any use to you, and therefore I am going to </span><i>cut it
off</i><span style="font-style: normal;">,” whereupon, he took the
scalpel from the house-surgeon, and set to work. But the patient
perceiving that the hand of the surgeon trembled violently,
vehemently objected to the operator, praying, “Oh, Lord, Sir, do
let Mr Archer take it off instead!” The amazement of Sir Anthony
was unbounded, and laying down the knife indignantly, he exclaimed,
“The house-surgeon, forsooth! Oh, indeed, things have come to a
pretty pass here.” But the house-surgeon promptly moderated the
senior's vexation, by declining to interfere, and having persuaded
the to submit, Sir Anthony commenced his task; but whether from the
flurry and agitation produced by the patient's alarm, or the tremor
of age, the surgeon only accomplished the removal of the first
phalanx, and then, turning to the house-surgeon, in a subdued voice
him to complete the operation. “Do you take the bone-nippers, Mr
Archer,” he said, “and cut it oft lower down.” Mr Archer having
complied, Sir Anthony cheeringly informed the patient that it was
“all right” and the spectators were left to indulge in
reflections in which the painful and the ludicrous were unavoidably
mixed. Assuredly the Governors of the Westminster Hospital cannot
require a repetition of these exhibitions. They know what is their
duty, but, if they have not the courage or the humanity to discharge
it, let them no longer designate their hospital a “charitable”
institution.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">This
new attack by Wakley and Thomson resulted in a meeting of Hospital
Governors on 21 January. It is difficult to conclude other than that
<i>The Lancet</i> report deliberately represented a biased view of
proceedings.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a>
Caught out, Wakley could not avoid the need to print a letter from
Charles Archer who was present, wherein he observed <i>The Lancet</i>
account was '</span><i>essentially</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
fictitious';</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;"><i>The Lancet</i> ... contains ... an
uncalled for and unjust attack upon Sir A Carlisle, wherein my own
name is quoted in such a manner that, were I to neglect noticing it
thus publicly, it might be inferred that I had tacitly given my
assent to the publication of statements which are unlike untrue as
they are discreditable to their author. In the article alluded to,
several suppositious cases are related with a view of disparaging the
professional ability of Sir A Carlisle to which with your leave I
will briefly refer, </span><i>seriatim</i><span style="font-style: normal;">.
Whoever the author of the cases may be; can it is true lay claim to
considerable ingenuity, but he must also receive what he amply
merits, the charges of sophistry, calumny, and untruth, for </span><span style="font-style: normal;"><u>with
the exception of the names of the patients which are correct the
cases themselves are </u></span><i><u>essentially</u></i><span style="font-style: normal;"><u>
fictitious</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;">; [my emphasis]
the first is that of Mayo who The Lancet observes “was admitted
with a severe contused wound on the front of the leg, which had been
jammed between two barges. The tibia was extensively denuded, and the
muscles were much torn, during the first two days the case was
treated by the assistant-surgeon, who ordered for the wound, light
dressing and the application of a poultice;” in reply I have only
to state that, the man's leg was </span><i>not</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
jammed between two barges, the tibia was </span><i>not</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
extensively denuded, and the muscles were </span><i>not</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
“torn”, the assistant-surgeon did </span><i>not</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
treat the case the first two days, and</span><i> neither</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
light dressing </span><i>nor</i><span style="font-style: normal;"> a
poultice were applied, the wound being covered only by simple water
dressing. To proceed, Sir A Carlisle is represented as having</span><i>
“ordered the man's leg to be strapped”</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
the fact being that Sir A Carlisle only ordered </span><i>two</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
strips of adhesive plaister to be applied, for the purpose of
bringing the edges of the wound if possible together. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The next case is that of John James
who is stated to have been “labouring under sloughing of the hand
from erysipelatous inflammation to such an extent, that it became
necessary to remove the index finger, and Sir Anthony Carlisle
valourously resolved to do the deed.” This is self-evidently
untrue, for what tyro in the profession is there who does not know
that the removal of a finger to check or cure erysipelatous
inflammation or sloughing, is altogether absurd. This patient was
admitted with a comminuted fracture of the third and part of the
second phalanx of the fore-finger, and for this and this only was the
finger removed, (the bones becoming necrosed subsequent to the
accident). Sir A Carlisle examined it, with a view of saving the
finger, but finding this unavailing he recommended the man to submit
to amputation. He consented and Sir A removed it just at that part
where the dead bone commenced, (the saw not being required), a
spicula of bone only projecting which Sir A Carlisle requested me to
remove by the bone nippers I was at that moment holding in my hand.
The patient quickly recovered and has now an excellent stump. From
the manner in which this case is garbled, or the ungrammatical style
in which it is written, it appears that Sir A Carlisle requested me
to “cut it off lower down,” the pronoun </span><i>it</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
there evidently referring to the antecedent substantive “finger”
while the truth is that the spicula of bone was alone intended by Sir
A Carlisle. This distortion of facts must I conceive be ascribed to
one of two sources, either the ignorance of the writer, or his
degrading attempts at misrepresentation. ... I am, Sir, your obedient
servant, Charles Archer, Late House Surgeon to the Westminster
Hospital <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Wakley, never one to apologise for errors, nor avoid an opportunity
for hyperbole, then reported;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Riots at Westminster Hospital.” - Some pupils have been
threatened with dismissal or suspension at this hospital, for riotous
and otherwise unbecoming conduct on Friday last. With more of cunning
than of prudence, the know nothing candidates for the diploma, “took
up the cause of the crusty Examiner of the College of Surgeons on
Friday, and determined to make a demonstration” to that effect by
selecting the first Governor whom they believed to be unfavourable to
Sir Anthony's present position in the hospital, whom they could
venture to attack on his attending at the Boardroom. A knot of these
brave youths having placed themselves in the hall, one of the
Governors was assailed on the stairs leading to the Boardroom, and
attempted to be <i>thrown over the bannisters! </i><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
On 15 February, a further letter was printed, again disputing <i>The
Lancet</i> account of events;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">As one of the young men who was
concerned in the recent uproar at Westminster Hospital, and which was
described by Mr White as simulating the eateries of maniacs rather
than of sane persons, Mr Thos Walsh says, many of the Governors whom
the students 'knew to be unfavourable to the cause of Sir A Carlisle
entered unmolested,' and as regards the Governor who was molested, no
attempt was, to 'his certain knowledge, made, or even thought of, to
throw him over the bannisters.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
An independent view of the subsequent meeting was reported in <i>The
Medical Times</i>.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
We had due accounts of the proceedings at the Board of Governors of
the Westminster Hospital ... The underhand way in which the business
was conducted surprised us, and we were not prepared to see envious
malignity and base detraction meet with such marked support. Messrs
White, Ayrton, and Lynn stood forth strenuously on the defence, but
the assertions of the other party were put forth with so much art and
boldness, as to astonish many unprejudiced hearers into belief. Mr
Thomson led the van, and was supported by Messrs Cheere and Dasent -
the latter, a professional man has we understand since acknowledged
that he made a mistake, and laboured under temporary hallucination,
but now sees the matter in a different medium. Mr Archer, the late
house surgeon read a paper contradicting the Lancet reports, to which
Mr Thomson replied by vouching for their perfect accuracy - he in
fact adopted them as his own, and we wish him joy of his hopeful
bantlings. ... Mr Thomson's position is now far from enviable he has
gone too far to retreat and if he fail in making his case good the
mischief will all recoil upon himself.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
This view by <i>The
Medical Times </i>was supported by 'A Looker On' who wrote;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Now Sir, ... This last attack is but one of a series disturbances
which have been trumped up by the same agents ... to remove the
senior surgeon of the Westminster Hospital from his position, and
leave the graduated vacancy to be filled up the assistant surgeon ...
seeking occasion to stab the reputation of a superior in the dark is
playing the Italian bravo, who dogs the steps of his intended victim,
and wounds him as he is returning to his peaceful home!
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<i>The Medical Times</i>
reported on a backlash of student attitude towards Thomson and <i>The
Lancet</i>;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
A pupil complains, with much fervour, of the insult to Sir Anthony
Carlisle, and gives particulars of the expressions of feeling
manifested by the students towards the reporter of <i>The Lancet</i>. The
pupils (he says) greeted him with groans and hisses on his arrival at
the Hospital. ... The adage of 'people in glass houses should not
throw stones' is peculiarly applicable to Mr Thomson. He accuses Sir
A Carlisle of incompetence and yet forgets that he himself introduced
a trocar in a case of hematocele suspecting it to be a hydrocele.
This case was brought before the Board, but of course Mr Thomson
being a man possessing great interest there, it was hushed up. Does
he forget that two winters ago the pupils of the Westminster School
of Medicine addressed a letter to the proprietors of the school
praying for another lecturer on Surgery as he was incompetent to
teach them? Does he forget that a pupil of the Westminster School of
Medicine told Mr Guthrie at a meeting of the pupils that Mr Thomson
for two sessions successively pointed to the wrong diagram when
speaking of a particular dislocation of the femur on the pelvis and
that a Mr Deshon told Mr Guthrie he demonstrated the os coccygis to
be the phalanx of a finger?<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<i>The
Medical Times</i> followed this with a report on the subsequent
proceedings. Witnesses were called and written depositions of the
patients themselves received. Thomson found himself outflanked, as
the written depositions were unanswerable. Trickery became more and
more apparent;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Mr Thomson - the bare mention of
whose name is alone sufficient to excite a smile of derision - we
have but the alternative of terming him 'ignobly base or else
intensely dull', ... Now Mr Thomson a few personal words with you; -
you have entered upon an evil course - the wrongs you have done may
heavily be retaliated on yourself. In the language of exhortation
repent ere it be too late, and thou mayest yet attain respectability.
If thou wilt not prepare to be an object of hatred and contempt
wherever thou art known. In the hospital patients will shrink from
the mention of thy name, and pupils will show thy presence as though
they feared contamination. Thou wilt creep about the wards like a
poisonous reptile, which though deprived of its venomed fangs,
remains an object of loathing and disgust. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Throughout,
Carlisle's students were supportive and students are only supportive
of lecturers they respect. At a Meeting of Students on 8 February
1840, sixty-four signatures unanimously adopted a resolution; '<span style="font-style: normal;">It
is with feelings of indignation and disgust that we have observed the
insidious and dastardly attacks which have been made on Sir Anthony
Carlisle, the senior surgeon of the Westminster Hospital. As they
appear to have originated within the walls of that Institution, we
deem it our duty as pupils of the Hospital severely to reprobate
them, and to assure Sir Anthony Carlisle of the continuance of the
respect and esteem which his high professional character as a man of
science, and his kind and gentlemanly bearing towards all connected
with him, have ever deserved. </span>The insults led to a parody of
Carlisle challenging Wakley to a duel; <i>"A Duett (not a Duel)
between Middlesex Hospital and Bedford Square".</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
With</span><i> </i><span style="font-style: normal;">Carlisle as
Middlesex and Wakley who lived in Bedford Square.</span><i> </i><span style="font-style: normal;">The
parody portrayed Carlisle as a chivalrous knight seeking
satisfaction, and Wakley as cowardly, with reference to the arson
early in his career, 'it was all a flam'. </span>
</div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="328*"></col>
<col width="328*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Middlesex Hospital</b><span style="font-weight: normal;">
(pa</span>ssionately) </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Oh, tell me when, oh, tell me
where</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">I can have satisfaction fair;
</span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Oh, tell me when, oh, tell me
where </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">I can meet you - far or near.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">I'll meet you, Sir, at
Wormwood Scrubs.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">At Battersea, with shot or
slugs; </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">But nothing short of hearty
rubs </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Can settle the affair. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Oh, tell me when etc.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Bedford Square
</b>(blustering) </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">I say not when - I say not
where - </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Your proposition I'll not
hear; </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">I call'd you liar, but I
swear</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">You'll get no satisfaction
here.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">(With a shudder.) </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">The thought of bullets makes
me shake, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And powder makes my stomach
ache; </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">With colic at the thought I
quake -</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">(Coaxingly) </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Be
quiet, Herbert, dear. </span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Middlesex Hospital </b>(with
surprise) </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">I know when, and I know where
</span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">You called out Sammy Cooper
here; </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">You blustered, and you swore,
oh, dear, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">His blood alone would make
all clear. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><b>Bedford Square </b>
(interrupting him) </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Oh, yes! I know you are quite
right, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">But then, I knew he wouldn't
fight! </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">But you are a bloodthirsty
wight. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">(In a whine) </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Be quiet, Herbert, dear. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">(With hauteur) </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">A magistrate, you know I am </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">A coroner - important man </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Besides, as it was all a flam
</span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">With horsewhip you my back
may tan. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Three inquests I shall hold
tonight, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And I should be a pretty
wight. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">To leave three pounds - to go
and fight </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">I'm not a gentleman. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: small; font-style: normal;">I
say not when, I say not where, &c.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The mention of three pounds relates to a query
in <i>The Medical Times</i>; "In a corner' wishes to know if it was Mr
Hale Thomson who paid the three guineas to make little Clark, the
reporter for <i>The Lancet</i>, a Governor of the Westminster Hospital". </span>A
majority of the House Committee backed Carlisle, with <i>The Medical
Times</i> adding;<span style="font-style: normal;"> 'Mr Thomson has said
in the language of Thersites, as plain as tongue could speak, 'I am a
scurvy railer', to which we respond, 'amen.' ' </span>By now Thomson
was much ridiculed, one report suggesting he be cast in bronze; as 'a
donkey kicking a dead lion';
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">We had a meeting ... to decide on
some permanent expression of high regard for Mr Thomson. The
chairman, Mr Cox, ... said, that though it might be truly said of Mr
Thomson, both as a man and a philosopher 'exigit monumentum aere
perennius' [</span><b><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">he
deserved </span></span></b><span style="font-style: normal;">a
monument more lasting than bronze] yet some physical momento of our
esteem was due to him, and he therefore begged the suggestions of the
gentlemen present on the subject. Mr Simkinson suggested the erection
a statue of Jupiter Tonans [the Roman God, Jove the Thunderer]. To
this Mr Jinkins strongly objected having a great aversion to earthen
theology in Shakespearian language he did not like to give 'a hairy a
local 'abitation and a name'. Mr Avis recommended the allegorical
group, of a donkey kicking a dead lion, which he deemed the acmé of
sublime daring. Mr Higging wished that Mr Thomson should be applied
to for material for the monument, as it was understood he had an
ample stock of brass by him.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
A correspondent even supplied some satirical medical case notes,
cleverly alluding to Thomson:
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">T--ms-n was admitted into the
hospital some time back, under the care of Mr Guthrie. He is reported
to be of somewhat weak intellect, which had been manifested
occasionally by strange vagaries, which excited laughter and
derision. He had for some time laboured under a disease termed "the
simples" an affection apparently of fungoid character; and it
having been determined by the medical officers in consultation, that
he might probably derive benefit by having the operation performed
termed "cutting for the simples," Mr White had undertaken
it. Previous to the Operation on T..ms.n some curious experiments on
the subject of magnetic influence, to which the patient is liable
were performed. While merely a state of quiescence was maintained no
phenomenon was apparent, but the transit into a state of delirium was
rapid. His insignificant stature then began rapidly to expand, and
his hulk became so amazingly distended by some subtle and invisible
fluid, that we became much alarmed lest he should burst like the frog
in the fable who was emulous of the magnitude of an ox. One of the
eyes became greatly distended, looking towards the chin, which Mr
Lynn designated in a moral manner 'a mental obliquity'. His antics
now became extravagant; he jostled Sir Anthony Carlisle with great
violence, but the worthy knight appeared to regard his monkey tricks
with good humoured indifference. Becoming talkative, it was suggested
to ascertain if he were capable of preaching; Dr Roe forthwith
produced a pocket Bible, and T..ms.n forthwith gave a most luminous
exposition of the text. 'And the ass opened his mouth and spoke,' the
reflection being most apparent to the minds of his hearers. On the
metallic test being tried, the usual tendency for gold and silver was
found to exist; but for brass he had so strong an affinity that the
very door-handles appeared to resolve in his grasp, and to enter
intimately into his composition. A power of repulsion appeared to
exist between T..ms.n and most of those around him. He appeared at
first to have some magnetic influence over a Mr Dé Scent; but all at
once some powerful repulsive agent appeared to act, and that
gentleman was propelled violently to the further part of the theatre.
The violence of the concussion quite made T..ms.n lose his senses and
we regret to say that they have not yet been found. A strong
connexion was established between T..ms.n and Dr Bahum, through the
medium of 'a physician's admission ticket' though doubtless any other
piece of paper would have answered the purpose equally well. With
these exceptions Т.. ms.n was quite isolated and unable to excite
sympathy for his condition. ... The patient was therefore consigned
to the incurable ward.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Resolutions supportive of Carlisle were passed by a Committee of
Westminster Hospital.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.34cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">The statements which have appeared
in The Lancet, impugning the professional competency of Sir Anthony
Carlisle, senior surgeon of the Westminster Hospital, founded on
gross misrepresentations, are devoid of truth,, and scandalous, and
if left uncontradicted would not only prove highly detrimental to the
reputation of a gentleman, who has with the most unabated zeal, the
most unwearied activity, and in the most able and beneficial manner,
served this Institution during a period of 46 years, but might also
make an injurious impression on the public generally, and have a
strong tendency to lessen the usefulness of this Charity, by
diminishing that confidence in the knowledge and skill of its medical
officers … The Committee desire to record upon the Board Minutes
their sense of the benefits which the Hospital has derived from the
services of Sir Anthony Carlisle for a very long period of years, in
which he has evinced the most kind and gentlemanly deportment and
great professional talents; and the Committee desire also to express
their hope, that whenever Sir Anthony Carlisle may consider it
conducive to his own comfort and convenience to deprive the
Institution of his regular alternate attendance as one of the
Surgeons of the Hospital; he will oblige them by continuing to the
Hospital the benefits of his judgement and advice as Consulting
Surgeon, and by continuing to the Committee his useful assistance as
a Member of the Board, with every privilege which may at any time
heretofore have been attached to the office of Consulting Surgeon.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
continued to write clearly on diverse subjects, even while
Wakley/Thomson were attacking him;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
Sir, I submit to your numerous readers a few observations upon one of
the properties of water, which may lead to many practical and
scientific improvements, particularly in the construction of
hygrometrical instruments. The desiccation of many crystallized
salts, for example, sulphate of soda, in a dry atmosphere, happens
both at high and low temperatures, and, in either case, the
transparent solid crystals, become a dry opaque powder. A remarkable
instance of this kind also occurs if cream be frozen into thin sheets
and exposed to a dry cold atmosphere, about zero, when the whole of
the water of crystallization vanishes, and leaves a fine powder of
dry curd and butter. This process is adopted in the higher Swiss
Alps, where perhaps churning is found to be impracticable, by placing
sheets of iced cream perpendicularly in a frame, like a plate rack,
between two open windows, the desiccated cream falling down into a
receiving dish, and forming a delicate substitute for butter. I have
often noticed the rapid disappearance of snow during a dry<i> black</i>
frost, and this seems to depend on atmospheric absorption, for it
occurs during the night more than in day light. A fallowed field
shall be wholly covered with snow so as to conceal the colour of the
earth, and in one night of intense frost it disappears before the
morning, without any intervening thaw. I am, Sir, Your obliged
reader, Anthony Carlisle.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In the
same journal on Feb 22 1840, Carlisle discussed in detail dry rot. It
is worth reading as an example of his ability to write clearly at a
time of great personal stress, and shortly before he died;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
… on the subject of dry rot in timber, I may justly state that the
question is extensive, and it includes a variety of knowledge. Many
different sorts of decay invade all kinds of timber, and the term
'<i>dry</i> rot, is often improperly applied, especially to the
decays, which entirely depend on <i>humidity</i>. There are two
different kinds of destruction of timber, each of them essentially
connected with humidity. One of them being produced by a parasitical
fungus, which absorbs the fibres of wood when subjected to moisture,
and thus disorganizes the natural fabric of wood. The other mode of
destruction is by decomposition, which may be correctly termed 'rot'
and this occurs from alternate <i>wet</i> and dry. The solidity of
timber is not so durable when the tree has been filled with its
growing portion of <i>sap;</i> and an unwise Act of Parliament, made
to facilitate the barking of oaks, in order to increase the profits
upon bark for tanning, directed the felling of those trees after the
sap had risen in the spring season, so as to loosen the bark. I
foretold the injurious consequences of this Act upon the English navy
as a certain cause of fungus rot, but landlords and their ignorant
stewards disregarded me, and the Admiralty were soon obliged to
doctor all the new built ships for that incurable decay. That the
absence of moisture secures every sort of timber from decay is shown
by the ancient Mummy Cases of Thebes, by the bare roof of Westminster
Hall, and the roofs of all our cathedrals and old churches, whereas
the modern custom of plastering or painting all wood-work confines
the moisture and excludes the air, to the certain destruction of
timber, as much as if the beams were fixed endwise in water. The
Museum Roof of the London College of Surgeons was thus rotten, within
thirty years, and the underground wood-work in every damp house is
ruined in a similar manner.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.34cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
The elementary matter of wood is termed carbon, a word comprising
solids and solutions, possessing apparently different properties, and
on an exact and especial knowledge of all these depend the practical
uses of those differently modified substances. The well known charred
wood, charcoal, the gas termed carbonic, the soluble gum Acacia, and
the fluid element of sap of all vegetables, even a cambric
handkerchief, are only different states of the same material. But the
insolubility of <i>charcoal</i> and the easy solubility of gum
Arabic, are opposites, and show the diversities of the carbonic
element. <i>..</i>. There are many intermediate states of carbonic
fixity; and the rotting of timber exhibits them wherever the fluid
sap, as before mentioned, is exposed to decomposition. A remarkable
example of this occurs in fishermen's nets, in the herring and
mackerel seasons. If the nets so used be suffered to remain even for
eighteen hours embued with the mucus and fat of the fish, they heat,
ferment and rot, so as to be utterly worthless; and a similar injury
happens to grass-bleaching linen, when long confined under snow;
likewise in the washing of linen, if it be long exposed to putrescent
materials; this fermentation is the putrefactive, and it
destructively decomposes the solid carbon of the net, or cloth.
Stones which <i>retain</i> or <i>imbibe</i> water to excess are,
therefore unfit to be placed in contact with timber in buildings
where the construction is designed to be durable. Kyan's patent for
steeping timber in a solution of mercurial sublimate is only a
partial and temporary preventative of <i>rot</i>. I gave evidence on
that subject before a committee at the Admiralty, but the members
were not sufficiently instructed to understand my attempts to
illustrate the nature of organic fabrics.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66sym" name="sdendnote66anc"><sup>lxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.34cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.08cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">In hindsight, it is clear that <i>The
Lancet</i> backed the wrong horse in championing Hale Thomson. But rather
than admit this, </span>Wakley attacked Carlisle on 11 April 1840
about the RCS library. In discussing RCS finances shortly before
Carlisle's death, Wakley alleged impropriety;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
The <i>Council of the College of Surgeons</i> have at last found, in
one of its members, an unscrupulous champion. Sir Anthony Carlisle
has thrown down the gauntlet, and defied the members. The own
Council's own Knight, who has “lived long and variously in the
world”, and has studied all things, from the hyssop on the wall to
the “oyster” in the deep, without growing a whit the wiser, has
demanded a place for some polemical observations in a daily paper.
The “men who turn the world upside” down are hotly pursuing, the
knight says, the <i>established institutions</i> of English
physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries under the plea of centralising
and equalising, or uniting the different classes of medical men. The
knight quotes Scripture. He reviles Medical Reformers in the terms
which the idolatrous Pagans applied to the early Christian Reformers.
“Great is Diana of the Ephesians” shouted the idolatrous priests
Asia Minor. “Great is the College Council of Twenty-one!” screams
the treble-voiced Sir Anthony. The valorous knight whom the
Twenty-one have chosen, hugs himself, at the onset, with the
assurance that his foes are neither numerous, nor formidable, nor
“remarkably distinguished”... What we ask the knight has become
of the residue of the quarter of a million? If the £104,677 have
been sunk on the museum, library, and building, what has become of
the £145,000? Where is it? Whence has it flown? Has Langham-place no
secrets to give up on that head? The Black Knight is discreetly
silent. Even when he trembles with age and wine, the secret of the
Council of Twenty-one drops not from his babbling tongue.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67sym" name="sdendnote67anc"><sup>lxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
Wakley went on at length in this vein. Any explanation was rightly
the responsibility of the RCS, not Carlisle, who died without
providing for his daughters and had sold his valuable collection of
rare medical books to the RCS library for far below its real worth.
Carlisle had not benefited financially but, yet again, Wakley's
desire for venom again outweighed any reporting of the truth. The
conflict with Wakley took physical toll of Carlisle, and he died in
November 1840. Wakley was so bitter, he could not even bring himself
to note Carlisle's death in <i>The Lancet</i>, let alone write any obituary.
Other publications did so, including this telling reference to
Thomson;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
[A]s we run over the catalogue of Sir Anthony's contributions to the
scientific literature of his day, we are strongly reminded of his
superiority to the shallow creature who strove to supercede him in
his long-sustained position as surgeon to a metropolitan hospital.
Death has now removed the obstacle which ignorant presumption would
have rudely trodden down, and we are convinced that the practice of
Mr Hale Thomson will afford another case in favour of the appointment
of medical officers by concours.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68sym" name="sdendnote68anc"><sup>lxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
When
Thomson died in 1860, even <i>The Lancet</i> published a negative obituary,
concluding by damning him with faint praise, but <i>The Lancet</i> never
resiled from its unfounded attacks on Carlisle.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">In particular, in 1838 a charge of
incapacity was brought by Mr Thomson against Sir Anthony Carlisle
which terminated in the acquittal of Sir Anthony. ... Mr Thomson
became engaged in a speculation called the 'Glass Silvering Company'.
It is stated that in this he sank upwards of £40,000. From this we
believe, he never completely recovered. His nervous system had been
considerably shaken, and he required the use of opiates to obtain
sleep; these were ultimately useless, and he increased the quantity
so rashly that on Sunday, the 22nd ultimo, an overdose of chlorodyne
proved fatal. His servant found him dead, lying on his back in his
study. ... In his profession his fault was excess of audacity which
occasionally made him neglect necessary precautions. … Mr Thomson
contributed little to the literature of his profession.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69sym" name="sdendnote69anc"><sup>lxix</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
History has been very kind to Thomas Wakley and <i>The Lancet</i>, but the attacks on Carlisle demonstrate that Wakley was not a nice man, despite all the glowing accounts in <i>The Lancet</i> and by his biographers. Space does not permit here, but it is the view of this author that Wakley is overdue for a "warts and all" biography. If anyone is interested in pursuing that, they may be interested to know that in my possession is an original, large old-fashioned, ledger-book, which contains the handwritten ledger and annual accounts for the period of <i>The Lancet</i> following his editorship, i.e. from c.1872-1905.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
MacCormac, William, <i>An address of welcome, July 26, 1900</i>,
London, Ballantyne, Hanson & Co, 1900, p 75</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Bridgewater, Francis Henry Egerton, <i> The Bridgewater treatises,</i>
Treatise I-VIII, London, Pickering, 1834, p 327</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a><i>
The Times,</i> London, 17 September, 1794</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a><i>
The Times,</i> London, 6 October, 1795</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a><i>
The Times, </i>London, 20 October, 1796</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Duncan, Andrew, <i>Annals of Medicine for the Year 1799</i>,
Edinburgh, Pillans, 1800, p 74</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Ryan, Michael, <i>The London Medical and Surgical Journal,</i>
London, Renshaw and Rush, 1833, p 508</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Langdon-Davies, John, <i>Westminster Hospital 1719-1948</i>, London,
John Murray, 1952, p 92</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
<i>Medical Times and Gazette, </i>London, 1856, p 467</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London. Wakley, 1826, p 676</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
Carlisle, A, quoted in <i>The Lancet</i>, London. Wakley, 1826, p
690-691</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
<i>The London Magazince</i>, January to April, 1826, London, Hunt
and Clark, 1826, p 520</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Cornelius, E H, <i>Some Past Presidents of the College,</i> Annals
of RCS of England, July 1968, p 39-50,
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=2312256&pageindex=1
accessed Augusr 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London. Wakley, 1826, p 689-695</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, Vol II, London, 1828, p 459-460</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, Vol II, London, 1828, p 468</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, Vol II, London, 1828, p 497-500</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
<i>The Medical Gazette</i>, London, 1829, Longmans, p 317-319</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, Vol I, London, 1829, p 692</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, Vol I, London, 1829, p 724</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Pettigrew, Thomas Joseph, <i>Biographical Memoirs</i>, London,
Fisher and Son, 1838</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
Carlisle, A, <i>Practical Observations on the Preservation of
Health, </i>London, Churchill, 1838, p x-xxvi, p xli-xlii</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a><i>
The Lancet,</i> Vol II, London, Wakley, 1833, p 668</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in <i>Parliamentary Papers,</i> Vol XIII,
Part II, London, 1834, p 139-152</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Gordon, Henry Laing, <i>Sir James Young Simpson and Cholorform</i>,
London, Fisher, Unwin, 1897, p 182</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
Le Fanu, W R, <i>The History of the Library of the College,</i>
Thomas Vicary Lecture, London, December 1951, p 368,
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2238598
accessed July 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
Cornelius, E H, <i>Some Past Presidents of the College,</i> Annals
of RCS of England, July 1968, p 39-50,
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=2312256&pageindex=1
accessed Augusr 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
Thompson, W E, <i>Historic Surgical Instruments in the Museum of the
RCS of England</i>, in <i>The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery,</i>
August 1953, p 474-479,
http://www.jbjs.org.uk/cgi/reprint/35-B/3/474.pdf accessed July 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
MacAlister, J Y W, <i>The Library, A Magazine of Bibliography and
Literature,</i> London, Elliot & Stock, 1889, p 254</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Le Fanu, W R, <i>The History of the Library of the College,</i>
Vicary Lecture, London, December 1951, p 382,
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Le Fanu, W R, <i>The History of the Library of the College,</i>
Vicary Lecture, London, December 1951, p 371-373,
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
<i>The Monthly Review,</i> Vol XI, London, Henderson, 1829, p
184-185</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Littell, Eliakim, <i>The Museum of Foreign Literature</i>,
Philadelphia, Littell, 1829, p 359</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Littell, Eliakim, <i>The Museum of Foreign Literature</i>,
Philadelphia, Littell, 1829, p 360</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Langdon-Davies, John, <i>Westminster Hospital 1719-1948</i>, London,
John Murray, 1952, p 164-178</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
Hempel, Sandra, <i>The Strange Case of the Broad Street Pump</i>,
Berkeley, UCP, 2007, p 85</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
Humble J G, and Hansell, Peter, <i>Westminster Hospital 1716-1974</i>,
London, Pitman, 1974, p 62</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Langdon-Davies, John, <i>Westminster Hospital 1719-1948</i>, London,
John Murray, 1952, p 169</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
<i>The Lancet,</i> London, Vol I, Wakley, 1839, p 238</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
Langdon-Davies, John, <i>Westminster Hospital 1719-1948</i>, London,
John Murray, 1952, p 171-175</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, New York, Wakley, 1860, p 361</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
Atkinson, Tony, <i>The Paranoia of Pioneer Anaesthetists,</i> An
address at the Melbourne Club, 13 April 1996</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Langdon-Davies, John, <i>Westminster Hospital 1719-1948</i>, London,
John Murray, 1952, p 158-160, p 178</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
Wakley, Thomas, <i>The Lancet, </i>London, George Churchill, 1839, p
195-197</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
<i>The Medical Times</i>, Vol I, October 1839 to March 1840, London,
Sydney Smith, 1840 p 27</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, Vol I, Wakley, 1839, p 237</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, T Wakley, 1839, p 127</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
Carlyle, Thomas, <i>Reminiscences,</i> Oxford, OUP, 1997, p 290
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, T Wakley, 1839, p 557</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
<i>The Medical Times</i>, Vol I, October 1839 to March 1840, London,
Sydney Smith, 1840 p 158</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a><i>
The Medical Times</i>, Vol I, October 1839 to March 1840, London,
Sydney Smith, 1840 p 187-188</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a><i>
The Medical Times</i>, Vol I, October 1839 to March 1840, London,
Sydney Smith, 1840 p 161</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a><i>
The Medical Times</i>, Vol I, October 1839 to March 1840, London,
Sydney Smith, 1840 p 170-171</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, T Wakley, 1839, p 624-625</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, T Wakley, 1839, p 669-673</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, T Wakley, 1839, p 676</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, T Wakley, 1839, p 742</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, T Wakley, 1839, p 774-775</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a><i>
The Medical Times</i>, Vol I, October 1839 to March 1840, London,
Sydney Smith, 1840 p 182-183</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a><i>
The Medical Times</i>, Vol I, October 1839 to March 1840, London,
Sydney Smith, 1840 p 194</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a><i>
The Medical Times</i>, Vol I, October 1839 to March 1840, London,
Sydney Smith, 1840 p 183 and p 230</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a><i>
The Medical Times</i>, Vol I, October 1839 to March 1840, London,
Sydney Smith, 1840 p 198</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a><i>
The Medical Times</i>, Vol I, October 1839 to March 1840, London,
Sydney Smith, 1840 p 232</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, T Wakley, 1839, p 743</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
<i>The Mechanic's Magazine</i>, London, Robertson, 1840, p 20</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote66">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66anc" name="sdendnote66sym">lxvi</a>
<i>The Mechanic's Magazine</i>, London, Robertson, 1840, p 464</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote67">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67anc" name="sdendnote67sym">lxvii</a>
Wakley, Thomas,<i> The Lancet</i>, London, Churchill, 1840, p 97-99</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote68">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68anc" name="sdendnote68sym">lxviii</a>
<i>The Medical Times</i>, Vol III, September 1840 to April 1841,
London, Sydney Smith, 1841, p 142</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote69">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69anc" name="sdendnote69sym">lxix</a>
Wakley, Thomas,<i> The Lancet</i>, New York, 1860, p 361</span></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-10407380503108024362015-04-05T17:04:00.004-07:002021-11-26T09:43:22.773-08:0018 - Evolution, Selecting the Fit, and a Social Awareness ©Predictably the man-midwifery furore abated after Carlisle's death, and the
medical media sought new issues. Traditionalists
had felt threatened by Carlisle's free thinking approach, where he
said; <br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
Hypothetical and conjectural speculations have been the fore-runners of important
discoveries; and when we find reasonings from analogies, and
anticipations from probable results to constitute much of the
algebraic prescience of Aristotle, of Lord Bacon, and of Robert Hook,
we cannot with propriety despise them.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Although, until now, unrecognised for it, over a period of forty years Carlisle
made observations relevant to evolution, commencing before Charles
Darwin was born. On 6 November, 1792, when aged only 24, Carlisle delivered a paper to
the Linnaean Society on tapeworms (taeniae), stating;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
There appears to be a series of distinct species of Taenia, each having its
peculiar animal ... It does not appear that Taeniae are calculated to
live in any other situations than living animal substances. That
these worms should be created for the purpose of producing disease in
the animal which they inhabit is absurd; it would rather seem that
<u>nature has not intended any situation to be vacant, where it was possible to
carry on the work of multiplying the species of living beings</u>.[my
emphasis] By allowing them to live within each other, the sphere of
increase is considerably enlarged. ... The chance of an ovum being
placed in situation where it will be hatched, and the young find
convenient subsistence, must be very small: hence the necessity for
being so prolific. If they had the same powers of being prolific
which they have now and their ova were afterwards readily hatched,
<u>the
multiplication of these animals would be immense and become a
nuisance to the other parts of the creation</u>.
[my emphasis]<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Carlisle
stated this five years before Malthus published an<i>
“An Essay on Population”</i> in 1798. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
This
image is a rare example of Carlisle's artwork, being included in his
paper on tapeworms. He made a contribution to the history of injected
preparations; 'A
novel and highly interesting paper was published in 1794 by Sir
Anthony Carlisle. (Transactions of the Linnaean Society, London,
1794, vol. ii). He injected the excretory canals and reproductive
organs of the cestode joint with coloured size, and was the first to
work out the course of the former vessels, in which he correctly
suspected the presence of valves.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
At
the time the Church view, promulgated by Archbishop Ussher, was based
upon a Biblical chronology beginning in 4004BC. The first scientific
attempt to determine the age of the earth being made by Georges-Louis
Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707-1788), a French mathematician, and
author. He discussed the origins of the solar system, speculating the
planets had been created by comet collisions with the sun, and that
the earth originated much earlier than 4004BC. In 1778, based on the
cooling rate of iron, Leclerc calculated the age of the earth as
75,000 years. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
In
researching Carlisle, the man and his work, it is necessary to
carefully study Carlisle's available writings to pick out his
consistent themes. Fortunately, his public lectures were popular
and, as a consequence, well reported in the media. They become an
invaluable source revealing thoughts, otherwise lost to posterity. As
a result of studying the various sources, we can see that, although
Carlisle did not publish his own theory of evolution in a compact and
coherent fashion, his views on the subject have a theme showing he
addressed many of its features. At an early stage Carlisle realised a
focus on fetal abnormalities might help him understand life and this
study is a theme in his research. As
he lacked funding, he needed to direct his comparative anatomy
research to areas where specimens were free, or he might receive them
as gifts, as with a sloth from Symmons. On on December 31, 1803
Southey </div>
<span style="font-size: small;">wrote to Lieutenant Southey on HMS
Galatea; </span>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.33cm; margin-right: 0.21cm;">
<br />
Could you bring home a live alligator? A little one, of course, from his
hatching to six feet long; it would make both me and Carlisle quite
happy, for he should have him. And pray, pray, some live land-crabs,
that they may breed; and any other monsters. Birds lose their beauty;
and I would not be accessory to the death of a humming-bird; for the
sake of keeping his corpse in a cabinet; but with crocodiles, sharks,
and land-crabs it is fair play, either catch them, or they you.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
Carlisle researched
tapeworms, before moving on to fish and small mammals. There is
evidence he experimented with electricity; 'I
would here propose the trial of a simple remedy, which (a priori)
promises to be successful; I mean small shocks of electricity passed
frequently through the regions of the abdomen; the lives of the lower
orders of animals seeming to be easily destroyed by such shocks of
electricity as do not injure the larger and more perfect animals.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Charles
Darwin was in contact with Carlisle and must have read Carlisle's
Royal Society paper on sloths, published on 1 January 1800,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a>
after Symmons presented Carlisle with a maucauco sloth. Carlisle's
atheism and dry sense of humour is discernible in a later letter from
Darwin to Hooker; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.63cm;">
<br />
I
should die much easier if someone would solve the coal question; I
sometimes think it could not have been formed at all — Old Sir
Anthony Carlisle once said to me gravely that he supposed Megatherium
and such cattle were just sent down from Heaven to see whether the
earth would support them, and I suppose the coal was rained down to
puzzle mortals.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
A megatherium being
a genus of elephant-sized ground sloths which lived until 8,000 years
ago. It appears, from Darwin's words, that Carlisle's subtle joke
went right over Darwin's head. From his limited references to
Carlisle, it seems Darwin paid little attention to Carlisle's
numerous papers. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
analysing his work, it becomes clear Carlisle realised the importance
of species variation arising within an embryo, as with birth defects.
In contrast, Darwin's research and his theory of natural selection,
was based on inheritance of physical changes or characteristics
effected during the life of a creature, such as a longer neck from
reaching for higher branches of plants. Carlisle's views did not fit
with the thrust of Darwin's theory and hence Darwin considered
Carlisle's views as irrelevant to<i> The Origin of
Species</i><span style="font-style: normal;">. We now know genetic
variation occurs before birth, as predicted by Carlisle. On 29
January 1801 Carlisle read an </span><i>Account of a monstrous
Lamb</i><span style="font-style: normal;">, to Sir Joseph Banks; </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.39cm;">
<br />
I
took the opportunity, while the subject was in perfect preservation,
to examine the brain and its connections: they seem to me very
remarkable, and might have afforded matter to an acute observer, of
high interest in the science of physiology, had this monster been
yeaned alive. … I was surprised to find the whole cerebrum and all
its nerves deficient. … The narration of these appearances assists
and confirms other facts, in demonstrating that<i> </i><span style="font-style: normal;"><u>the
formation and growth of animals in the uterus, are independent of any
influence from those parts of their brain which properly belong to
sensation</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;">. [my emphasis –
i.e. not from learning] We have to regret, that this animal did not
live to shew the phenomena of volitions directed to its limbs, and
other apparatus without that intelligence from the organs of the
senses which regulates and directs the efforts of perfect animals.
</span><span style="font-style: normal;"><u>The careful observance of
such circumstances may, in future bring us to discoveries of the
highest value, in that part of physiology which is now enveloped in
deep mystery</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;">: [my
emphasis – he refers to life itself] the facts at present collated
are not sufficient. The intellectual phenomena of persons who sustain
known injuries of particular parts of the brain; the appearances on
the dissection of idiots, with their mental particularities; the
anatomical history of maniacs, all promise, when properly cultivated,
a series of truths, which it may not be extravagant to hope, will
open sublime views into those recesses of our construction which
justly rank among the most curious, if not the most important objects
of research.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Although
it has not been possible to locate a copy; in 1801 Carlisle proposed
a natural history series. His intention was advertised in <i>The Times</i>
of Friday 16 October 1801;</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
Speedily will be
published, in quarto, with Engravings,</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
Part I, of A System
of Natural History of the Structure or Anatomy of Animals</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
By Anthony Carlisle,
surgeon &c.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
Printed for T Cadell
jun and W Davies, Strand. This work follows the zoological
classification of Linnaeus, and is adapted to the studies of those
who cultivate natural history only, as well as the medical
profession. It is the author's design to give the leading facts in
detail, freed from technical expressions as much as the nature of the
subject will admit. Many of the descriptions will be entirely new,
and all the authorities admitted either upon the actual knowledge of
their correctness, or their strict conformity with the author's
experience. The first part illustrated with eight plates, from
drawings made by the author, will comprise an account of the physical
and chemical substances, as far as they have been clearly
ascertained. And a particular description of the internal history or
anatomy of the class - 'Vernea' of Linnaeus.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
One
cannot know Carlisle's intentions for subsequent Parts, but it
appears he intended a series on natural history, which may have had
implications for the future study of evolution. Carlisle had
reservations about Archbishop Ussher's view; as inferred by Farington
in 1813 in his diary, in a tone inferring surprise at Carlisle
expressing views inconsistent with Church teachings.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Dr
Anthony Carlisle I dined with. The changes which have taken place in
the formation of the earth of this our globe was a subject of
conversation. Carlisle said, that it had been proved by examination
into the state of the earth and its contents, that most of it had at
some period, been under water. It also appeared from bones discovered
that <span style="font-style: normal;"><u>there was a time when
there were animals in the world not now known, and that before Man
was created</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;">. [my
emphasis] The Mosaic account, said he, is not contradicted by the
belief that the world existed in some form and with some creatures in
it before the creation of man. He said, that a Chinese work on
eclipses had been studied and calculated by the late Hon Henry
Cavendish FRS, who had shown the planets which caused some of them
must have commenced their course 8000 years ago.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Carlisle had an
interest in geology, and in 1809 he was a founding member of the
Geology Society's Committee of Extraneous Fossils, hence remaining
familiar with the latest theories.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
It is worth comparing Carlisle's 1813 comments to Farington, with
later seminal works; William Smith's <i>"Strata
Identified by Organised Fossils"</i>
which appeared in 1816, Lyell's <i>"Principles
of Geology"</i>
in 1830, and his <i>"Antiquity
of Man"</i>
in 1863. There was an echo of Carlisle's 1813 comments in his 1820
Hunterian Oration, where he made an allusion to the Hunterian museum,
remarking;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
It
may be the destiny of this college to execute the glorious scheme of
Aristotle: to draw together the creatures of the earth; to unravel
their natures, and to display with perspicuity their several
applications for the services of all sensitive beings.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The
complex phenomena of living bodies, and the difficulty of tracing
what regulates them, led Carlisle to investigate the diversity of the
animal and vegetable kingdoms;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.31cm; margin-right: 0.43cm;">
<br />
In some animals the
parts ordained to perform definite offices, are simple, distinct, and
homogeneous; in others, they occur intermixed with adventitious,
auxiliary, or subordinate structures; so that nothing short of a
copious and particular knowledge of these facts can warrant any
physiological theory. The whole of these contemplations <u>invariably
lead to conclusive proofs of the strict adaptation between animal
structures and their functions</u>;
[my emphasis] and while the wisdom of this moral governance, and the
supreme order of Providence, command our adoration, we may be
permitted to advance our research and cogitations respecting those
natural events, which comprehend the most important information for
the improvement of surgery.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
In seeking to
understand the reasons for, and effects, of brain and physiological
abnormalities;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Sir Anthony
Carlisle, on opening a woman who had died after amputation of a foot,
found no falx [cerebri]. The cerebrum was not divided into
hemispheres. The edge of the longitudinal sinus was received into a
depression, about half an inch deep, that existed along the middle of
the superior part of the cerebrum. The head had been unaffected and
the mental faculties perfect as far as observation was made during
the woman's stay in the Westminster Hospital.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTf0vGSh1mGSnXKU-Kat5TBgmAolKmQVMlVUrkMNHJAAMJwRih7wFS4fODxKyTNx7QWIpVDCnZ0sWKYJR3nsRNyv_bWJptlvi91a93Hh59xx-es7lrbVyblzPEs9ynGgSsBD5NsTOUGxk/s1600/ds+1481+Zerah+Colburn+reverse.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><br /></a></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifo-B3DitoTitp0QBbdB9HrR-jUvpEMknAs8hdbe5j2SJGIgsB_kVCzNK2zh2bfPCAIZb43Vt5lOJtdkF7MKdCQoGWspUGVOAHNbHz6JU3yee1VjwZqfykH-hz7YCfED4x4qg6I99Iyb0/s1600/ds+1481+Zerah+Colburn.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifo-B3DitoTitp0QBbdB9HrR-jUvpEMknAs8hdbe5j2SJGIgsB_kVCzNK2zh2bfPCAIZb43Vt5lOJtdkF7MKdCQoGWspUGVOAHNbHz6JU3yee1VjwZqfykH-hz7YCfED4x4qg6I99Iyb0/s1600/ds+1481+Zerah+Colburn.jpg" width="321" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Zerah Coburn</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Carlisle
realised at an early stage birth abnormalities were the likely key to
understanding muscular motion, i.e. life. He saw inherited physical
characteristics as vital clues, with variations to the norm as of
special interest. In 1813 a boy, with what in the 21C would be
described as high achievement autism, or a savant, arrived in London.<br />
<br />
He was Zerah Coburn, from Cabot, Vermont, and his abilities developed rapidly, so that he was able to solve such
problems as the number of seconds in 2,000 years, the product of
12,225 and 1,223, or the square root of 1,449. When he was seven
years old he took six seconds to give the numbers of hours in
thirty-eight years, two months, and seven days, but Carlisle
was equally interested in his rare, and inherited, physical
appearance.<br />
<br />
Prior to Christmas December 1813, Carlisle tabled a paper
to the Royal Society, <i>On
Monstrosity in the Human Species</i>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTf0vGSh1mGSnXKU-Kat5TBgmAolKmQVMlVUrkMNHJAAMJwRih7wFS4fODxKyTNx7QWIpVDCnZ0sWKYJR3nsRNyv_bWJptlvi91a93Hh59xx-es7lrbVyblzPEs9ynGgSsBD5NsTOUGxk/s1600/ds+1481+Zerah+Colburn+reverse.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTf0vGSh1mGSnXKU-Kat5TBgmAolKmQVMlVUrkMNHJAAMJwRih7wFS4fODxKyTNx7QWIpVDCnZ0sWKYJR3nsRNyv_bWJptlvi91a93Hh59xx-es7lrbVyblzPEs9ynGgSsBD5NsTOUGxk/s1600/ds+1481+Zerah+Colburn+reverse.jpg" width="177" /></a>The following
account of a family having hands and feet with supernumerary fingers
and toes, and the hereditary transmission of the same peculiarity to
the fourth generation appears to be worth preserving, since it
displays the influence of each of the propagating sexes: the male and
the female branches of the original stem having alike reproduced this
redundancy of parts. ...</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
In every department
of animal nature, accumulation of
facts must always be desirable, that more
reasonable inductions may be established concerning the laws which
direct this interesting part of creation: and <u>it might be
attended with the most important consequences, if discovery could be
made of the relative influence of the male and female sex in the
propagation of peculiarities, and the course and extent of hereditary
character could be ascertained</u>, [my emphasis] both as it affects
the human race in their moral and physical capacities, and as it
governs the creatures which are subdued for civilized uses. <u>Nor is
it altogether vain to expect, that more profound views, and more
applicable facts await the researches of men, who have as yet only
begun to explore this branch of natural history, by subjecting it to
physical rules</u>. [my emphasis] …<br />
Though the causes which govern
the production of organic monstrosities, or which direct the
hereditary continuance of them may for ever remain unknown, it still
seems desirable to ascertain the variety of those deviations, and to
mark the course they take, where they branch out anew, and where they
terminate. <u>There is doubtless a general system in even the errors
of nature, as is abundantly evinced by the regular series of
monstrosity exhibited both in animals and vegetables</u>. [my
emphasis] … That local resemblances, such as those of external
parts, the hands, the feet, the nose, the ears, and the eye-brows,
are hereditary, is well known; and it is almost equally evident, that
some parts of the internal structure are in like manner transmitted
by propagation: we frequently see a family form of the legs and
joints, which gives a peculiar gait, and a family character of the
shoulders, both of which are derived from an hereditary similarity in
the skeletons. Family voices are also very common and are ascribable
to a similar cause. <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Instances of
supernatural formation were traced by Carlisle through four
successive generations from Zerah Colburn to his great grandmother.
This woman had five fingers and a thumb on each hand, and six toes on
each foot. She had eleven children, ten of whom are said to have had
the same peculiarity complete; but one daughter, the grandmother of
the Zerah, had one of her hands naturally formed. Of the next
generation there were four persons. Abiah, the boy's father, and two
others, had the peculiarity complete; but one of his uncles was like
the grandmother, with one hand natural. The generation under study
were eight in number, of whom four were naturally formed as their
mother; the rest, including Zerah the calculator, had the peculiarity
complete, with the exception of his eldest brother, who had one of
his feet naturally formed. Carlisle had observed they were peculiar
structures of hereditary decent and was acknowledging it was a
natural event, whereas many at that time were taught by the Church it
was punishment by a Divine Being for human actions. Carlisle
surgically removed the extra fingers from Zerah in 1815<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
and Carlisle, Basil Montagu, and Humphry Davy helped Zerah write an
autobiography.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In his 1813 paper,
Carlisle anticipated genetic analysis and genetic variation, when he
stated;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.62cm;">
<br />
In particular breeds
of animals the characteristic signs are generally continued, whether
they belong to the horns of kine, the fleeces of sheep, the
proportions of horses, the extensive varieties of dogs, or the ears
of swine. In China the varieties of gold or silver fishes are
carefully propagated, and with us what are vulgarly called 'fancy
pigeons' are bred into most whimsical deviations from their parent
stock. As wild animals and plants are not liable to the same
variations, and as all the variations seem to increase with the
degree of artificial restraint imposed, and as certain animals become
adapted by extraordinary changes to extraordinary conditions, <u>it
may still be expected that some leading fact will eventually furnish
a clue by which organic varieties may be better explained</u>.
[my emphasis] A few generations of wild rabbits, or of pheasants,
under the influences of confinement break their natural colours, and
leave the fur and feathers of their future progeny uncertainly
variegated. The very remarkable changes of the colour of the fur of
the hare, and of the feathers of the partridge, in high northern
latitudes, during the prevalence of the snow, <u>and
the adaptation of that change of colour to their better security, are
coincidences out of the course of chance</u>
[my emphasis] and not easily explained by our present state of
physical knowledge.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Carlisle elaborated
on extreme variation from the feral state in fancy pigeon breeding;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
A paper has been
read at the meeting of the Royal Society, by Anthony Carlisle, Esq.
<i>On Monstrosity in the Human Species.</i> The author detailed a
number of examples of monstrosity , hereditary in particular
families, and propagated from one generation to another. All
monstrosity he conceives to take place only in cases where artificial
civilization of man has interfered. Thus varieties of dogs, pigeons,
&c. are easily propagated.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
Carlisle discounted
the importance of artificial breeding fancy pigeon varieties as an
explanation for the natural variations in species. However, when
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) published “On the Origin of Species”
in 1858, the first chapter he discusses the breeding of pigeon
varieties by breeders as a foundation of his theory. In doing so,
Darwin rejected Carlisle's view of the importance of differentiating
between natural and artificial breeding. On 20
November 1815, Carlisle delivered his second RA lecture demonstrating
common links between man and animals, and indicating the breadth of
his study, later a building block for Alfred Russel Wallace
(1823-1913) and Darwin. The lecture being given eight years before
Wallace was born, and when Darwin was only six years old.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Mr Carlisle here
continued his miscellaneous observations on the utility of anatomy,
particularly that branch called comparative, to students in art, and
illustrated the system of the bones and skeleton, comparing the human
frame with those of animals, birds, and fishes. This collection, he
observed was a very small one, part of a larger that was open to the
students every Monday, but was sufficient for his purpose. <u>The
analogy between the race of men and of apes was very striking</u>,
[my emphasis] and in all the others very apparent; particularly the
joints of the neck, which in all quadrupeds amount, to seven. The
cameleopard [giraffe], whose gigantic frame support a neck ten feet
in length, has but seven vertebrae in the neck; and the mole, whose
neck is scarcely a quarter of an inch in length, has also seven. He
continued his comparisons much farther, and we regret that our limits
will admit of no more than a few examples. Man and the other climbing
animals have the clavicle, or collar bone; and prone, or creeping
quadrupeds, are destitute of it. Many animals which appear destitute
of certain limbs or organs have them imperfectly developed; as the
lump-like tail of the seal, a skeleton of which he exhibited, contain
the elements of legs and a tail, but hidden by a fat webby membrane;
the fin-like feet of the turtle contain the bones of the carpus and
metacarpus, mid the bones of the fingers or toes; and the wings of
most birds the bones of the upper arm and the two bones of the
forearm and the five bones of the fingers that spread the wings and
give them a motion similar to the pronation and supernation of the
human arm.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Hence unlike Darwin,
Carlisle was unafraid to describe man as just one of the natural
species. The next year, 1816, Carlisle inferred again that man was
just one among numberless species;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
We shall do more
justice to it by presenting, as nearly as possible in the Professor's
own words, the following remarks on the classification of natural
objects, with which he premised an account of the natural history of
man. <u>“The animal creation presents an immense series of beings,
linked together by various points of family resemblance, and again
subdivided into different species, by distinguishing marks.</u> [my
emphasis] From the earliest periods of civilization, men have
attempted to class and name the several creatures which surround
them. Increasing leisure has brought the most minute and apparently
the most insignificant cant animals under rational consideration; and
a relation and harmonious dependence has been discovered among the
whole, contrary to that seeming confusion which ignorance attributes
to misrule or to chance. The beautiful order of nature has tempted
the vanity of man into a belief that he might catalogue all the
objects of creation, and unite his arts to the laws of unvarying
power. These are the dreams of philosophy.<br />
Experience informs us,
that the numberless species of natural objects are assimilated to
each other by shades of connection, which the gross organs and the
limited intellect of man are unable to discriminate. It is impossible
to distinguish and name the several specimens of creation, as if they
had been formed into distinct sets, and were well marked different
links of a definite chain; instead of being as they are a continuous
series. The infinite approaches of similitude in natural things, and
the endless deviations which are discovered by every attempt to class
them together, only adds another convincing proof of the immeasurable
qualities of infinite power. Nor has the idle epithet of imperfect
creatures, as applied to simple animals, any better foundation than
the vulgar nickname of monster, as applied to every strange and
unfamiliar living thing. In the great work of infinite wisdom, there
is no imperfection: each object is exactly fitted to its destiny; and
the immense order of successive generation moves on with unerring,
irresistible, unchanging precision”.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Although Carlisle
refers to 'unchanging precision', it is clear from his other comments
he recognised that variations to this 'unchanging precision' could,
and did, arise within the embryo. At this time, even Sir Joseph Banks
accepted the wording of the Bible. Reading between the lines of a
letter of January 1816 written by Banks it appears Carlisle submitted
a paper to the Royal Society which addressed evolution, but it was
rejected by the Society, thereby causing a rift;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br />
Thus, the noble
creature man, is the destined prey of the head louse, the body louse
& the crab louse, neither of which can exist in any other
situation than on the human body. Of course, as man was the last work
of Creation, he must have maintained all these animals until he had a
wife who might release him from supporting one or two of them; but
till Abel, the younger brother of Cain, was born, there were not more
men than lice destined to feed upon them. But enough of this
nonsense. <u>Until an actual experiment has taught us that an animal
can proceed from another without having been created or begotten,
what inducement can we have for believing that possible from abstract
reasoning which appears impossible from actual experiment? Carlisle
has not entered my house since the Committee of Papers of the RS
refused to print a paper of his</u>, [my emphasis] &, I am told,
has declared that he never will. I hear that he is employed in
hatching a publication in which countenance will be given to those
equivocal doctrines, but I do not hear of one experiment he has to
produce in favour of his doctrine.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Neil Chambers
reports that; 'Carlisle's paper was not published in the
<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, and there is no record of it in
the Royal Society archives. Of this, Banks said; 'I do not think I
have been misinformed about Carlisle's pique against me. He certainly
has not darkened my door since the Committee of Papers of the RS
declined to print his work. Why I should endure personal punishment
for a sin in which 12 or 14 persons participated, I do not
comprehend. It proves, however, that Carlisle has a potato in his
head, which he uses occasionally instead of his brains'. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The negative
reaction shows the Royal Society was wedded to the Biblical story of
Creation. Hence, as is often the case with academia, there was
antipathy to new ideas in conflict with the Bible. The content of the
declined Carlisle paper referred to by Banks is unknown, but a
portion likely features in Carlisle's; <i>“On the Connexion between
the Leaves and Fruit of Vegetables with other Physiological
Observations”, </i>which recognised the significance of genetic
variation in new species; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
By an accurate
observance of these characteristics, new seedling varieties may be
partly estimated in an early stage, and the known kinds of fruit
trees better distinguished when they are not in bearing. ... The
local influence of mountainous situations, and of a bleak aspect,
which stunt the foliage, affect both the fruits and the growth of
timber, in all trees. The ravages of herbivorous insects, and of
parasitical fungi, are thus also indirectly mischievous to fruits.
... Even the diversity of the seasons, between one year and another,
gives rise to noticeable alterations in the qualities of the produce
from the same trees. Perhaps a further advancement in the knowledge
of vegetable nature may enable the scientific gardener to govern the
foliage of his trees by artificial methods, so as to adapt them
better to the vicissitudes of locality, and to the production of the
more desirable fruits.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
In the same paper,
Carlisle recognised related similarities of function between plants
and animals. He even alludes to the Biblical creation story as an
'occult cause', nearly forty years prior to the famous Oxford Union
debate of 1860 on evolution, and so perhaps the very claim that upset
Banks;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br />
The leaves of plants
have been compared to the lungs of animals, upon a very few slender
analogies: but the additional offices known to be performed by
leaves, show them to be also allied to the digestive and assimilating
organs. Assuredly the leaves of vegetables very generally perform the
offices of animal stomachs; as when they convert the raw materials of
vegetable nutriment into a new and peculiar substance for building up
the fabric of plants. …<br />
The greatest number of resemblances between
plants and animals are to be found in those of the most simple
structure in both kingdoms; and in all such instances the governing
influence of physical causes is strikingly obvious; whereas, under a
complexity of organic textures, <u>we are apt to put aside the only
natural causes which we are permitted to comprehend, and to attribute
the phoenomena to an occult cause, known under the ill-defined term,
vitality.</u><span style="text-decoration: none;"> [my emphasis]</span>
Assuredly, the leaves of vegetables very generally perform the
offices of animal stomachs; as when they convert the raw material of
vegetable nutriment into a new and peculiar substance for building up
the fabric of plants. The extensive variety of new compounds which
different plants contain, are elaborated from nearly the same kind of
raw material; and doubtless the vast variety of vegetable leaves is
in each species adapted to their special secretions. It is probable,
that the novelty of these statements may give rise to controversial
opinions; but since I only adduce them as connected with general
views, and not as universal truths, my object will be fully attained
if they occasion any new series of accurate and decisive experiments,
being myself wholly indifferent as to the side on which truth is
ultimately to rest, provided it be clearly elicited. <u>My individual
power, or ability, to prosecute these and similar researches, is
forbidden by a hopeless want of leisure</u>. [my emphasis] I
therefore gladly concede the task to those who are better
circumstanced.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In his book, <i>"Intermarriage"</i>, Walker quoted a letter from Carlisle, on the effects of inbreeding;
The marriages of high rank and of hereditary wealth are generally concocted in their munificent rooms, where the estates of heirs and heiresses are entailed, together with the personal peculiarities, moral defects, and hereditary diseases of each family, and perpetuated as far as law, sheep-skins, signings and seals can extend them. <u>Hence the frequent termination of such inbred races</u>; [my emphasis – i.e. extinction] while in every ancient village of considerable, though not shifting population, the names of humble families have continued for more ages, although ill recorded, than those of the proudest gentry.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
Carlisle's comment was perceptive, in April 2009, news media reported results of a study of the Spanish branch of the family tree of the Hapsburgs. Scientists found that the last Spanish Hapsburg king, Charles II who died in 1700, was almost as genetically inbred as an incestuous relationship between a brother and sister, or a parent and child.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<b>Selecting the Fit</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
While
able to speak fairly openly, Carlisle had to tread a careful line in
publishing his views. As Surgeon Extraordinary to the Prince Regent,
later King George IV, he was ministering to the Head of the Church of
England. Although himself an atheist, Carlisle could not openly
publish in a manner in conflict with Church teachings. Hence although
his many papers taken together, illustrate the breadth and perceptive
nature of his thinking, Carlisle's two medical books had to be on a
subject less controversial, old age. But he still sought to
understand the principles behind life, delivering
two Hunterian Orations, in 1820 and 1826, which both grouped man with
all other living bodies: </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.55cm; margin-right: 0.51cm;">
<br />
The causes which
rule <u>the
complex phenomena of living bodies are not apparent in any single
species of creature</u>;
[my emphasis] but the interesting diversity of textures and
compositions dispersed through the animal race, are so many
connecting links, that they almost seem designed to tempt the
curiosity of man, and to lead his rational faculties into these
scientific considerations which must eventually render our Art both
more profound and more efficacious.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
…. The
constitution of organized bodies is yet imperfectly understood; but,
if we patiently wait until the inward history of living creatures is
more extensively shown, and until chemistry has developed the
essentials of their composition, we or our followers must be rewarded
by more satisfactory views. .. 'In some animals the parts ordained to
perform definite offices, are simple, distinct, and homogeneous; in
others they occur intermixed with adventitious, auxiliary, or
subordinate structures; so that nothing short of a copious and
particular knowledge of these facts can lead to any physiological
theory. <u>The
whole of these contemplations invariably lead to conclusive proofs of
the strict adaptation between animal structures and their functions</u>;
[my emphasis] and while the wisdom of this moral governance, and the
supreme order of Providence command our adoration, we may be
permitted to manage our research and cogitations respecting those
natural events, which comprise the most important information for the
improvement of surgery.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
… From
the precious remains of the writings of Aristotle, it appears that he
deemed the anatomical analysis of the whole living creation to be the
only way to obtain rational views of the laws animal nature; and Lord
Bacon, Dr Harvey, Baron Haller, and our Hunter, have since riveted
the attention of medical philosophers to that study. Those great men,
observing the complex structure of the human frame, and the
occasional singleness of texture in many others, wisely sought to
remedy this obstruction to human anatomy, by inspecting the detached
parts of organic mechanism, as they frequently occur in many humble
creatures. ..the knowledge of zootomy and human anatomy are
indissoluble, as they reciprocally support each other.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
We
have noted Carlisle's atheism. The manner in which he refers to the
'supreme order of Providence' gives
the impression of a man taking insurance, as did Darwin many years
later, to minimise the risk of heresy. Carlisle stressed the risks of
inter-breeding and its consequent effect on species, in letters he
wrote in 1838 to Alexander Walker where Carlisle used the phrase
'selecting the fit', twenty-six years before Herbert Spencer
(1820-1903) wrote of 'survival of the fittest' in his <i>"Principles
of Biology"</i>
of 1864, and twenty years before Darwin wrote <i>"On
the Origin of Species"</i>.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
The highly
interesting subject upon which you are writing is remarkably suited
to the passing time in our country. Our aristocracy, by exclusive
intermarriages among ancient families, proceed blindly to breed in
contempt of deformities, of feeble intellect, or of hereditary
madness, under the instigation of pride or the love of wealth, until
their race becomes extinct; while another portentous cause, that of
unwholesome factories, threatens to deteriorate the once brave
manhood of England. I believe that, among mankind, as well as
domesticated animals, <u>there
are physical</u>
and moral<u>
influences which may be regulated so as to improve or predispose both
the corporeal</u>
and moral aptitudes,<u>and
certainly the most obvious course is that of selecting the fit</u>
[my emphasis] progenitors of both sexes.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<i>The
Lancet</i> [NB after Wakley's death!] selected the first sentence below
in reviewing Darwin's 1868 volume,<i>“The Variation of Animals and
Plants under Domestication.”</i>;<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Gait,
gestures, voice, and general bearing are all inherited, as the
illustrious Hunter and Sir A Carlisle have insisted ... Instead of
giving numerous details on various inherited malformations and
diseases, I will confine myself to one organ, that which is the most
complex, delicate, and probably best-known in the human frame,
namely, the eye, with its accessory parts. To begin with the latter:
I have heard of a family in which parents and children were affected
by drooping eyelids, in so peculiar a manner, that they could not see
without throwing their heads backwards; and Sir A. Carlisle specifies
a pendulous fold to the eyelids as inherited. … Many other
deviations of structure, of a nature almost as anomalous as
supernumerary digits, such as deficient phalanges, thickened joints,
crooked fingers, &c., are in like manner strongly inherited, and
are equally subject to intermission with reversion, though in such
cases there is no reason to suppose that both parents had been
similarly affected'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Carlisle's
detailed study of the humble oyster, culminating in his 1826
Hunterian Oration on The Oyster, was inspiration on the 1831-1836
<i>Beagle</i>
voyage for Darwin's study of the barnacle, a similar mollusc, which
Darwin resumed in detail between 1846 and 1854.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<b>Iconography
and John Hunter</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Passing
mention of Carlisle,
understating his work, was made in the 1979 Hunterian Oration; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br />
A most significant
example of the evolutionary trend in Hunter's work is included in the
famous portrait by Reynolds, where the centre-piece of the background
is the folio of drawings demonstrating Hunter's concept of the
evolutionary series associated with the head and hand of man. The
significance of this was first noted by Sir Anthony Carlisle.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.06cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Keith describes the
details of the items in Hunter's portrait in his article and the
overall painting;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.64cm;">
<br />
Thus we can see that
in choosing the items in the background of his portrait Hunter
exercised great care. In the opened folio, showing the graded series
of 'hands' and 'heads', we see him as a philosopher of natural
objects; the two closed books bound in sheepskin represent him as
botanist and as geologist; the rare pulmonary preparation under the
glass shade as pathologist; the drawing under his elbow as
philosophical anatomist; the 'wet' preparation as experimental
surgeon; and the giant's legs as a collector of Nature's wonders.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-style: normal;"> </span></span><br />
<br />
In Sir Joshua's picture of John Hunter; he has intelligently portrayed
his pursuits by the two exposed plates; one displays a series of
forelimbs, from the simplest foot to the human <span style="font-style: normal;"><u>hand</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;">.
In the opposite plate he ranges the human skull first, and descends
to the quadruped with least </span><span style="font-style: normal;"><u>brains</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;">.
His elbow rests on a white paper showing </span><span style="font-style: normal;"><u>radiated
lines</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;"> from a large
periphery and terminating in a point (the facial angles of the
different skulls. WC) next to his </span><span style="font-style: normal;"><u>elbow</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;">.
The Mss books are:</span><br />
- Natural History of Animals<br />
- Natural History of Vegetables<br />
In
the background is the skeleton of the Great Giant, and the example of
a <u> spliced</u> spine by an ossific prep. - Written by Sir Anthony Carlisle during
the Court of Examiners, July 22nd, 1831. Given to me July 25 by Mr
Balfour W C - William Clift<u><span style="color: #0000ee;">.</span></u><u>[</u>Later
scholarship has slightly revised the titles of the books.]'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The six skulls were
identified as those of; European man, Australian aborigine, young
chimpanzee, macaque monkey, dog and lastly, that of a crocodile. The
portrait was painted in 1788 when Carlisle was a student of Hunter
and at the RA, thus assisted with the composition. In the top right
of the portrait is the leg of the Irish Giant (Great Giant), which
Carlisle helped Hunter to assemble, and is mentioned in Carlisle's
novel, Oakendale Abbey. In describing Hunter's portrait, Carlisle
recognised the importance of iconography in art, as with his own
portrait by Sir Martin Archer Shee. </div>
<br />
Qvist went on to
quote the 1971 Hunterian Oration by Sir Hedley Atkins who discussed
the question of priorities between Darwin and others in establishing
the theory of evolution;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
He
came to the conclusion that the attribution of credit should go to
the man who not only had the inspiration but possessed, the
diligence, the industry and the basic knowledge to work out and
present the concept in all its detail in a manner that no reasonable
man thereafter could, within the assessable evidence of the day,
challenge it. ... We should doubtless agree with his conclusion that
pride of place in establishing the theory of evolution should go to
Darwin, but on a Hunterian occasion like this, perhaps a little
sentimental licence may be allowed and the suggestion made that if
John Hunter had been able to come back and read Darwin's work, he
might have said: 'But I knew all this a hundred years ago. You have
described in your books but I have demonstrated it in my museum'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
It
is likely Carlisle would have expressed a similar opinion. Carlisle
referred to experiments to show parallels between nerves and sight in
responding to John Fearn on 7 September 1832;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
That
our mental perception of sensible impressions does not abide in the
part, or organ, where the material impress first impinges is, I
think, demonstrable to common sense; and, also, the forms of visual
images, as well as their different properties or qualities called
colour, are merely different modes of tact upon the retina, which is
organically provided as a fit place to note all the circumstances of
light, colour, and figure. ... The anatomical facts appear to be
these: certain nerves which are part and parcel of the brain, emanate
from that organ, (doubtless the seat of the mind,) and are continued
to the ends of the fingers. These continuations of the material of
the brain, are provided and ready to receive the various impressions
alluded to, and they are the mere conductors of all such impressions;
but their final terminations in the brain itself connect the seat of
sensations with the depository where perception obtains, and in which
there are special depositories belonging to each especial organ of
sense, and for every sensible living structure, the conscious
presiding mind there receives its several intelligences, and directs
its subjected automata accordingly. … <u>Both
human anatomy and comparative anatomy exhibit a manifest
correspondence</u>
[my emphasis] between the instrumental organs of vision, hearing and
smelling, and peculiar structures in the brain; and the damage of any
one of these perceptite structures paralyzes the sense to which it
belongs.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<b>Embystic
evolution </b>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
At
age 70, in 1838, only two years before his death, he
presented a paper worthy of careful study, although a difficulty in giving due credit to Carlisle is
that he was so much at the forefront of research, he needed to
coin words and phrases to fit his original concepts. Those words and phrases have since been replaced by terms "re-coined" as new terms by subsequent researchers, to Carlisle's detriment, as his pioneering and original work has been overlooked. <br />
<br />
For example he refers to
“embrystic evolution” [i.e. evolution of the embryo] showing his
belief the divergence of species was initiated by changes at an
embryonic level. His term “embrystic evolution” is startlingly
similar to modern definitions of the evolutionary process, such as;
biological evolution, genetic evolution, or organic evolution. His
view "they always originate under physical direction", foreshadows
modern genetic science, as we are now taught new species occur from
random, natural, mutations in reproduction of the DNA genetic strand.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
For the advancement
of natural knowledge, and for the improvement of organic physiology,
it may be useful to collect and to collate various evidences, in
order to establish the laws which direct the formation of similar
figures in different bodies. … For the better understanding of
physiological, and consequently of pathological phenomena, it is very
important to distinguish between physical causes of general
influence, and the especial or peculiar causes termed vital, which
belong conjointly to organized living bodies; <span style="text-decoration: none;">and
the facts now submitted must, </span><u>I believe, lead to more exact
and practical discriminations as to the causes of embrystic evolution, the growth of organized parts,</u><span style="text-decoration: none;">
the reparation of lesions,</span><u> and morbid deviations from
natural structure</u>.<span style="text-decoration: none;"> If it be
granted that </span><u>arborescing vessels are only gross
accommodations or appliances of convenience in animal function, and
that they always originate under physical direction,</u><span style="text-decoration: none;">
[my emphasis] and not from a vital or mysterious necessity, we may
assume to have made one step further in natural knowledge</span>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Given Carlisle's
keen study of inherited mutations and his interest in arborescing
vessels, it seems clear he saw a connection between them. That is, he
was thinking about inherited traits, and how they sometimes reappear
in following generations, and sometimes disappear, leading to
permanent physiological changes, or even to extinction, implicitly in
both human and animal lines of descent.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
<i>Literary Gazette</i> described a paper, <i>Physiological Observations
upon Glandular Structures and their different secerning </i>[secreting]<i>
Offices</i>, which Carlisle wrote in 1838. He concluded that what we
now call genetic mutations, can lead to 'extermination' [his term] of
a species; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
The author pays a
deserved regard to the importance of uniting anatomical evidences
with the modern advances made in organic chemistry, and he shews
that, although some of the constituent materials of animals and
vegetables are alike, in their physical properties, and also, in many
instances in their chemical composition, yet the grosser fabrication
of large animals and of large vegetables is dissimilar. Sir Anthony
thinks that it is among the examples of the <u>intimate connexion
between the peculiar transient compounds of living bodies, and the
better known chemical combinations in purely mineral bodies, that we
may hope to discover the different workings of vital influences</u>,
[my emphasis] mingled with those governed by physical laws. … The
following quotation [by Carlisle] may place our author's views in a
proper light. ...</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
Both the animal
and the vegetable creation present equally simple and uniform
constructions, which effect remarkably dissimilar secretions, and, in
other instances, without possessing a similarity of organisation, or
being acted upon by apparently similar agencies, they produce similar
compounds; nor is the subject elucidated by imputing them to the
mysterious principle of life. ... <u>In those complicated creatures
which are invested with combined moral and physical attributes, the
organisation is varied according to the station assigned to each
species, and to their numerous subordinate parts; and, although not
of hourly service to the individual, they are essential for the
intended duration of life, and for the assurance of a continuance of
the species; since, if these minor provisions had been omitted, the
needful continuance of each species would have been uncertain, and
thus the relations and the dependencies of the living creation would
have been liable to derangement, and a chance medley of confusion be
extended, in some instances, even to extermination</u>,<u> so as to
supersede the inexorable system of perpetuity, established tinder the
primary laws of nature.</u>[my emphasis] <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Carlisle never
published his theory of evolution as a single paper, but available
extracts from his research made over a period of 50 years, show he
anticipated the key aspects of our current view of genetics. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.31cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
<br />
1792 - <i>nature has
not intended any situation to be vacant, where it was possible to
carry on the work of multiplying the species of living beings</i>.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.31cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
1801 - <i><u>t</u></i><i><span style="text-decoration: none;">he
formation and growth of animals in the uterus, are independent of any
influence from those parts of their brain which properly belong to
sensation.</span></i></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.31cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
1813 - <i><span style="text-decoration: none;">there
was a time when there were animals in the world not now known, and
that before Man was created</span></i></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.31cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
1813 - <i>it might
be attended with the most important consequences, if discovery could
be made of the relative influence of the male and female sex in the
propagation of peculiarities, and the course and extent of hereditary
character could be ascertained,</i></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.31cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
1813 - There is
doubtless <i>a general system in even the errors of nature</i>, as is
abundantly evinced by the regular series of monstrosity exhibited
both in animals and vegetables.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.31cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
1815 - Man and the
other climbing animals have the clavicle, or collar bone; and prone,
or creeping quadrupeds, are destitute of it.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.31cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
1816 - <i>The
animal creation presents an immense series of beings, linked together
by various points of family resemblance, and again subdivided into
different species, by distinguishing marks.</i></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.31cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
1816 - the
numberless species of natural objects are assimilated to each other
by shades of connection, which the gross organs and the limited
intellect of man are unable to discriminate. <i>It is impossible to
distinguish and name the several specimens of creation, as if they
had been formed into distinct sets, and were well marked different
links of a definite chain; instead of being as they are a continuous
series</i>.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.31cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
1822 - <i><span style="font-weight: normal;">My
individual power, or ability, to prosecute these and similar
researches, is forbidden by a hopeless want of leisure.</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">
</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.31cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
1826 - <i>these
contemplations invariably lead to conclusive proofs of the strict
adaptation between animal structures and their functions</i>.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.33cm;">
1838 - there are
physical ... influences which may be regulated so as to improve or
predispose the corporeal ...aptitudes, and certainly the most obvious
course is that of <i>selecting the fit</i>. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.33cm;">
1838 - more exact
and practical discriminations as to the causes of <i><span style="text-decoration: none;">embrystic
evolution</span></i> </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.33cm;">
1838 - arborescing
vessels … <i>always originate under physical direction</i></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.33cm;">
1838 - <i><span style="text-decoration: none;">
In those complicated creatures which are invested with combined moral
and physical attributes, the organisation is varied according to the
station assigned to each species, and to their numerous subordinate
parts; and, although not of hourly service to the individual, they
are essential for the intended duration of life, and for the
assurance of a continuance of the species; since, if these minor
provisions had been omitted, the needful continuance of each species
would have been uncertain, and thus the relations and the
dependencies of the living creation would have been liable to
derangement, and a chance medley of confusion be extended, in some
instances, even to extermination, so as to supersede the inexorable
system of perpetuity, established under the primary laws of nature.</span></i>”</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
We have noted that
Carlisle rarely fully wrote up his findings as he had moved onto to other challenges, seemingly once he considered a challenge resolved. Thus he did not leave a coherent and ordered explanation of his
views. Nor had he the benefit of a family member, or a disciple, who sought to record Carlisle's life and his endeavours for posterity. But his perceptive theory of evolution can be summarised in an
italicised selection of his words from the above. It is noteworthy
how few extraneous words are required;<b> </b><br />
<br />
<b>Carlisle's
Theory of Evolution </b>(i.e. largely his own words as he used in his writings)<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
There was a time when there were animals in the world not now known, and
that before Man was created. It is impossible to distinguish and name
the several specimens of creation, as if they had been formed into
distinct sets, and were well marked different links of a definite
chain; instead of being as they are a continuous series. The animal
creation presents an immense series of beings, linked together by
various points of family resemblance, and again subdivided into
different species, by distinguishing marks. The formation and growth
of animals in the uterus, are independent of any influence from those
parts of their brain which properly belong to sensation. It might be
attended with the most important consequences, if discovery could be
made of the relative influence of the male and female sex in the
propagation of peculiarities, and the course and extent of hereditary
character could be ascertained. <i>Embrystic evolution and selecting
the fit</i>,derive <i>a general system in even the errors of nature</i>, whence nature
has not intended any situation to be vacant, where it was possible to
carry on the work of multiplying the species of living beings. These
contemplations invariably lead to conclusive proofs of the strict
adaptation between animal structures and their functions which<i>
always originate under physical direction</i>. <i>In those
complicated creatures which are invested with combined moral and
physical attributes, the organisation is varied according to the
station assigned to each species, and to their numerous subordinate
parts; and, although not of hourly service to the individual, they
are essential for the intended duration of life, and for the
assurance of a continuance of the species; since, if these minor
provisions had been omitted, the needful continuance of each species
would have been uncertain, and thus the relations and the
dependencies of the living creation would have been liable to
derangement, and a chance medley of confusion be extended, in some
instances, even to </i><i><span style="text-decoration: none;">extermination</span></i><i>,
so as to supersede the inexorable system of perpetuity, established
tinder the primary laws of nature.</i> <i><span style="font-weight: normal;">My
individual power, or ability, to prosecute these and similar
researches, is forbidden by a hopeless want of leisure.</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">
</span>
</div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Commonly
used terms to describe evolution in the 21C are “natural selection”
and “survival of the fittest” While describing the effects on
living creatures, the terms do not address why new variations in
species arise. We now know it is due to natural mutations in DNA
causing embryonic mutation, with new stronger variants surviving.
Although he could not be aware of DNA, his references to <i>even
the errors of nature,</i>,<i>embrystic
evolution,</i>,
and <i>
extermination</i>
reconcile modern knowledge of mutation with Carlisle's views. His
insight is powerful, in recognising that even errors of nature, i.e.
mutations, to be inherited by a new sub-species, have arisen by the
embryo stage. That is, a new sub-specie or variant, is created in the
womb, and not as a physical modification resulting from interaction
with physical stimuli during life.<br />
<br />
In this concept Carlisle was ahead
of Charles Darwin, who could not explain the source of the heritable
variations which would be acted on by natural selection. Like
Lamarck, Darwin thought that parents passed on adaptations acquired
during their lifetimes. More significantly,
Darwin could not account for how traits were passed down from
generation to generation. It was not until 1865 that Gregor Mendel
showed that traits were inherited in a predictable manner, but
Carlisle had anticipated this with his comment on embrystic
evolution.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
It is frustrating
that, in contrast to Charles Darwin, Carlisle's personal papers appear not to have survived, so it is necessary to reconstruct his research from
published fragments of his work. Hence details are sketchy, with the
lack of his papers the main reason his contribution to the theory of
evolution has been overlooked. In contrast to many of his scientific
contemporaries, such as Darwin, Carlisle was not wealthy; so had to
devote much time to earning a living. This economic interruption,
coupled with novel insights and concepts from his fertile brain,
prompted him to embark upon bursts of research in multiple areas,
rather than a life-long dedication for one subject. While it may be
inappropriate to claim Carlisle's thoughts on evolution as
comprehensive as those of Wallace or Darwin, he should be recognised
as building an important bridge between the evolutionary efforts of
Hunter, and those of Wallace and Darwin and, in some aspects,
thinking beyond them. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>The Hunterian
Collection and Other Research</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Richard
Owen (1804-1892) gave lectures on anatomy at Barts from 1828 until
1835, officially becoming Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy for the
last year. He was also assistant to Clift, conservator at the
Hunterian Museum, and it was Owen who coined the word 'dinosaur'. As
RCS President, Carlisle wrote Owen a letter suggesting that holding
dual posts would jeopardise his future at the college. Owen accepted
this and resigned his lectureship at Barts. In 1836 Darwin wrote to
Carlisle stating his understanding from the conservators that a
series of fossil bones collected during the voyage of HM Surveying
Vessel <i>“Beagle”</i> possessed a peculiar interest for the College. Also it had always
been his intention to present such bones to some public collection
and he should be most happy to present the entire series to the RCS.<br />
<br />
In December 1836 Carlisle replied to Darwin; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
Dear Sir, </div>
I
have had the satisfaction to submit your Letter of the 19th to the
Board of Curators who expressed their entire approval of the terms
and conditions annexed to your highly liberal offer of your valuable
specimens of South American fossil remains. The Board have
recommended their acceptance to the next Council of the College, and
I hope that you will soon receive their decision.<br />
Your
much obliged Servant, Anthony
Carlisle.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
In
the minute accompanying the meeting of the Curators, Owen stated the
fossil remains were highly desirable for the collection. Thus, it was
resolved that Darwin's donations to the museum be accepted.
The enthusiasm of Owen for the fossils from South America was a
little ironic, as Owen later became fiercely opposed to Charles
Darwin and his theory of evolution, leading to Owen being viewed as
old-fashioned, and eventually, to his academic downfall.</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Darwin
presented a collection of fish specimens prepared by Carlisle to the
RCS museum. They comprised specimens of the Calcareous Concretions
from the ear-sac of fishes originally prepared and presented by
Carlisle, who was a
keen fisherman from his childhood years and who introduced Humphry
Davy to fishing, as conveyed by Edward Chitty (1804-1863); </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
I need notice no
more striking instance of this than the conversion of Sir Humphry
Davy, who handled a fly-rod, at all events, for the first time when
he was Professor of the Royal Institution; although he did so, under
the preceptorship of one who might, perhaps, remember the use of
thread and a bent pin in childhood, my late esteemed friend Sir
Anthony Carlisle. The bare mention of such name, is surely enough at
once to deaden the barb of derision.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In fact Carlisle was regarded as an expert fisherman. 'In a branch of [the Ouse] river near Cheneys Sir Anthony Carlisle, one of the most skilful fly-fishers in England, once killed sixty brace of trout in a few hours.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a> Carlisle may have visited The Compleat Angler inn at Marlow, the village where Mary Shelley lived while writing Frankenstein. In 1837, Carlisle wrote to Alexander Walker on his experiments with the cross-breeding of fish species, which he had undertook around 1800;
"More than thirty years since, the breeding of trout was tried by impregnating their ova in confined water-cages made to protect the young against their natural enemies. ... I undertook to try to breed those mule fishes, known to be a produce between male trouts and salmon roe, or the reverse. I accordingly procured a quart jug full of ripe salmon roe from the freshest fish just arrived at Billingsgate, in the month of January; and I proceeded with them directly to Carshalton, where they were carefully deposited by a man who waded into the stream and raked the ova among the gravel in the trout spawning gravel heaps. In the month of April a new sort of fish appeared, for the first time, in that river, which proved to be the mules, called skeggers, in the Thames, smelts, in the north of England rivers, and gravel-last-springs, in many of the western and southern counties. They were in this case very abundant; and apparently their numbers corresponded with the salmon spawn deposited in the trout gravel-hills. These mules never appear but where salmon invade the breeding gravel-hills of trout; and, in my experiment, the impregnators were necessarily male trouts, because salmon never pass the mills upon the Wandle. The influence of the male trout in this instance was therefore unquestionable. These mules partook of the character of trout more than of salmon. They had bright red spots on their sides; but the black colour was shaded downward in bars, like those of the perch. The tails were not forked like those of the salmon, as I have seen them in the Thames skeggers, (from which I infer the male salmon, in that case, to have been the impregnators)".<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Carlisle's view that common eels procreated in the sea, was expressed
by him in the early 19C;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br />
Sir A Carlisle having ... suggested to several naturalists that the
common eel procreated, exclusively, in the sea ... He grounds his
opinion on the fact, which he states to be notorious, that 'the
common eel is never taken in fresh water, with either male or female
organs distinctly formed'. He says, they descend the rivers towards
the sea; and are then caught in weirs &c; but those grown eels
never return up the rivers, and therefore perish in the ocean. ... He
concludes with a suggestion, that the river eels require some years
of sea growth, before they acquire the sexual parts; but no degree of
fresh water growth develops those organs in a river eel.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Although
Carlisle's theory was discounted for many years, his view was
endorsed in 2009;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.39cm; margin-right: 0.36cm;">
<br />
It is generally
accepted that European eels, Anguilla anguilla, are born in the
Sargasso Sea near Bermuda. As leaf-like larvae, they are swept by the
Gulf Stream towards Europe, a journey that may take a year. When the
larvae reach the continental shelf they change into "glass eels"
and in the spring begin to move through estuaries and into
freshwater. … When the fish reach full maturity - some can live to
40 and grow to 1m long - they migrate back to the ocean.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.39cm; margin-right: 0.36cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Carlisle
was an early natural philosopher who saw the collection of scientific
data as important, even without an obvious use for such data. An
early example, showing the breadth of his interests, is found in a
letter he wrote in 1804 to Nicholson's <i> "Journal of Natural
Philosophy" </i>concerning sea temperatures around the world;
'Dear Sir, The following table was made by Mr R Perrins, surgeon on
the Honourable East India Company's establishment during a voyage to
Bombay in the year 1800. The temperatures in this table were noted at
my request, from a desire to determine whether fishes possess any
other temperature than that of the water in which they live, the
negative being asserted by Linnaeus. As, however, this imperfect
journal may assist in similar researches, I beg leave to offer it for
the use of your periodical work'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
The tables show daily atmospheric temperatures, collated with those
of seawater taken while on board, <i>"Skelton Castle"</i>.
It would be interesting to compare the temperatures with recent
readings, to see the effect of global warming. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<b>Cholera</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
was prepared to speak his mind forcefully on any subject. So
forcefully, that his opinions were resented by the medical
establishment and often ignored. A good example of this is seen in
his views on cholera, where a pandemic raged between 1816-1826,
although it did not reach London. By July 1831, there was increasing
concern about cholera, with Carlisle publicly ridiculed;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
We
perceive that the College of Physicians has decided on the <i>extreme</i>
contagious character of cholera, and has recommended quarantine
regulations, as strict as if the plague were the disease in question.
... We need scarcely allude to the inane or rather insane
speculations of Sir Anthony Carlisle. A more direct puff was never
sent forth from Warrens manufactory or Ely Place! It is contemptible
in the highest degree.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
The
medical confusion over the cause of cholera is seen in a cartoon from
1832. It is possible one of those depicted is intended as Carlisle.
Their comments include; “The scent lies strong, do you see
anything?' and “Positively we must do something; it wont do to lose
our twenty guineas a day.” and “If only I can find a small.”
The paper states; “Looseness of the bowels is the beginning of the
Cholera”.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
On
16 November 1831, when it was realised the pandemic would reach
London, Carlisle gave a lecture on cholera. However his views were
again ridiculed, even though he was among the earliest to propose
that cholera was communicated by saliva being contaminated, and
swallowed;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Sir
Anthony Carlisle, with that innate modesty which distinguishes him,
makes the following announcement in his title page: “All the
statements and predictions of Sir A Carlisle in November last have
been completely fulfilled.” Is this the puff direct, or puff
oblique? The venerable knight must have caught the infection of
choleramania, when the above sentence escaped him; though one who has
been so caustically censorious of others ought perhaps to have been
somewhat more cautious. ... He is a contagionist, of course ... He
takes a comprehensive view of epidemic and contagious diseases, and
affords a good example of the encroachment of the pure surgeon upon
the hallowed and exclusive province of the physician. He discusses
the contagions of putrid fever, agues, small-pox, measles,
scarlatina, &c.; and thus proves to the College of Physicians the
competency of a pure surgeon to elucidate medical diseases - even sea
scurvy has not escaped his notice. ... He takes a most scientific
view of contagious diseases; if we except his original notion, that
<u>cholera is communicated by the saliva being contaminated, and
swallowed</u>. [my emphasis]<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
Carlisle's
1831 view that cholera was contagious, was further excuse for The
Lancet to vilify him;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
At
a recent lecture on Cholera delivered at the Mechanic's Institute,
Sir A Carlisle contended for its contagiousness; but argued that it
might be effectually counteracted by ventilation, cleanliness,
wholesome diet, and temperate living; and the different Boards of
Health have issued instructions to that effect. The Medical
periodical works are also divided in opinion, as to the
contagiousness of Cholera. The “Lancet” strongly opposes the
doctrine, in a series of elaborate reasoning. The “London Medical
Gazette” supports the doctrine of contagion.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
But
after the 1832 pandemic hit and 6500 people died in London, others
recalled Carlisle's warning;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.43cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
The
deep interest excited throughout the civilized world respecting the
nature and treatment of [cholera], induced us to request Sir Anthony
Carlisle would favour us with his notes of the Public Lecture given
by him ... on the 16th of November last. Sir Anthony having had the
kindness to comply with our request, it is with much satisfaction we
now lay the valuable document in question before our readers ... It
is no more than justice to remark that all the statements and
predictions of Sir A Carlisle in November last have been completely
fulfilled.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Carlisle's
stance was that detailed statistics of all kinds should be
accumulated, even without an obvious use for them; in the expectation
that later scientists may be able to use them to solve matters of
public concern. As Commissioner of Sewers, Carlisle arranged a survey
of the sewer cleaners; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
I
have thought it needful to make inquiries also respecting the effects
of the late prevailing malignant cholera among the labourers in the
sewers of Westminster; and I now send you the official returns, which
appear to me of much public importance. I cannot imagine that any
person will regard the publication of these facts, so impartial and
genuine, as an encouragement of filthiness; since they are entirely
and specially directed to discover whether any connection subsists
between the origin or propagation of malignant cholera, and the most
offensive and varied kinds of putrid vapours. Langham Place Oct 6
1832, Anthony Carlisle.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
Extracts
from Carlisle's official return include;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
The
average number of men employed in <i>cleansing</i>
the sewers, under the jurisdiction of this commission, is fifty-four;
of whom, only four have been attacked with <i>any</i>
illness during the last fifteen months. Not any have died; but all
resumed their work in a day or two. … Mr Creevy [the employer] has
been twenty-five years in business; never knew any of his men to be
ill at the regular night-work; almost all of his men have been blind
for a day or two, after cleansing very foul privies or barrack
privies. Mr Creevy says his workmen all drink gin, and smoke tobacco,
at night-work; and that he thinks nightmen have better health than
most labouring men. Mr Creevy says he was employed about six weeks
ago,<span style="color: black;"><u>to empty two cesspools, or
receptacles for decomposed flesh, at the anatomical school in
Windmill Street</u></span><span style="color: black;">. [my emphasis] All
his men came home sick; he had them all washed with warm water, and
made them gargle their throats with warm water and vinegar, except
[for one] who went home without taking this precaution; he was ill a
week in consequence. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
As
Commissioner of Sewers Carlisle had a special interest in the
steam-jet or blastpipe, pioneered by Goldsworthy Gurney, which served
to increase the draw of air through pipes. It was applied to improve
mine ventilation and Gurney extended the use of the steam-jet to the
cleaning of sewers. Carlisle himself observed that even
gnats served a useful function in keeping the Thames clean;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
Sir Anthony Carlisle
... says that “the ebb and flow of the tides in the river, and the
regurgitation of fresh water, deposit on the exposed banks a large
portion of the filth produced in the metropolis, and subject to
evaporation along the wide spaces of the borders of the river. As the
sea water does not ascend through the town, a large portion of the
Thames water charged with filth, must pass and repass the town at
every tide, and deposit its sediment. The shores of the river, as it
ebbs through the town, are largely exposed at low water, and exhibit
banks of putrescent mud, which in the summer season, abounds with the
larva of gnats, which live upon, and help to consume the filth; in
fact they an invaluable scavengers.”<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
A second cholera
outbreak reached London in 1849 after Carlisle's death, when nearly
15,000 people died in London alone, with a third outbreak in
1853-1854 with more than 10,000 deaths in London. It was only after
this outbreak that the cause of the disease was understood, more than
20 years after Carlisle had proposed it was transferred by saliva
becoming contaminated. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<b>Social Awareness</b><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Carlisle's views on alcohol were quoted by Basil Montagu, who recorded he said; 'no living animal or plant can be supported by such fluids ... on the contrary, they all become sickly and perish under their influence. In the animal world the poisonous nature of alcohol is easily tested. Put only a few ounces of alcohol in a pail of water in which are living fish, and in a few minutes they will die. Or, expose a fly to alcoholic vapour in a closed vessel, and it will speedily die'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a> And in 1814; 'Of all errors in the employment of fermented liquors, that of giving them to children seems to be fraught with the worst consequences. The next in the order of mischief is their employment by nurses, and which I suspect to be a common occasion of dropsy of the brain in young infants. I doubt much whether the future moral habits, the temper and intellectual propensities, are not greatly influenced by the early effects of fermented liquors upon the brain and sensorial organs'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a> A reference suggests Carlisle had enjoyed alcohol at one stage, but had given it up; 'I am firmly persuaded from extensive experience, both in my own person and on thousands of others, during a professional life of thirty years, that the most abandoned slave to drinking may safely and wholly abstain, and that with certain benefit to his bodily health'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
He protested against
the exploitation of children
when, on 6 June 1815, 'Sir Robert Peel brought in a Bill to prevent
children being employed in manufactories under ten years of age and
to reduce the hours of actual labour to ten and a half'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
Carlisle was<span style="font-style: normal;"> asked; 'Supposing that children, at that early age, were confined in
manufactories thirteen hours per day, do you conceive it would be
attended with any serious consequences to those children?' Carlisle
replied; 'From my experience, I believe that children cannot, with
safety to their health, be confined thirteen hours a day in a close
room. ... to some it will be fatal.' The next question was; 'What is
your opinion as to the effects of confining children to such
occupations when they are only six or seven years old, for fourteen,
fifteen, or sixteen hours in the day?' Carlisle answered, 'The evil
consequences will be in proportion to the youth of the person ...'
Then; 'When so confined during the week, what is your opinion of the
propriety of inducing children to attend schools for many hours on
the Sabbath?' Carlisle replied, 'If that is a physical question, and
not a moral one (which latter I beg to decline answering) ... a
school would certainly add to the unhealthiness of the party, as
contrasted with free exercise in the open air'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a>
An atheist, Carlisle dodged the question about Sunday school, but had
a subtle dig at religion. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Called to
give evidence sixteen years later in 1832 for a parliamentary
inquiry, Carlisle stated;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
My public duties and pursuits have called my attention, during the
whole of my life, to those subjects, for I have always regarded
preventative medicine, or the means of preserving and maintaining
health, as the most important branch of the healing art, perhaps
preferably so to the curing of diseases, the former being best
understood. ... I am satisfied, that man cannot be reared in health,
not maintained in health, without due attention to all those points,
especially to exercise in the open air, to diet, to clothing, to
recreation and to sleep.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The
inquiry asked Carlisle if twelve hours a day labour ... established,
as it should appear by the assent of all ages, ... is not ... as
long as can ... be endured with impunity by the average of human
beings? He replied, stating<span style="font-style: normal;">, 'It is
incompatible with health, it is not to be done with impunity.' </span>The
background to the hearing had been public attention being drawn to
the overwork of children in the worsted mills of the West Riding of
Yorkshire. Agitation for legislation quickly spread, and in 1831 Sir
J. C. Hobhouse (afterwards Baron Broughton) and Lord Morpeth
introduced a bill to restrict the working hours of persons under
eighteen years of age, employed in factories, to a maximum of ten
hours a day, with the added condition that no child under nine years
should be employed. Alarm spread among manufacturers, but the
radicals agitated for ‘ten hours a day and a time-book’ and
Michael Thomas Sadler (1780-1835) proposed a bill ‘for regulating
the labour of children and young persons in the mills and factories
of this country’. He argued, ‘the employer and employed do not
meet on equal terms in the market of labour,’ describing in detail
the sufferings endured by factory children. The main features of
Sadler's bill were ‘to prohibit the labour of infants under nine
years; to limit the actual work, from nine to eighteen years of age,
to ten hours daily, exclusive of time allowed for meals, with an
abatement of two hours on Saturday, and to forbid all night work
under the age of twenty-one.’ It was said his statements were
exaggerated and a committee should investigate his facts. The bill
was referred to a committee and questions to Carlisle included;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Q - Do you not think that children and young persons, not being free
agents, and having to labour in the manner alluded to, demand
legislative protection, in point of humanity, equally with the slaves
in the Crown Colonies of this country?"
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">A - I am no judge of the slaves in
the Crown Colonies; but I would say, in answer to the home question,
they demand legislative protection for their own sakes, and for the
sake of succeeding generations of English labourers, because every
succeeding generation will be progressively deteriorated, if you do
not stop these sins against nature and humanity. Nature has been very
wise in punishing all the offences we commit against her in our own
person'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
Q - Assuming, then,
that the individual subject to this excessive degree of labour would
be considerably deteriorated, physically and intellectually, do you
not conceive that the offspring of such an individual, if subject to
the same labour, under the same circumstances, would continue to
deteriorate, so that ultimately the most prejudicial effect upon the
physical and moral condition of future generations would be the
inevitable consequence? </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
A - ... they would
be unfit to carry on a succeeding generation of healthy and vigorous
human beings; they would be either nipped in the bud about the time
of puberty, or they would begat weakly inferior children; for there
is nothing more hereditary than family tendencies.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
Q - Supposing it not
to cease entirely, arguing from your views on that branch of
physiology, you would expect the human race to deteriorate, if
exposed to the same pernicious influences, and subject to the
excesses of labour to which we have been adverting?”</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
A - Unquestionably,
I have not any hesitation on that point; every succeeding generation
would become worse until they stopped altogether. I have had the
curiosity to see if I could find a person of the fourth generation,
but both the father and mother's side, in the city of London, and I
have never been able to find such a person.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.06cm;">
Carlisle
reinforced his view in discussing the excessive hours worked in
factories by women and children. He described it as; 'A sin against
nature and humanity, and an offence against nature, which, alas, is
visited upon the innocent creature, instead of the oppressor, by the
loss of its health, or the premature destruction of its race'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
The
evidence of Carlisle to the inquiry was commended;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
The evidence of Sir
Anthony Carlisle shews a master mind. At every blow he knocks the
right nail on the head. From forty years' observation and practice'
he is satisfied that vigorous health' and the ordinary duration of
life' cannot be generally maintained under the circumstances of
twelve hours labour, day by day. He speaks not of children, but of
adults. But during the growth and formation of the young creature,
its liability to deviate from the natural standard is much greater
than in the adult. Unless the young creature be duly exercised and
not over-laboured, duly fed and properly treated with regard to the
needful regulations of life, all will go wrong. All domesticated
creatures that are kept in close confinement and worked at too early
an age, or too severely, become deteriorated in form and vigour, and
are more or less injured, so as to unfit them for the performance of
their ordinary and habitual labours. And are the young of the human
race an exception from the general law of life? We must not, he says,
be deluded by outward shew. All these are truths which it might seem
any one might know; but enunciated by men of science, they strike the
sides of a bad system like cannon balls. Do you think that a child
under nine years of age ought to be doomed to habitual long labour in
a Factory? You or I say no, and employers laugh at us; Sir Anthony
Carlisle says no, and they frown and bite their lips. But he says
more than no; he says 'My own opinion is, as a matter of feeling,
that to do so is to condemn and treat the child as a criminal; it is
a punishment which inflicts upon it the ruin of its bodily and moral
health, and renders it an inefficient member of the community, both
as to itself and its progeny. It is to my mind an offence against
nature, which, alas! is visited upon the innocent creature instead of
its oppressor, by the loss of its health, or the premature
destruction of its race.' A sixty-two pound shot, from a carronade,
at point-blank distance, whiz, through the Factories. Children demand
legislative protection in his opinion, for their own sakes, and for
the sake of future generations of English labourers; because every
succeeding generation will be progressively deteriorated, if we do
not stop these sins against nature and humanity.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Even
Karl Marx was complimentary of Carlisle in his classic work; <i>
"Capital"</i>;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
A normal working-day
... declares the ordinary factory working-day to be from half-past
five in the morning to half-past eight in the evening and within
these limits, a period of 15 hours, it is lawful to employ young
persons (i.e., persons between 13 and 18 years of age), at any time
of the day, provided no one individual young person should work more
than 12 hours in any one day, except in certain cases especially
provided for. The 6th section of the Act provided. 'That there shall
be allowed in the course of every day not less than one and a half
hours for meals to every such person restricted as herein before
provided'. The employment of children under 9, with exceptions
mentioned later was forbidden; the work of children between 9 and 13
was limited to 8 hours a day, night-work, i.e. according to this Act,
work between 8:30 pm. and 5:30 am., was forbidden for all persons
between 9 and 18 ... Parliament decreed that after March 1st, 1834,
no child under 11, after March 1st 1835, no child under 12, and after
March 1st, 1836, no child under 13 was to work more than eight hours
in a factory. … Dr. Farre, Sir A. Carlisle, Sir B. Brodie, Sir C.
Bell, Mr. Guthrie, &c., in a word, the most distinguished
physicians and surgeons in London, had declared in their evidence
before the House of Commons, that there was danger in delay.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Carlisle
alluded to the adverse impact of excessive work on female
procreativity;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Premature sexual intercourse, or promiscuous sexual intercourse with
very young females, almost invariably prevents their being prolific;
this is notorious with regard to those unfortunate women who pass
their lives in prostitution; they generally begin when very young,
and they often pass to the middle period of life without even once
being pregnant; but it is a very curious fact with respect to those
women who have been sent to Botany Bay, where they have been kept
from sexual intercourse during a voyage extending to six or eight
months, that they often become prolific afterwards, even though they
may have been for many years the lowest and most abandoned
prostitutes.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
A letter written to Lord Shaftesbury echoes Carlisle's concern of the
effect of factory work on women and pregnancy, with the resultant
often fatal attention of accoucheurs, claimed as necessary to destroy
unborn children;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Seven years ago, these persons were
employed at their own homes; but now, instead of the men working at
the power-looms, none but girls or women are allowed to have it.</span><span style="font-style: normal;">
But, Sir, look at the physical effect of this system on the women.
See its influence on the delicate constitutions and tender forms of
the female sex. Let it he recollected that the age at which the
'prolonged labour', as it is called, commences, is at the age of
thirteen. That age, according to the testimony of medical men, is the
tenderest period of female life. Observe the appalling progress of
female labour; and remember that the necessity for particular
protection to females against overwork is attested by the most
eminent surgeons and physicians—Dr. Blundell, Sir Anthony Carlisle,
etc. ... Many anatomical reasons are assigned by surgeons of the
manufacturing towns, that 'the peculiar structure of the female form
is not so well adapted to long-continued labour, and especially
labour which is endured standing'. Mr. Smith, of Leeds, declared that
t</span><span style="font-style: normal;">he factory labour
occasionally produces the most lamentable effects in females, when
they are expecting to become mothers.</span><span style="font-style: normal;">
On the anatomical difficulty of parturition, he stated; — </span><span style="font-style: normal;">It
is often the painful duty of the accoucheur to destroy the life of
the child. I have seen many instances of the kind, all of which, with
one single exception, have been those of females who have worked long
hours in factories.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
In
evidence about factory work, a telling comparison was made of greater
hours of employment for children, than for members of the armed
forces, in an exchange with George James Guthrie;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Would you sanction, for a
continuance, soldiers being actually under arms for twelve hours a
day for a succession of days?—Such a thing is never done nor
thought of; a soldier is never kept under arms more than five or six
hours, unless before the enemy. Is the female sex well fitted to
sustain long exertion in a standing posture? It is not. Is it not
more than ordinarily necessary to protect females against excessive
labour, when approaching the age of puberty?—Certainly it is. The
ten hours work you propose for children to work in factories, is the
work you would not give to the soldiers, even when soldiers are
employed in public works; they would not be worked more than twelve
hours, granting them time for their meals; and for the work they
would have additional pay.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
1819 Carlisle was an early observer to note that old age itself was
not a cause of death: 'It seems little more than a vulgar error, to
consider the termination of advanced life as the inevitable
consequence of time, when the immediate cause of death in old persons
is generally known to be some well-marked disease'. Carlisle has
been, belatedly, recognised as a pioneer of ageing:</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br />
Thus, while
early-19th-century investigators (such as Christian Wilhelm Hufeland
and Sir Anthony Carlisle) had emphasized localized lesions that
manifested themselves in late life, 'pathological' models of aging
did not gain salience in the United States until Jean-Martin
Charicot's 1867 compendium, <i>“Diseases of the Elders and Their
Chronic illnesses”</i>, was translated into English in 1877.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Carlisle
was keen to promulgate new knowledge, if there was a social benefit
to the knowledge, as in 1832 with a remedy for hydrophobia or rabies,
the bite of mad dog; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
A mercantile
gentleman who has visited the north-east of Mexico ... assured me
that the natives and Spanish settlers ... have for a long time
employed the expressed juice of a tree belonging to the cactus tribe
with constant success for the cure of hydrophobia. I have just now
received some quart bottles of the juice in question, together with
such disinterested and confident testimonies of its efficacy, that I
feel bound to give it a fair trial before any deterioration happens
to the drug. I therefore announce to the medical practitioners of
this metropolis, and more especially to the medical officers of its
public hospitals, that I am ready on the first application from any
gentleman who may have the charge of a case of hydrophobia at its
commencement, to attend such call, and in conjunction with competent
witnesses, to administer the drug according to the directions sent to
me.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Carlisle was sensitive to minority attitudes. In 1838 he illustrated
the insensitivity of the East India Company to the religious beliefs
of their Indian soldiers, later resulting in the 1857 Indian Mutiny.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
A
remarkable proof of the unserviceableness of indiscriminately
exploring the bodies of the dead is now to be found in the
storehouses of the India Company, both at home and abroad as a
consequence of long established general orders to dissect their dead
soldiers, with the laudable hope of improving medical knowledge. For
it is known that piles of manuscripts have been accumulated under
those orders with no other than negative results, although as I am
told not without giving great offence to the natives of India who
possess an obstinate religious reverence for the dead.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in <i>Western Medical Report</i>,
Worthington, Ohio, 1836-37, p 12</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Transactions of the Linnean Society of London</i>,
London, B and J White,1794, p 247-262
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
Singer, Charles Joseph, <i>Studies in the History and Method of
Science</i>, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1917, p 339</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Southey, Charles Cuthbert, <i>The
Life and Correspondence of Robert Southey,</i>
New York, Harpers, 1851, p 169</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Transactions of the Linnean Society of London</i>,
London, B and J White,1794, p 257</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Account
of a Peculiarity,</i>
in <i>Philosophical
Transactions</i>,
Volume 90, 1800, p 98-105 </span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Darwin, Charles, <i>Darwin Correspondence,</i>
http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-1123.html
accessed July 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
<i>Philosophical Transactions for 1801</i>, Royal Society, 1801, p
139-143</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
Advertisement in <i>The Times</i>, Friday 16 October, 1801, p 1</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
Smith, George H, <i>Some Physician
Friends of Joseph Farington</i>, Yale J Biol
Med. 1942 March; 14 (4), p 421</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
Lewis, C, and Knell, S, <i>The Making of the Geological Society of
London</i>, London, Geo Soc, 2009, p 78</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in <span style="font-style: normal;">Pettigrew,
Thomas Joseph,</span><i> Biographical memoirs</i>,
London, Fisher, 1838 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Blumenbach, J F, Elliotson, J, <i>The Elements of Physiology</i>,
London, Longmans, 1828, p 199</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Philosophical Transactions for 1814,</i>
London, 1814, p 94-101</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Colburn, Zerah, <i>A Memoir of Zerah Colburn</i>, Springfield,
Merriam, 1833, p 72</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
<i>The Scots Magazine</i>, Edinburgh, 1813, p 886</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Philosophical Transactions for 1814</i><span style="font-style: normal;">,
London, 1814, p 498</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a><i>
The Universal Magazine</i>, London, Sherwood, 1814, p 320</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
<i>New Monthly Magazine</i>, London, Henry Colburn, 1815, p 439-440</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
Elmes, James, <i>Annals of the Fine Arts for MDCCCXVI</i>, London,
1817, p 365</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Banks, Joseph, <i>The Letters of Sir Joseph Banks</i>, London,
Imperial, 2000, p 320-321</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, in <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>, Vol XL, London,
Longmans, 1822, p 41<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">
</span></span></span></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in Walker, Alexander, <i>Intermarriage,
</i>London, John Churchill, 1838, p 356</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Carlisle, A, quoted by Rupke, Nicholas, in Richard Owen's Hunterian
Lectures, <span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Medical
History, 1985, p 237-258</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Carlisle, A, quoted by <span style="font-style: normal;">Pettigrew,
Thomas Joseph,</span><i> Biographical memoirs</i>,
London, Fisher, 1838 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
Carlisle, A , quoted in <i>The Lancet</i>, London. Wakley, 1826, p
690-691</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
Carlisle, A, quoted in Walker, Alexander, <i>Intermarriage, </i>London,
John Churchill, 1838, p ii</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
<i>The Lancet</i>, London, J Onwhyn, 1868, p 622</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
Darwin, C, <i>The Variation of Animals and Plants Under
Domestication</i>, Vol II, London, J Murray, 1868, p 6-13</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Qvist, George, <i>Some Controversial Aspects of John Hunter's Life
and Work</i><span style="font-style: normal;">,
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=2492234&blobtype=pdf
accessed August 2009</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Keith, Arthur, <i>The Portraits and
Personality of John Hunter, British Medical Journal</i>,
February 1928, p 205-209 NB - In Keith's paper, he has added
'Reynolds' and misread several of the words; viz. 'radiating' for
radiated', 'under his elbow' for next to his elbow', 'the adjacent
drawing' for 'the different skulls', and ossific prop' for 'ossific
prep'.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
Keith, Arthur, <i>The Portraits and Personality of John Hunter,
British Medical Journal</i>, February 1928, p 205-209,
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/1/3501/205.pdf
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Qvist, George, <i>Some Controversial Aspects of John Hunter's Life
and Work</i><span style="font-style: normal;">,
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=2492234&blobtype=pdf
accessed August 2009</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
<i>The Metropolitan</i>, London, James Cochrane ,1832, Vol V, p
75-76</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Barker, Edmund Henry, <i>Literary Anecdotes</i>, London, Smith,
1852, p 254</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
<i>The Literary Gazette</i>, London, London, 1838, p 341</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Darwin Correspondence</i>,
http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-334.html
accessed July 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Chitty, Edward, <span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>The
Illustrated Fly-Fisher's Text Book; </i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Bohn, 1845, p 2-3</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
Walton, Izaak, Cotton, Charles, <i>The Compleat Angler,</i> London,
Bohn, 1856, p 471</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in Walker, Alexander, <i>Intermarriage</i>,
London, John Churchill, 1838, p 194</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
<i>The Focus,</i> Vol I, No I, London, 1821, p 577-578</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
Morris, Stephen, <i>The Guardian</i>,
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/may/01/eel-fishing-europe-environment
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>A
Journal of natural philosophy, chemistry and the arts</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">,
London, Robinson, 1804, p 131</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
<i>The Medico-chirurgical Review</i>, London, Johnson, 1831, p 286</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
<i>London Medical and Surgical Journal</i>, London, Renshaw, 1832, p
286</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine,</i> Vol CI, London, Nichols, 1831, p
450</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
Hebert, Luke, <i>Register of the Arts and Sciences</i>, London, B
Steill, 1832, p 41</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Health of the Workmen</i>, in Philosophical
Magazine, London, R Taylor, 1832, p 354-360</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
<i>Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal</i>, Oct 1837-Dec 1838,
London, p 358</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
Carlisle, A, in Montagu, B, <i>Enquiries into the Effects of
Fermented Liquors,</i> London, Hunter, 1818, p 4-8
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
Carlisle, A, in Montagu, B, <i>Enquiries into the Effects of
Fermented Liquors,</i> London, Hunter, 1818, p 346-347</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in Pitman, Henry, <i>The Popular Lecturer</i>,
Manchester, John Heywood, 1856, p 338</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>The European magazine, and
London review of the Philological Society (Great Britain)</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">,
London, 1815, p 365</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
Wing, Charles,<i> Evils of the Factory System</i>, Scholar's
bookshelf, 1967, reprint of 1837 edition, p cxii
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
Wing, Charles,<i> Evils of the Factory System</i>, Scholar's
bookshelf, 1967, reprint of 1837 edition, p 132</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in <i>The Museum of Foreign Literature,
Science and Art,</i> Vol 23, E Littel, 1833, p 306</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
Wing, Charles,<i> Evils of the Factory System</i>, Scholar's
bookshelf, 1967, reprint of 1837 edition, p 134-135</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in <i>Lectures delivered before the YMCA</i>,
London, J Nisbet, 1864, p 36</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
Blackwood, William,<i> Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine</i>,
Edinburgh, W Blackwood, 1833, p 432-433</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
Marx, Karl, <i>Capital, a critique of political economy,</i> New
York, Random House, 1906, p 305-307
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a>
Wing, Charles,<i> Evils of the Factory System</i>, Scholar's
bookshelf, 1967, reprint of 1837 edition, p 140</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a>
Shaftsbury, Earl, <i>Speeches of the Earl of Shaftesbury, </i>London,
Chapman and Hall ,1868, p 104-105</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a>
Hendricks, J, and Achenbaum, A, <i>Historical Development of
Theories of Aging,</i> in <i>Handbook of Theories of Aging, </i>New
York, Srpinmger, 1999, p 25</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, in <i>The Annual Register,</i> London, Baldwin
and Craddock, 1832, p 159</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Practical Observations on the Preservation of
Health</i>, London, John Churchill, 1838, p xxxi</span></div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-29228834395995246362015-04-05T16:38:00.002-07:002021-11-26T09:43:47.141-08:0019 - Carlisle and Scientific Discoveries ©<b>Flight</b>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-weight: normal;">It
is ironic to cover such a wide range of scientific research and
discovery in just one chapter in this Carlisle biography, but that is
a reflection of his contribution across many fields. Efforts that
would dominate biographies of many others, become little more than
footnotes in researching Carlisle, as with his interest in flight
which commenced before1800, as evidenced in</span> a quotation of
1833 when Carlisle,
the likely source, related an event of fifty years earlier. <br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
[Carlisle] is
a native of Stillington, in Durham; and received his medical
education in the county town, under Mr William Green, the leading
surgeon of the place. During his apprenticeship, he showed a taste
for philosophical and mechanical studies; and, after reading a
description of Montgolfier's balloon of 1783, he amused himself with
making a fire balloon, the first ever seen in the county of Durham.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The first
public flight by the Montgolfier brothers was on 4 June 1783, with
another in Paris on 19 September, 1783. Carlisle's experiment with a
model hot-air balloon probably took place in late 1783. As his
inspiration was Montgolfier, rather than Zambeccari, his attempt
likely preceded the hot air balloon sent aloft in London on 2
November 1783 by Count Francesco Zambeccari, together with fellow
Italian Michael Biaggini, an artificial flower maker. They launched a
model balloon from Biaggini's roof in London's Cheapside. His
interest in ballooning and flight was a factor counting for Carlisle
in achieving election as Surgeon at Westminster Hospital, and his
later appointment as RA Professor of Anatomy. John Sheldon
(1752-1808) had been an apprentice to Henry Watson at Westminster
Hospital between 1786 and 1788 and became the second Professor of
Anatomy at the RA from 1783-1808. Sheldon was famous as claiming the
first ascent by an Englishman in a hot-air balloon, on 16 October
1784. An Italian Lunardi, had made one in London on 15 September
1784, but Sheldon claimed to be the first Englishman and there were
many witnesses to his flight<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
and a procession on his return to London.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
However, some sources say James Sadler (1751-1828) was the first
Englishman, at Oxford on 4 October, 1784.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
arrived in London in 1785 and Sheldon was an obvious person for him
to seek out, working with him for some years, and succeeding him as
Professor in 1808.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">[Sheldon] was also
a great patroniser of aeronauts, and boasted being the first
Englishman who made an experimental ascent, of which the following
anecdote is related: When Blanchard came down in the garden adjacent
to Mr Lochre's, he was very urgent with Sheldon to alight, and suffer
him to make his voyage alone. Sheldon would not comply, and a short
dispute took place. "If you are my friend," says Blanchard,
" you will alight. My fame, my all, depends on my success."
Still he was positive. On which the little man, in a violent passion,
swore that he would starve him — "Point du chicken — you
shall have no chicken, by God," says Blanchard; and saying this,
he threw out every particle of their provision, which lightening
their machine, they ascended. It was a good French notion, that the
best way to get rid of an Englishman was to throw out the eatables.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
</span><br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Sheldon's
epitaph read;</span></div>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Here, in the grave,
John Sheldon lies.<br />
Who left a grave profession;<br />
Deserting earth, did mount the skies,<br />
The moon to take possession.<br />
Adventuring in an air-balloon.<br />
To raise a great renown,<br />
Science and Art did grieve to think<br />
How much he let it down.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Carlisle
and Sheldon discussed their theories, leading to Carlisle's attempt
to fly in a heavier than air machine. A newspaper report from the
<i>Carlisle Patriot</i> refers to his earlier attempt;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
<i>Carlisle Patriot</i>, Saturday, May 6, 1843 - Flying Machines - The
Aerial Transit Company have taken the Montpelier Gardens, Walworth,
and are now engaged in constructing the first machine. While speaking
of aerial transit, we may observe, that the late Sir Anthony Carlisle
invented a flying machine, and tried it from the top of his house in
Langham Place; but, lamentable to relate, the machine would only fly
downwards, and came to the ground burying poor Sir Anthony under the
noble panoply. A scientific friend, who assisted at the exhibition,
was some time before he could get over the laughable effect of poor
Sir Anthony's catastrophe, or relieve him from his sufferings. It
would be better, however, to fall from the top of a house, than to be
crossing the Atlantic in the Aerial, and a wing of the seraphic
machine breaking, to be plumped in the briny deep.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
In 1844
Francis also recalled the attempt, which apparently used a form of
wing;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
While upon this subject, we may observe that even in our own days the
exertions of Mr Henson are not without example. The late Sir Anthony
Carlisle invented a flying apparatus, which he fitted upon his
shoulders and tried from the top of his house in Langham Place, but
with the success of Icarus, for poor Sir Anthony came tumbling down
with fractured pinions.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5251945381876103026"></a>
<br />
Carlisle was by then dead and unable to add to, or have
corrected, the reported location of his flight. The 1844 report does
not indicate the date of the attempt, but it was unlikely to have
been from Langham Place, as Carlisle was an old man when living
there, having moved there when he was aged fifty-one. Langham Place
was probably mentioned as the writer only knew it had taken place at
a home of Carlisle. The available evidence indicates that Carlisle's
glider attempt took place in 1796, before his marriage, when he was
living at 52 Frith Street, Soho. Slightly later, and prior to his
1800 marriage, he leased 12 Soho Square, described as; 'A spacious
substantial residence in front of Soho-square, opening into
Charles-street, with numerous rooms of good proportions suitable
offices and cellaring, in the occupation of ... Carlisle Esq.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
He lived at Soho Square until 1819, when he moved to Langham Place,
where he died in 1840. A letter written by Robert Southey to
Grosvenor Charles Bedford on 12 June 1796 shows the attempt was over
40 years earlier;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
What of Carlisle's wings? I believe my flying scheme - that of
breaking in condors and riding them - is the best; or if a few rocs
could be naturalized - though it might be a hard matter to break
them. Seriously, I am far from convinced that flying is impossible,
and have an admirable tale of a Spanish bird for one of my letters,
which will just suit Carlisle.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The
comment about 'Carlisle's wings' arises soon after a 21 Nov 1795
letter including a comment by Southey; 'You supped upon Godwin and
oysters with this Carlisle', proving the references were to William
Godwin and Anthony Carlisle. It is supported by other references to
Carlisle in Southey's correspondence. The Southey letter of 1796 with
reference to 'Carlisle's wings', makes it clear Carlisle was
attempting to fly with wings, not in a balloon which was relatively
commonplace by the end of the 18C. Evidence of flying experiments by
Sheldon, and Carlisle was his assistant,at this time, is contained in
a statement by Professor Saint-Fond (1741-1819) who visited Sh<span style="font-style: normal;">eldon
in 1797. Saint-Fond recorded how; 'The discovery of air balloons
excited [Sheldon's] enthusiasm and he had made some interesting and
practical experiments in the science of aerostation'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a>
Also;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
[Sheldon] no sooner learned what had been done in Paris than he
suspended a part of his anatomical labours to make calculations
respecting the weight of the atmosphere. He afterwards directed his
enquiries to the discovery of the most proper substance for making
the covering of balloons, to improving the varnish and to the
inventing of the most convenient apparatus for simplifying and
perfecting these machines. He visited all the shops and manufactories
in London to gain information on these subjects.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
More
information on Carlisle's attempts to develop a flying machine is
ascertained from his 1839 comments to Henry Wilkinson, who published
them in <i>“Notes and Queries”</i> of 14 September 1850,
disclosing Carlisle had pursued a concept somewhat similar to a hang
glider. Carlisle observed to Wilkinson he could not publish his
ideas, as he believed it would adversely impact upon his career;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.43cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Aerostation - Your correspondent CBM
Vol ii p 199 will find a long article on Aerostation in Hoes
Cyclopaedia; but his inquiry reminds me of a conversation I had with
the late Sir Anthony Carlisle, about a year before his death. He
wished to consult me on the subject of flying by mechanical means,
and that I should assist him in some of his arrangements. He had
devoted many years of his life to the consideration of this subject,
and made numerous experiments at great cost, which induced him to
believe in the possibility of enabling man to fly by means of
artificial wings. However visionary this idea might be, he had
collected innumerable and extremely interesting data, having examined
the anatomical structure of almost every winged thing in the
creation, and compared the weight of the body with the area of the
wings when expanded in the act of volitation; as well as the natural
habits of birds, insects, bats, and fishes, with reference to their
powers of flying and duration of flight. These notes would form a
valuable addition to natural history, whatever might be thought of
the purpose for which they were collected, during a period of thirty
years and it is much to be regretted they were never published. His
own opinion was, that the publication, during his life, would injure
his practice as a physician. It would be impossible without the aid
of diagrams, and I do not remember sufficient, to explain his
mechanical contrivances; but the general principle was, to suspend
the man under a kind of flat parachute of extremely thin feather-edge
boards, with a power of adjusting the angle at which it was placed,
and allowing the man the full use of his arms and legs to work any
machinery placed beneath; the area of the parachute being
proportioned, as in birds, to the weight of the man, who was to start
from the top of a high tower, or some elevated position, flying
against the wind. Henry Wilkinson, Brompton.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Henry Wilkinson was likely the
gentleman, who lectured on the Warlike Machines of the Ancients on 27
October 1836 and lived at 26 Brompton Square. Quite possibly he was
the Charles Henry Wilkinson who wrote</span><i> Elements of
Galvanism in Theory and Practice</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
in 1804. The description by Wilkinson, of a pilot suspended and
having full use of his arms and legs, was a different design to that
of Sir George Cayley (1773–1857), who started a rigorous study of
the physics of flight, and in 1799 exhibited a plan for a glider.
Carlisle's design was more like, what in the 21C would be called a
hang-glider. That Carlisle and Cayley were in communication is
referred to in </span><i>Westminster Hospital 1716-1974</i><span style="font-style: normal;">; "Whether corresponding about flying machines with Sir George
Cayley,..."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
Carlisle was five years older than Cayley and experimented with a
model hot air balloon in 1783, when Cayley was only aged ten, so
Cayley followed Carlisle. Cayley was independently wealthy and could
afford the experiments, whereas Carlisle needed to earn an income.
Thus, although he continued research, Carlisle discontinued his
experiments. Cayley flew a model glider in 1804, but never flew
himself, whereas the Cardiff Patriot account refers to Carlisle
actually attempting to fly, as confirmed by the 1796 letter from to
Southey, and Carlisle's own letters to Cayley. Carlisle contacted
Cayley after reading Nicholson's Journal of 6 September 1809, where
Cayley wrote; </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
I conceive in stating the fundamental principles of this art,
together with a considerable number of facts and practical
observations, that have arisen in the course of much attention to
this subject, I may be expediting the attainment of an object that
will in time be found to be of great importance to mankind, so much
so, that a new era in society will commence from the moment that
aerial navigation is familiarly realized.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Carlisle tried to interest Cayley in
further experiments, as Carlisle was not himself in a financial
position to do so. [There are understood to be seven letters from
Carlisle to Cayley on the subject of aviation, held in the Royal
Aeronautical Society Library’s archive. They are dated: 2 November
1809, 15 November 1809, 24 February 1810, 1 March 1810, 5 March 1810,
17 April 1810, and 26 July 1817, but are unavailable and it has only
been possible to access extracts.] The letters of 1809 refer to
Carlisle's experiments made twelve years earlier, which fits with the
date of Southey's 1796 letter about Carlisle's wings. From the
extracts,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
it appears Carlisle never disclosed to Cayley that he had attempted a
glider flight in 1796, a key difference, as Cayley himself never
attempted to fly.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
The drawing of Cayley's glider is
dated 1852. A recent biography of Cayley (Richard Dee's <i>The
man who discovered flight: George Cayley and the first airplane</i>)
claims the first pilot was Cayley's grandson George John Cayley
(1826-1878). Dee's book also reports the re-discovery of a series
doodles from Cayley's school exercise book which suggest that
Cayley's first designs concerning a lift-generating inclined plane
may have been made as early as 1793.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The first
letter of 2 November, 1809 shows the depth of Carlisle's thinking;
'The communication which you have so liberally given in the latest
number of Mr Nicholson's Journal induces me to wish for the honour of
your acquaintance. I have meditated upon Aerial Navigation (As it
relates to Animal Powers) for several years and having collected some
facts and made observations which do not appear in your published
letter, it is probable they may be new to you.' A fortnight later, on
15 November 1809, Carlisle enlarged on his activities and wrote;
'What I have done ... has been private. My profession excludes my
taking open measures on a subject so liable to derision and
ill-natured remark. The favourite project of my life has fallen into
better hands.' Carlisle's comment, taken with the tone of Southey's
1796 letter and the Carlisle Patriot report of 1843, indicates
Carlisle had been subject to ridicule, making him cautious about
revealing his interest. In the letter Carlisle explained his
experiments had been largely aimed at determining the surfaces and
weights of insects and birds, and for the construction of apparatus
enabling a man to fly under his own power;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm; margin-right: 0.41cm;">
<br />
To explain the machinery, the precautions which have occurred in
using them, the modes of balancing in the air, and <u>the number of
failures in my first crude experiments</u> [my emphasis] would be
difficult if not ineffectual by words. It is rather curious that I
should have applied to Mr Nicholson and divulged<span style="text-decoration: none;">
</span><u>the leading features of my plan twelve years ago</u>.[my
emphasis, i.e. 1796] Then I had thoughts of gaining fame or profit by
it and enjoyed secrecy, but I perceive you are destined to complete
it. I wish you would work on the subject to completion before you
divulge it, as you ought to gain the credit.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
On 1 March 1810, Carlisle wrote and invited Cayley to London. 'You
will be near the great fortress of Science (Sir Joseph's [Banks])
where we may reconnoitre or poach as we like best. There is more of
trick and intrigue in Science than you seem to be aware of, and the
dry of the hour is as often quackery as anything else.' It is
significant that Carlisle excludes flight from quackery, whereas his
Royal Society colleagues would have included it there. On 5 March
1810;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
You ask about the opinions of the learned. I can only give you a bad
report. Nicholson's two Journals laid on Sir Joseph's levee table for
two successive Sundays with your paper uncut. The Wise, the Prudent
and the Cunning Classes of Philosophers are too wary to commit
themselves on subjects not backed by the cry of the multitude, and
had I been able to write such papers as you have printed, I should
have been ridiculed and abused to my irreparable injury. You escape
because you are not in the chain of rival contention, or employed in
a mercenary profession.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
The next month, April 1810, Carlisle attempted once more to entice
Cayley to London;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
A project is on foot for an ascension in a balloon at the
Installation Festival at Oxford the first week in July. If you have
any parachute scheme in forwardness, or any other exhibition in the
Aerial line, this might afford a good opportunity for display. The
man who is to ascend [James Sadler on 7 July] is perfectly bold, very
hardy, and willing to enterprise anything. What think you of a voyage
to town?'</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Carlisle wrote again, but did not reveal enough detail to interest
Cayley, on 26 July 1817;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
Since the death of poor Nicholson [in 1815], I have not ventured to
speak to any man about these very probable discoveries which may give
new physical powers to the human race. I am myself too dependent on
my vocation to hazard the abuse and ridicule which a public avowal of
such hopes would inevitably afford to my rivals and enemies. When my
worldly independence is secured, I may possibly help out, but to
co-operation here, that is an idle phantom - you can have no idea of
the littleness, the shabbiness and the moral cowardice of our soi
disant philosophers ... there is not one of them you can trust, or
who risk a feather of his present plumage to forward any scheme for
general good, or any plan which did not point blank serve a sordid
purpose.... you must work with your own wits and hands.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Herbert Mayo was a contemporary of Carlisle. Both were FRS and
Professors of Anatomy, Mayo with RCS and Carlisle with RA. Carlisle's
relationship by marriage to the Byron and Trevanion families has also
been noted. In view of this it is likely Carlisle's research into
flight with wings was communicated to Ada Byron, daughter of Lord
Byron, via Mayo in 1828. At that time Ada was living in Canterbury
with Henry and Georgiana Trevanion. Ada shared Carlisle's enthusiasm
for flight, but in 1828 he was preoccupied with the social upheavals
affecting him as President of RCS. As discussed by Benjamin Woolley,
Ada was instead advised by Mayo and made a detailed study of the
anatomy of birds, particularly the wings. She set up a 'flying room'
and planned to make wings for herself, with exactly the same
proportions as the bird's, which she would make out of paper
stiffened with wire and attach them to her shoulders. She even signed
her letters, 'Carrier Pigeon'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In 1837 Cayley noted travel by air would need to exceed twenty miles
per hour to be worth pursuing; 'As we now travel by railroad pretty
constantly at the rate of 20 miles per hour, aerial navigation though
offering a direct navigable ocean to every point of our globe, would
scarcely be worth cultivating if not practicable ultimately at least
up to that speed.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
Carlisle sent some research to Cayley, but held back much pending
positive interest. It is to be regretted Cayley did not visit
Carlisle in London, when an exchange of ideas could have occurred. <span style="font-style: normal;">It
is understood </span>the Diary of Joshua Bates, a partner in Barings
Bank in the 19C, is held in the The Barings Archive. In the diary for
28 February 1835, there is an entry regarding a flying machine;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Sir Anthony Carlisle writes me that his machine for flying is nearly
bro’t to perfection and he wants only a clever person to bring it
out. It seems impossible, but he says it is quite an affair of
science, floatage being all that is required.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
The use of the term 'floatage' means Carlisle was seeking capital to
finance or 'float' the project. The various references show Carlisle
deserves recognition as an early aviation pioneer, in researching
flight and attempting to fly a glider in Britain one hundred years
prior to Otto Lilienthal.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<b>Photography</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
worked with Thomas Wedgwood (1771-1805), son of the famous potter
Josiah Wedgwood. Due to their joint experiments, Wedgwood and
Carlisle have a claim to be directly involved in the discovery of
photography. They managed to make images, but were unable to
determine a process to capture a permanent image of satisfactory
quality. Wedgwood died before resolving the problem and Carlisle went
on to other subjects. Their experiments were conducted prior to 1800,
over forty years prior to the 1839 introduction of the Daguerreotype
to England, with Wedgwood credited as the first man to develop a
method to copy visible images chemically to permanent media. <span style="font-style: normal;">During
in the 1790s, Wedgwood devised a repeatable method of chemically
staining an object's silhouette to paper by coating the paper with
silver nitrate and exposing the paper, with the object on top, to
natural light, then preserving it in a dark room. The exact dates of
his first experiments are uncertain, but he is known to have written
to James Watt (1736-1819) on the process of photography in 1791. In
reply Watt wrote to Wedgwood, 'Dear Sir, I thank you for your
instructions as to the Silver Pictures, about which, when at home, I
will make some experiments'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
In his many experiments with heat and light, Wedgwood first used
ceramic pots coated with silver nitrate as well as treated paper and
white leather, as media of print, and he had the most success with
white leather. His major achievements were the printing of an
object’s profile through direct contact with the treated paper,
thus creating an image’s shape on paper, and, by a similar method,
copying transparent paintings-on-glass through direct contact and
exposure to sunlight. </span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A
detailed account of the Wedgwood process was published in the Journal
of the Royal Institution of 1802. The Davy paper of 1802 and
Wedgwood's work directly influenced other chemists and scientists
delving into the craft of photography. The paper was quite widely
known and mentioned in chemistry textbooks as early as 1803. David
Brewster, later a close friend of William Fox Talbot, published an
account of the paper in the Edinburgh Magazine of December 1802. The
paper was translated into French, and printed in Germany in 1811,
with the process essentially being the birth of photography. The
experiments are outlined in a 1839 letter written by Carlisle;</div>
<span style="font-style: normal;">
</span>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
On the Production of Representations of Objects by the Action of
Light - Sir, - At the evening meeting holden at the Royal Institution
on Friday last, several specimens of shaded impressions were
exhibited, produced by the new French Camera. The outlines, as well
as the interior forms of the objects, were faintly pictured, and
hence the application of this method of impressing accurate designs
may become disregarded after public curiosity subsides. Having, about
forty years ago, made several experiments with my lamented friend,
Mr. Thomas Wedgwood, to obtain and fix the shadows of objects by
exposing the figures painted on glass, to fall upon a flat surface of
shamoy leather wetted with nitrate of silver, and fixed in a case
made for a stuffed bird, we obtained a temporary image or copy of the
figure on the surface of the leather, which, however, was soon
obscured by the effects of light. It would be serviceable to men of
research if failing experiments were more often published, because
the repetition of them would be thus prevented. The new method of
depicting by a camera, promises to be valuable for obtaining exact
representations of fixed and still objects, although at present they
seem only to possess the correct elements for a finished drawing. Few
artists of competent skill addict themselves to drawing natural
objects, although the value of such designs wholly depends on
exactness. For anatomical purposes designs should be faithfully
correct, and the new instrument and new method are well suited to
those purposes. Among the many splendid plates devoted to illustrate
anatomy, none are so truly executed as those of Cheselden, which were
taken by a Camera Obscura. Your obliged reader, Anthony Carlisle,
Jan. 30, 1839.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">The
comment by Carlisle, about Cheselden, is interesting. By 1839, most
in the medical profession in Britain, regarded the two anatomical
atlases of William Smellie and William Hunter, as the outstanding
examples of British anatomical art. However, Carlisle passes over
these, and instead praises the earlier work of Cheselden,
demonstrating Carlisle's consistent disapproval of the atlases of
Smellie and Hunter. Cheselden </span></span><span style="font-weight: normal;">published
his </span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">Anatomy of the
Human Body,</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;"> when
he was 25. It remained in print for almost a century, not only
appreciated for its scientific merit, but for its artistic quality as
well. This was also true of a later book by Cheselden, </span><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">Osteographia"</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">
containing much admired illustrations of the skeletons and animals in
action, produced with the help of a camera obscura, a predecessor of
the photographic camera. In
1839 <i>The Literary Gazette</i> recorded;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
An esteemed friend
of ours, adverting to the accounts of the New Art in our last, states
that thirty years ago he, in conjunction with two other artists, were
earnestly engaged in making experiments similar to those we have
described. He says, 'Some of the results which we obtained from
plaster of Paris casts, and from <i>life</i>,
although imperfect, were absolutely startling, and I hit on a mode
(by the aid of dilute nitric acid) of arresting the operation of the
solar light, after it has accomplished all that had been asked of it.
Eventually, however, the fatal circumstances that the effects
produced were the reverse of true – that which ought to have been
black remaining white, and that which ought to have been white,
becoming black – added to the pressure of our respective vocations,
induced us to relinquish our attempts.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
The
experiments created what we call the negative image, with the
reference to 'and from <i>life</i>'
suggesting live models were used. If they had realised fading could
be countered by making a photograph of the negative, they would have
succeeded. Schaaf observed the esteemed friend was likely Carlisle.
Given his interest in chemistry, and his RA connection with access to
plaster sculptures and live models, this seems certain, with the 'two
other artists' being either Thomas Wedgwood and William Nicholson,
both deceased by 1839, or two RA colleagues. It can be seen they,
together with Carlisle, deserve belated recognition for pioneering
the capture of an image with the use of dilute nitric acid.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
1885 Samuel Highly published an article in which he remarked he had
seen what must have been fixed examples of early pictures made by
Wedgwood, pictures presumably made in the 1790s. There
are comments in histories of photography suggesting early images made
by Wedgwood still survive. In
April 2008, Sotheby's proposed to auction an early photograph of a
leaf, which some researchers believed to be the work of Wedgwood and
thus date from the time of his experiments with Carlisle. The 'Leaf'
was one of six 'anonymous' photographic images from an album
belonging to Henry Bright. However, at the announcement of the
auction, there were competing opinions about the identity of the
photographer and the auction of the photograph was deferred.
Carlisle's involvement in photography is another example of him not
pursuing key discoveries far enough to achieve lasting fame. He did
not realise how far reaching photography would be, when he wrote;
'the
application of this method of impressing accurate designs may become
disregarded after public curiosity subsides'. If
Carlisle had persevered, his name could have been better known than
Fox-Talbot and Daguerre.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Electrolysis</b>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
his experiments with William Nicholson (1753-1815), Carlisle did make
an important contribution to chemistry with the discovery of
electrolysis in 1800. Nicholson had been commercial director for
Josiah Wedgwood in Amsterdam, but Nicholson tired of working for
other people. In working for himself, he initially wrote textbooks
but realised their limitations, as they could not convey up-to-date
information on current research to the general public. Thus in April
1797 Nicholson started the Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry
and the Arts. It quickly became seen as a vehicle for prompt
publication where aspiring authors could publish short papers, and
readers could find reports of scientific meetings at the Royal
Society and elsewhere.</div>
</div>
<blockquote class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
The catalyst for the
discovery of electrolysis was the electrical effects obtained by
placing two different metals in contact, which led Alessandro Volta
to the invention of Volta's Pile, consisting of copper and zinc (or
other metals) sandwiched between pads of moist material, with
multiple units on top of one another. It was described by Volta in a
letter of 20 March 1800 to Sir Joseph Banks, headed; <i>"On the
electricity excited by the mere contact of conducting substances of
different kinds"</i>. </blockquote>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
I have the pleasure
to communicate to you, sir, and by your means, to the Royal Society,
some striking results obtained by pursuing my experiments on the
electricity excited only by the simple contact of metals of a
different kind, and even by that of other conductors, still differing
from each other, in consequence of their own fluidity, or of their
containing some moisture to which they properly owe their conducting
power. The principal of these results, which comprehends nearly all
the others, is the construction of an apparatus which resembles in
its effects, that is, in the commotions it excites, the Leyden phial,
or rather the electrical batteries slightly charged, which however
continue to act, and after each explosion, recharge themselves; in
other words which contain an inexhaustible charge, an action or an
impulse of the electrical fluid apparently perpetual. The apparatus,
however, differs from the Leyden phial, not only by this peculiar
continued action, but (instead of consisting, like the usual bottles
or batteries, of one or many insulated laminae, of bodies considered
as electrics, armed with non-electric conductors) by its being formed
only of non-electrics, particularly of the best non-conductors; and
thus, according to the common opinion, most distant from an
electrical nature.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The Volta letter had
to pass through France, then at war with Britain, with Volta seeming
to have expected problems of communication, as he sent his letter in
two parts. While waiting for the second part Banks showed the first
pages to his friend Carlisle, who immediately began trying to repeat
Volta's experiments, with a February 1800 report of his experiments
in the Philosophical Magazine;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Mr Carlisle has
lately made some interesting experiments which prove the identity of
the electric and galvanic fluid. A number of plates of silver (say 40
or 50 crowns or half-crowns) piled alternately with plates of zinc,
with pieces of wetted pasteboard between each to complete the
galvanic chain, will not only give an electric shock to the person
who touches the top and bottom of the series, but continue to give an
uninterrupted stream of the electric fluid, which being passed
through water, decomposes it completely. If gold, silver, or platina
wire be employed to carry the electric matter into and from the
water, both oxygen and hydrogen are liberated; but if oxydable metals
are employed, hydrogen only.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm; text-align: justify;">
Nicholson
joined him and they later replicated the experiment. In July 1800
Nicholson published; </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i>"Galvanic Electricity, and its
Chemical Agencies"</i><span style="font-style: normal;"> setting
out the experiment. The action of the instrument was observed to be
freely transmitted through the usual conductors of electricity, but
stopped by glass and non-conductors. Early in this course, the
contacts were made sure of, by placing a drop of water on the upper
plate and Carlisle observed a disengagement of gas round the
touching-wire. This appeared to Nicholson to have the smell of
hydrogen whenever the wire of communication was of steel. The
experiment was varied, and the circuit broken by the substitution of
a tube of water between two wires. A compound discharge being
applied, so that the external ends of its wire were in contact with
the two extreme plates of a pile of thirty-six half-crowns, with the
correspondent pieces of zinc and pasteboard, a fine stream of minute
bubbles immediately began to flow from the point of the lower wire in
the tube which communicated with the silver, and the opposite point
of the upper wire became tarnished, first deep orange, and then
black. </span></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Experiments of this nature having continued, two-thirtieths of
a cubic inch of gas was obtained, and this being mixed with an equal
quantity of air, it was exploded by the application of a lighted
waxed thread. They then took a small tube filled with water and
inserted wires from the Voltaic pile at each end. To their
astonishment the other suspected constituent of water, oxygen, did
not appear at the same place, but at the other wire 'at a distance of
almost two inches'. Thus they had discovered electrolysis and were
able to show the proportions of the hydrogen and oxygen gases as 2:1.
Humphry Davy followed on the work of Carlisle with experiments using
the battery, the invention of which he later described as ‘an
alarm-bell to experimenters in every part of Europe’. He confided
to his notebook on 6 August 1800; 'I cannot close this notice without
feeling grateful to M. Volta, Mr Nicholson, and Mr Carlisle, whose
experience has placed such a wonderful and important instrument of
analysis in my power'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
Within a few years electrolysis was used by Davy to isolate sodium,
potassium, calcium, strontium, barium, magnesium, and lithium, as
stepping stones to other discoveries.</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
Methane
was a real risk in mines and to assist in reviving asphyxiated
miners. There was a major reduction in the risk after Davy invented
his safety lamp, and the Welsh coal mines of John Symmons, Carlisle's
father-in-law, were used for an early trial. Included in the
<i>"Collected
Works of Sir Humphry Davy"</i> is a letter of 27 January 1817,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a> addressed to Symmons, concerning the introduction of the Davy Safety
Lamp to his coal mines, from his mine manager, George Morris, Plas
Issa. (It is interesting to ponder if George Morris was son of the
John Morris, who Symmons tried to save from the gallows in 1804.) -
</div>
<br />
To John Simmons [sic], Esq., Paddington-House.
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
Sir;- You will be
pleased to recollect that some time in the month of June last, I
applied to you with a request you would send me immediately some of
Sir Humphry Davy's safety lamps, in consequence of an explosion of
the fire-damp taking place in one of your coal mines, by which
several of the men were dreadfully burnt and bruised. On the arrival
of the safety lamps, no accurate account of their use accompanied
them. But I at length obtained (I think) the Edinburgh Review, in
which was a detail of some experiments. This I read to the colliers,
which gave them some confidence in the lamps prior to which they
secretly treated them with silent contempt; and I found
notwithstanding these interesting details, that a great doubt existed
in their minds. I therefore was obliged to give the most peremptory
orders to prepare to descend, and assisting in every preparation and
execution myself. But the men's wives, &c. had collected and made
so much noise and lamentations that it was with some difficulty, I
could keep them off; having got over this obstacle, and the men down
in the pit, instantaneous destruction was momentarily anticipated,
when the least noise was heard. I, however had not the least alarm or
the smallest doubt of success, and consequently did all I could to
remove their dreadful anxiety. The men had no sooner descended than
the enemy was discovered, which they say very much alarmed them, and
they would have retreated if they could, but finding that impossible,
took courage, and soon found they had destroyed the enemy; so far
advancing a little farther, they found him again, and again destroyed
him, and so on through the whole work. Thus the first alarm was got
over, when all the knowing men in the neighbourhood were got
collected together to hear the result, all of which were astonished
and amazed, that so simple-looking an instrument should destroy and
defy an enemy, heretofore unconquerable. The same precaution and use
of the lamp, was gone through the second day, and when the damp was
destroyed, we began working and continued to work in this way for
some weeks. Geo. Morris.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="xref-ref-19-1"></a><a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="xref-ref-21-1"></a>
In
June 1801 the Board of the Royal Institution appointed a Committee
for Chemical Investigation and Analysis. Nicholson and Carlisle were
appointed founder members. The committee was chaired by Charles
Hatchett and within a short time had secured autonomy from the
Committee of Managers in respect of their membership, which was to be
limited to committee-approved nominees. Though only intermittently
active, the RI Chemistry Committee exerted considerable power over
the development of the Laboratory. It quickly gained control of the
requisitioning of chemical materials and of small items of apparatus.
Thus Carlisle was recognized as an important chemist in a position of
significant influence, as his father-in-law John Symmons was at the
same time on the RI Committee of Science. The
importance of Carlisle and Nicholson's discovery of electrolysis was
remarked upon by many 19C authors. From 1804, when Charles Henry
Wilkinson wrote <i>Elements
of Galvanism, in theory and practice,</i> to 1856
by Sir William Snow Harris in <i>“Rudimentary
Treatise on Galvanism”</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
In
the 21C the importance of electrolysis is even more pronounced. It is
used in chemistry and manufacturing as a method of separating
chemically bonded elements and compounds by passing an electric
current through them. The
discoveries, have led to the enormous electro-chemical industry of
the 21C, and the ability of man to send rockets to the Moon. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A
missed opportunity for Carlisle, was the discovery of surgical
anaesthetics. Davy and Coleridge met in 1799 and become
close friends, with Davy introducing Coleridge to Carlisle later that
year, when they conversed, and Carlisle spoke on the subject of pain.
On 2 December 1800, Coleridge wrote to Davy about the conversation,
where they had discussed nitrous oxide<span style="font-style: normal;">;</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">...the effects produced by your
gas? Did Carlisle ever communicate with you, or has he in any way
published, his facts concerning Pain, which he mentioned when we were
with him? It is a subject which exceedingly interests me, I want to
read something by someone expressly on Pain, if only to give an
encouragement to my own thoughts, though if it were well treated, I
have little doubt it would revolutionize them.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
The
discussion should have led Davy and Carlisle to consider nitrous
oxide as an anaesthetic, but the opportunity passed them by and it
was fifty years before anaesthetics were used during surgical
operations. That
same year, Carlisle said time had arrived for additions to 'our
humane resources to determine ways of abating the sum of pain in
violent operations'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
He rejected
iced water to dull pain, instead considering the mood of the
operating rooms the best way to help the patient; with 'easy
cheerfulness', 'animated conversation' and 'humorous stories' to
divert patients. He claimed 'interrogations about remote concerns'
and 'argumentative disputes most efficacious' to the point that some
patients had asked, 'Is that all?' This manner contrasted with
earlier generations of surgeons who encouraged patients to vocalise
sensations as a way of expelling pain. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
<b>Fredrich Accum</b><br />
A friend of Carlisle was Friedrich Accum (1769-1838) a German chemist who came to London and made important advances in the areas of gas lighting, the fight against poisonous foods, and in the popularizing of chemistry. After working as an apothecary, Accum pursued scientific studies and attended medical lectures at the School of Anatomy in Great Windmill Street, where he met, and was taken under the wing of Carlisle, who introduced him to other scientists, including Nicholson. In 1798 Accum published his first article in Nicholson’s Journal. Accum lived for a while with Carlisle and the influence of Accum's birthplace of Westphalia can be seen in Carlisle's Gothic novel, <i>"The Old Woman"</i>, written in 1800, where there is a character named Mrs Westphalia.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a> In 1801, as a result of Carlisle's influence on the Chemistry Committee, Accum was offered a position at the Royal Institution as an assistant under Humphry Davy, who had been hired at the same time as director of the laboratory, and later become President of the Royal Society.</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Accum’s employment at the Royal Institution was limited, and he left in 1803, his leaving coinciding with the efforts of Frederick Winsor, who was promoting a company for the introduction of gas lighting in London. In the winter of 1803–1804, Winsor gave a series of spectacular demonstrations on the benefits of gas lighting at the Lyceum Theatre. A witness described how the theatre was brilliantly illuminated by inflammable air, with tubes of gas fixed round the ceiling, the boxes, and the stage, supplied from a reservoir below. Initially there was great fear of the invention. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Accum did much research with gas and presented himself before Parliament as an expert witness on the safety of gas lighting. In 1809 he assured the House of Commons that if properly done and with no danger of the gas bursting the pipe, gas illumination was not just as safe as tallow light, but greatly superior. At the behest of the Gas Light and Coke Company, Accum carried out other experiments on the subject, and in 1812 become a director of the company. The use of gas lighting in both private and public contexts spread rapidly after the establishment of the first large scale gas plant, in the design of which Accum was instrumental. It was largely thanks to him, that by 1815 the streets of Westminster were lit by gas lamps rather than by lanterns. His publication on gas-lighting<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a> was favourably reviewed in 1819, being written in English in a style accessible to the general public of the period. Accum in this way made important contributions to the popularization of chemistry. </div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In 1820, he publishe<span style="font-style: normal;">d a </span><i>"Treatise on Adulterations of Food, and Culinary Poisons"</i><span style="font-style: normal;">,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a> where he denounced the use of </span>poisoned foodstuffs. Although his book sold extremely well, his attempts to raise public awareness made him many enemies among London foodstuff purveyors.
Accum left England for Berlin, after a strange lawsuit was brought against him. The lawsuit arose after a librarian of the Royal Institution named Sturt. reported that, on 5 November 1820, a number of pages were removed from books in the reading room of the Institution. Books Accum had been reading. On the instructions of his superiors, Sturt cut a small hole in the wall of the reading room to watch Accum. On 20 December, Sturt saw Accum tear pages from a copy of Nicholson's Journal, being a paper concerning the ingredients and uses of chocolate. Accum's premises were searched on the order of a magistrate and the torn pages were indeed discovered there.
The magistrate hearing the case, observed that however valuable the books might be, the leaves separated from them were only waste paper. If they had weighed a pound he would have committed Accum for the value of a pound of waste paper, but this not being the case he discharged him. The Royal Institution was unsatisfied with the judgement, and proposed further legal action. In Accum's defence, on 10 January 1821, an open letter appeared in The Times addressed to Earl Spencer. The letter was signed 'A C', and it was widely believed Carlisle was the author.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
From a knowledge of
Mr Accum's character, I am aware of his inability to make a competent
apology for himself, and I am also convinced that the misconduct of
which he is accused never appeared to his mind with the same moral
turpitude as it does to men of more refined education ... from an
acquaintance with his habits, I know the alleged misconduct to be the
same as he would adopt in his own library, and what he constantly
practices among the material and utensils of his laboratory. He was
brought up to witness a similar kind of destructive waste by the late
lamented Mr W Nicholson, whose zeal for science and heedlessness as
to the value of literary materials made him tear up books and destroy
expensive apparatus to save time and trouble. I am confident that Mr
Accum and Mr Nicholson have never estimated books beyond their
crucibles, or even the coals to be consumed in their experiments.
With them a printed volume was considered in the abstract as a mere
vehicle for knowledge, and its destruction, like that of a pot or a
pan, rather beneficial to trade, than a venial offence. ... I humbly
observe, that if the same misconduct had through inadvertence been
detected in other gentlemen belonging to the Royal Institution, whose
origin and education have not been above that of the party now
accused, they would have found many apologists more potent than your
Lordship's present addresser, and your most respectful and dutiful
servant. A.C.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Accum
and Nicholson had looked on books as no more valuable than
'crucibles' or even pots and pans, so Carlisle tried to get the
debate into perspective. The Institution did commence a second
lawsuit against Accum, for theft of paper valued at 14 pence, but
when he fled to Germany, he effectively admitted his guilt. In
pursuing Accum, the Institution forced a brilliant chemist and social
activist for safer food to be lost. Carlisle
showed his willingness to support an under-dog, who might otherwise
be undefended, and also a wish to propose scientific solutions as he
saw them, even if this resulted in being sidelined or ridiculed by
those unable, or unwilling, to comprehend his arguments.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<b>Preservation
of Food</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The
canning of food, to preserve it, became important during the
Napoleonic Wars. The larger armies of the period required increased,
regular supplies of quality food. Limited food availability was among
the factors limiting military campaigns to the summer and autumn
months.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The
French government decided to offer a cash award of 12,000 francs to
any inventor who could devise a cheap and effective method of
preserving large amounts of food. The honour of the discovery is
often given to French confectioner and brewer, Nicolas Appert, who in
1809 observed that food cooked inside a jar did not spoil unless the
seals leaked, and developed a method of sealing food in glass jars.
This method was later used with bottles and tins. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
But,
although he has been previously unrecognised for it, Carlisle had in
fact published instructions for a similar invention, to preserve both
anatomical preparations and food, six years earlier, in 1803;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
It
is frequently desirable to close the openings of wide-mouthed vessels
intended to contain substances which would be injured by free
exposure to the atmosphere, or to evaporation. The present
observations, however, originate in attempts made to improve the art
of preserving anatomical preparations … The methods ordinarily
adopted for closing glass vessels used for these purposes, have been
ground glass stoppers, well soaked bladders, with a middle plate of
thick sheet lead, to keep the top level, and plates of glass luted
with glaziers putty. ... The ground glass stoppers are seldom
air-tight, but when they are, it happens that by the accumulating of
particles of dust in the fitting, the stopper becomes in a few years
immoveable. ... The method I have now adopted, is to have a glass jar
with a groove half an inch deep round the outside of the top or
mouth, and a glass lid, like that used by confectioners in their show
glasses, the lid sitting loosely into the groove is rendered air
tight by hog's lard, a substance never quite fluid at the highest
temperature of this climate, and always soft enough in the cold
season to admit of removing the lid or top. The first glass of this
kind was made to my order by Mr Parker in Fleet-street, to contain
twenty ounce measures of water and the cost was five shillings. A
similar adjustment for the lids of earthen jars, to contain pickles,
preserves, &c seems both eligible and easy in practice.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
It
therefore seems likely Appert experimented after reading Carlisle's
letter in Nicholson's Journal
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<b>Sound, sonar, and steam</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle's
exp<span style="font-style: normal;">eriments were not limited to
flight by humans. He followed up on the work of Lazzaro</span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">
Spallanzani (1729-1799) </span></span><span style="font-style: normal;">an
Italian biologist who made extensive experiments on the navigation in
complete darkness by bats. Spallanzani concluded they had sensory
capacities he could not explain. This challenge was taken in
1794 by the French naturalist Georges Cuvier (1769-1832), a pioneer
in both anatomy and palaeontology, who decreed in a paper published
in 1795; 'the organs of touch seem sufficient to explain all the
phenomena which bats exhibit'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a>
Carlisle instead concluded bats avoided obstacles owing to extreme
acuteness of hearing, but he was a voice in the wilderness for many
years. With Carlisle as the exception, the view of Spallanzani
prevailed, as
in a book of 1834;
</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Bats have been supposed to possess a peculiar or sixth sense enabling
them to perceive the situations of external objects without the aid
either of vision or of touch. The principal facts upon which this
opinion has been founded were discovered by Spallanzani who observed
that these animals would fly about rapidly in the darkest chambers
although various obstacles were purposely placed in their way without
striking against or even touching them. They continued their flight
with the same precision as before threading their way through the
most intricate passages even when their eyes were completely covered
or even destroyed. Mr Jurine who made many experiments on these
animals concludes that neither the sense of touch of hearing or of
smell was the medium through which bats obtain perceptions of the
presence and situation of surrounding bodies but he ascribes this
extraordinary faculty to the great sensibility of the skin of the
upper jaw mouth and external ear which are furnished with very large
nerves.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Roget had
the caution to observe in a footnot<span style="font-style: normal;">e;
'Sir Anthony Carlisle attributes this power to the extreme delicacy
of hearing in this animal.' </span>According to Carlisle's
experiments, the British long eared bat was entirely at a loss if,
when blinded, its ears were also stopped; for in that condition the
blinded bats struck against the sides of the room and seemed to be
quite unaware of their position.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
As also
stated by Bingley; 'Some persons have supposed that this power of
avoiding obstacles in the dark is dependent principally on the ears;
for, when the ears of the blinded Bats were closed, they flew against
the sides of the room, and did not seem at all aware of their
situation. Several Bats were collected together by Mr Carlisle, for
the purpose of the above experiments, and they were preserved in a
box for more than a week.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
In 1836, the American John Godman expressed a negative view;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Mr Carlisle, who experimented in England with the large-eared Bat (V.
Auritus) concluded that this faculty was owing to extreme acuteness
of hearing, as the bat, when its ears were covered flew against
objects, as if unconscious of their presence; it is probable,
however, that there was some unobserved source of fallacy in this
experiment. A much more satisfactory and philosophical mode of
explaining this curious circumstance was offered by the celebrated
Cuvier, who sheds light wherever he directs his attention. In a paper
read May 1796, this naturalist referred it to the exquisite sense of
touch resident in the membranous skin forming the wings, ears, &c
as had been previously hinted at by Odier. During the flight of the
blinded bat, whenever it approaches any object, the air set in motion
by its wings reacts against their surface with a greater or less
degree of force, and being in this manner warned of the proximity of
the object, it avoids injury by changing its course.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
A similar negative American view of Carlisle's research was made in a
review of a book by Wulf;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
We find nothing in it which has not been better told elsewhere,
unless it be perhaps a letter from Sir Anthony Carlisle, to whom the
volume is dedicated, containing what Dr Wolff calls, 'some valuable
observations of my friend, Sir Anthony Carlisle, illustrative of his
views of the subject of acoustics'. To us the 'observations' seem to
possess no value whatever; but rather to belong to that figure of
speech, if it may be so called, to which the moderns have applied the
term 'twaddle'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.07cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Ignoring Carlisle, for 120 years scientists followed Cuvier, even
though in 1859 Mitchell had noted;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.52cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Sir A Carlisle, by the simple
experiment of closing its ears, found that the bat owed its power of
directing its flight and avoiding impediments, to the refinement of
its sense of hearing. That once lost, the little animal struck
against everything in its way. Seeing such discrepancy of opinion
[i.e. with Cuvier], I repeated these experiments, and found that Sir
A Carlisle had reached the proper conclusion, for the bat on which I
operated flew as well without eyes as with them, but ceased to be
able to avoid obstructions when his ears were plugged, or his organ
of hearing destroyed by a probe. The exquisite audition of the bat
was shown by his easy and safe flight when blinded, even amid the
most perplexing labyrinths. When he was in a large room, his circular
flight was conformed to its dimensions, and when he entered a long
hall, he flew from end to end of it without touching a single
obstruction. .... In a second suite of experiments I did not disturb
the eyes of the bat, but contented myself with destroying his sense
of hearing, when, to my great surprise, I saw him lose entirely his
power of avoiding the walls and other obstructions of the apartment.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.07cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Carlisle also wrote of sonar, as used by whales;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
In the whale tribe,
aerial thunder issues from their lungs, and the booming of their
voices is well adapted to convey intelligence of distances to each
other, when parted by ice-islands; while their organs of hearing,
adapted by filling the tympanum with water, become hydrophonic
organs, and tell the distant collision of stones, of rocks, and
icebergs.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
</div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Then
in 1920,
a British researcher, Hamilton Hartridge (1879-1941) who had helped
to develop the first naval sonar systems during World War 1,
published the first clearly stated theory of bat navigation by
ultrasound. This was duly confirmed, using newly developed recording
devices, by Galambos and Griffin, who published their results in
1941. Eric Laithwaite (1921-1997), an engineer with a keen interest
in natural technology observed that the confirmation of Carlisle's
theory only needed to have been discovered a few years earlier, to
have saved the 1,500 lives lost when the Titanic hit an iceberg in
1912. Bats do not fly into icebergs or anything else, and hence it
should have been possible to work why that was. Laithwaite
perceptively adding;
</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.43cm;">
<br />
Trying
to discover how a biological mechanism works, has an advantage over
solving problems in non-biological areas, since one is sure the
problem can be solved. Since Nature has already solved her problems,
the researcher has the sure knowledge that a solution exists.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Carlisle's
acute mind even solved a puzzle relating to sound in playing of the
ancient Grecian lyre;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br />
I
immediately observed to Mr Bonomi, that I was deeply interested in
knowing in what manner this instrument was played upon; when, to my
surprise and delight, he confirmed what I had long before stated in
“<i>The Harmonicon”,</i> what writers on music such as Burney had
failed to understand. He stated that<i> the strings are stopped at
various parts, by the fingers,</i> and he produced, an illustration
... in which a Nubian, having passed the left wrist behind the
transverse band, applies the tips of his fingers for this purpose.
That accurate observer and profound physiologist, Sir Anthony
Carlisle, who was present at the time, remarked that the number of
the strings thus requiring to be stopped had evidently been regulated
by that of the fingers which might be applied to them. I need not say
with what pleasure I thus found long previous reflection confirmed,
with what happiness I saw that I had dispelled the errors as to the
Grecian lyre, or how much it has convinced me of the utility of
observing and thinking, without much regard for written authorities.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Carlisle
was friendly with Sir Goldsworthy Gurney (1793–1875) a surgeon, chemist, lecturer, consultant, architect,
builder and prototypical British gentleman scientist and inventor. Gurney practised as a surgeon, but became interested in
chemistry and mechanical science; he was also an accomplished
pianist, and constructed his own piano. Gurney moved to London in
1820, apparently discontented with rural life and wishing to seek his
fortune. The family settled at 7 Argyle Street, near Hanover Square,
where Gurney continued to practice as a surgeon. [An intriguing
coincidence is that Thomas Wakley moved to 5 Argyle Street, also in
1820. They were thus neighbours, so Gurney's greater success in
gaining clients was perhaps behind Wakley's arson. Perhaps also,
Carlisle's friendship with Gurney was another burr under Wakley's
saddle.]
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
In
1815 it was announced; 'Mr Goldsworthy Gurney is about to publish a
Series of Lectures on the Elements of Chemical Science, lately
delivered at the Surrey Institution',<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
where he was appointed lecturer in 1822. His lectures in the 1822-3
period included one on the application of steam power to road
vehicles. He was also of a practical bent, and in 1823 was awarded an
Isis gold medal of the Royal Society of Arts for devising an
oxy-hydrogen blowpipe. By 1825, he had started practical work on a
steam carriage, taking space for a small workshop in Oxford Street
and filing a first patent for "An apparatus for propelling
carriages on common roads or railways - without the aid of horses,
with sufficient speed for the carriage of passengers and goods".
His work encompassed the development of the blastpipe, which used
steam to increase the flow of air through a steam engine's chimney,
so increasing the draw of air over the fire and, in short, much
increasing the power-to-weight ratio of the steam engine. In 1826 he
purchased a manufacturing works at, and moved his family to living
space in, 154 Albany Street, near Regent's Park, and proceeded to
improve the designs of his carriages. Whilst the carriages had
technical merit and much promise, he was commercially unsuccessful;
by the spring of 1832 he had run out of funding and was forced to
auction his remaining business assets, eventually losing a great deal
of his own and investors money.</div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Carlisle's
involvement is confirmed by the early balloonist, Francis Maceroni
(1788-1846) who became interested in the work of Sir Goldsworthy
Gurney and attached himself to Gurney's Regent's Park workshop on the
recommendation of Carlisle. He witnessed one of the early carriage
contracts, and persuaded several friends to invest in the enterprise.
One of Gurney's vehicles was sufficiently robust to make a journey in
July 1829 from London to Bath and back, nearly 200 miles, at an
average speed for the return journey of 14 miles per hour—including
time spend in refuelling and taking on water. His daughter Anna, in a
letter to The Times in December 1875, noted; "I never heard of
any accident or injury to anyone with it, except in the fray at
Melksham, on the noted journey to Bath, when the fair people set upon
it, burnt their fingers, threw stones, and wounded poor Martyn the
stoker". The vehicle had to be escorted under guard to Bath to
prevent further Luddite type attacks.<br />
<br />
Maceroni also commented; 'One
day, I think it was in August 1826, it was a Saturday, walking with,
Mr Gurney in the Regent's Park he told me that after all his
application and labour, and after having so nearly brought the
invention to a successful issue, he was on the very eve of being
utterly ruined and overthrown, for want of a little more pecuniary
assistance. That very day, he said, he had been obliged to borrow a
sovereign of a friend (whom I need not name), in order to make up his
men's weekly wages'. It is likely Carlisle was the friend, as Percy
recorded;<span style="font-weight: normal;"> "Mr
Brunel, the elder, said a very good thing the other evening at a
party, where Sir Anthony Carlisle was lamenting how a friend of his
had ruined himself by his steam-carriage projects: “Ah, poor man,
he want his carriage to go, and instead of that he go himself.”"<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
Thus even Brunel seemed opposed, as Gurney was bankrupted with debts
of £232,000. It is likely Carlisle lost money on the venture. In an
1835 a parliamentary enquiry, Gurney gave evidence concerning his
lectures;</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;">Had you a large class? Yes; for the
views I had with regard to chemistry were thought to be original and
valuable: in consequence of this feeling I had very eminent men as
pupils. I mention this solely to show that my views were considered
valuable and sound by scientific men. The late Dr Luke was a pupil of
mine, at the time he was 60 years of age, and in full practice; the
celebrated Dr Armstrong, Sir A Carlisle, and a great many other
eminent physicians and surgeons in extensive practice.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
An important observation by Carlisle enabled Gurney to reduce the
incidence of boiler explosions;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-weight: normal;">A fact was mentioned to him by Sir
Anthony Carlisle, which throws considerable light upon the subject,
and first led him to experiments respecting it. The case was that a
boiler at Mr Meux's brewery, with an open top, a common cauldron,
burst with a violent explosion, by which one man was killed and two
very severely scalded. There was no cover at all on the vessel. This
phenomenon, upon inquiry, appeared to be occasioned by gelatinous
matter, forming a crust, a film, or blister, and prevented the
contact of water with the bottom of the boiler; the bottom of the
boiler, consequently, got hot; the compound alluded to was formed, or
the rupture of this film, and the sudden contact of water against the
hot surface below, produced such an immense and sudden volume of
steam, that it burst the boiler.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
After Maceroni left Gurney he commenced his own steam carriage
project in competition. Friendly with both Gurney and Maceroni,
Carlisle was thus awkwardly positioned, when Maceroni stated;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
Mr Gurney caused me to be arrested on my premises for a pretended
claim of £150, six years, five months, and twenty-six days, after
the date of the note of hand … Mr Gurney has subsequently attempted
to throw the odium of the persecution on his bankers, Sir James
Cockburn and Co; but he perhaps does not remember, that a month
before his cowardly sneaking attempt upon my liberty, he told Sir
Anthony Carlisle of his intention, and boasted of having it in his
power to put a stop to the brilliant feats of my Steam Carriage, and
nip my prospects in the bud by clapping me into prison.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
A key development by Gurney was the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, often
credited to Robert Hare (1781-1858), a professor at University of
Pennsylvania, in which an intensely hot flame was created by burning
a jet of oxygen and hydrogen together. The blowpipe was the
underpinning of limelight, a type of stage lighting once used in
theatres and music halls, with Gurney as its first exponent in the
1820's. While engaged at the Surrey Institution Gurney invented the
‘oxy-hydrogen’ blowpipe. Before the invention of Gurney's
blowpipe the risk of accident was so great that recourse was seldom
had to oxy-hydrogen. Gurney experimented on different materials, and
by fusing lime and magnesia he discovered the powerful limelight
known as the ‘Drummond Light,’ because first used by Thomas
Drummond (1797–1840) in his trigonometrical survey of Ireland in
1826–7. But Drummond, in a letter to Joseph Hume, chairman of a
committee of the House of Commons on lighthouses, stated that ‘he
had no claim to the invention of the light, for he had it from Mr.
Gurney in 1826.’ Gurney, at the request of Carlisle, made some
experiments in crystallisation and the limelight before the Duke of
Sussex and Prince (afterwards King) Leopold, and the duke personally
presented him with the gold medal of the Society of Arts voted for
the invention of the blowpipe. Gurney was present at Sir W. Snow
Harris's experiment on Somerset House Terrace with wire for the ship
lightning-conductor. He remarked to Carlisle, in reference to the
magnetic needle: ‘Here is an element which may, and I foresee will,
be made the means of intelligible communication.’
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The blowpipe itself produced a flame hot enough to melt such
refractory materials as platinum, porcelain, and fire brick, and was
a valuable tool in several fields of science. In essence, Hare's
blowpipe also arose out of the 1800 discovery by Carlisle and
Nicholson that water was comprised of oxygen and hydrogen. Some
sources credit Edward Daniel Clarke (1769-1822) with the invention of
the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, but in 1839 Hare was the first ever winner
of the American Rumford Prize, awarded for the invention of the
oxy-hydrogen blowpipe. Although founded in 1796, the first Rumford
Prize was not awarded until 1839, as the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences could not find anyone who, in their judgement, deserved the
award. The prize was then not awarded again until 1862. In an unusual
crossover, in 1854 Hare converted to Spiritism, writing several books
which made him famous as a Spiritualist, including a book entitled
<i>“Experimental Investigation of the Spirit Manifestations”,</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
</span>criticized by his own co-workers, but welcomed by
Spiritualists.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.06cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 0.06cm;">
In
1833 Carlisle was one of the prominent men who gave public lectures
on science and literature to the Marylebone Literary and Scientific
Institution. The lectures were so popular, the Institution took
spacious premises situated at 17 Edwards Street, Portman Square. In
1834 it was reported a lecture room was to be built in the rear of
the premises capable of containing at least 600 persons. As an
interim step, the handsome and spacious suite of rooms on the first
floor were thrown into one for the delivery of lectures. The image
shows the opening of the lecture theatre on 4 March 1835, with a
lecture by Lord Brougham. As Carlisle was a vice-president of the
Institution, one can presume he is among the audience.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.06cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.06cm;">
Carlisle
did have blind spots, as in evidence to a 1836 Parliamentary Enquiry
on his concern of the adverse effects on passengers of travelling
through railway tunnels. One proposed tunnel was the Balcome Tunnel
between London and Brighton, intended to be 800 yards long. Carlisle
stated he had made a study of the effects of tunnels, speaking at
length on the dangers to people with weak lungs, inflammatory
diseases, erysipelas, rheumatism or lumbago in the gaseous damp
environment; which would be added to by each train. Carlisle was
technically correct but, as was pointed out, that was no worse than
riding through London in a coach on a foggy night with the windows
up. Despite their importance, Carlisle's experimentation with flight,
photography, food preservation, steam, sonar, and electrolysis, were
regarded as pure research, to be pursued with friends, with the
knowledge gained freely passed onto to fellow philosophers, hence
fame and fortune passed him by.</div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a><i>
The Georgian Era: Military and naval commanders,</i> Vol II, London,
Visetelly, Branston and Co, 1833, p 588
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Humble, J G, and Hansell, Peter, <i>Westminster Hospital 1716-1974</i>,
London, Pitman, 1974, p 48</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
<i>The London Magazine,</i> London, Baldwin, 1784, p 312-313</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
Wadd, William, <i>Nugæ chirurgicæ; or, A biographical miscellany,
</i>London, Longmans, 1824, p 258</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Internet,
http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/GEN-TRIVIA-ENG/2007-07/1184488791
- May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Francis G, <i>The Magazine of Science and School,</i> London,
Francis, 1844, p 43</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a><i>The
Times</i>, London, 8 February, 1803</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Southey, Cuthbert, <i>The Life and Correspondence of Robert Southey,
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">London, Longmans, 1849, p 277</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
Saint-Fond, quoted in <i>The British Tourist's or Traveller's Pocket
Companion,</i> London, Mavor, Phillips, 1809, p 5</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
Saint-Fond, quoted in Stansfield, Dorothy A, <i>Thomas Beddoes MD
1760-1808</i>, Boston, D Reidel, 1984, p 18</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
Wilkinson, Henry, quoted in White, William, <i>Notes and Queries</i>,
Vol II, London, George Bell, 1851, p 251
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Humble, J G, and Hansell, Peter, <i>Westminster Hospital 1716-1974</i>,
London, Pitman, 1974, p 51</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a><i>
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, </i>September 1962, p 32
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted by Pritchard, J Laurence, <i>Sir George
Cayley,</i> London, Max Parrish, 1961, p 57-60
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Pritchard, J Laurence,<i> Sir George Cayley, the inventor of the
aeroplane</i>, Horizon, 1962, p 59
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
Woolley, Benjamin, <i>The Bride of Science</i>, New York,
McGraw-Hill, 1999, p 112-113</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
Cayley, George, quoted in <i>The Mechanic's Magazine</i>,Vol 26,
London, M Saloman, 1837, p 419</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
Private mail of 2 May 2011</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
Litchfield, R B, <i>Tom Wedgwood, the first photographer;</i>
London, Duckworth and Co, 1903, p 186</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>The Mechanic's Magazine, </i>London,
Robertson, 1839, p 329</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Schaaf, Larry J, <i>Records of the Dawn of Photography</i>,
Cambridge, CUP, 1996, p 7</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
Volta, Alessandro, quoted in Smollett, Tobias George, <i>The
Critical review, </i>Vol 32, London, Simpkin, 1801, p 297
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
Tilloch, Alexander, <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>, Vol VI, London,
Tilloch, 1800, p 372</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Davy, Humphry, quoted in Bakewell, Frederick Collier, <i>Electric
Science,</i> London, Ingram Cooke, 1853, p 33</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Davy, Sir Humphry, <i>Collected works. London, 1839-40, vol. VI</i>,
London, Smith, Elder and Co, 1840, p 99-100
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
Harris, William Snow,<i> Rudimentary Treatise on Galvanism</i>,
London, John Weale, 1856, p 131-132</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, <i>Letters</i>,
http://inamidst.com/coleridge/letters/365 accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in<span style="font-style: normal;">
Stanley, Peter,</span><i> For Fear of Pain,</i> Amsterdam: Editions
Rodopi, 2003, p 284
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
Carver, Mrs, <i>The Old Woman</i>,
London, Minerva, 1800, Vol II, letter VIII</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Accum, Friedrich Christian, <i>A Practical Treatise on Gas-ligh</i>t,
London, R Ackermann, 1818
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Accum, Friedrich Christian, <i>A treatise on adulterations of food,
and culinary poisons,</i> London, Longmans, 1820
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a><i>
The Times,</i> London, 10 January, 1821</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Nicholson's Journal,</i> Vol VI, London,
Nicholson, 1803, p 68-69, p 145</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Scher, Jordan M, <i>Theories of the Mind</i>, Free Press of Glencoe,
1962, p 561</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Roget, Peter Mark, <i>Animal and Vegetable Physiology, </i>London,
William Pickering, 1834, p 567
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
<i>The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge</i>, London, C Knight, 1837, p 20
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
Bingley, William, <i>Animal Biology, or, Popular Zoology,</i>
London, Rivington, 1820, p 107</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Godman, John, <i>American Natural History</i>, Philadelphia, Hogan &
Thompson, 1836, p 43</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
Dunglison, Robley, <i>The American Medical Intelligencer,</i>
Philadelphia, Waldie, 1839, p 11</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
Mitchell, John Kearsley, and Mitchell, Silas Weir, <i>Five Essays</i>,
Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1859, p 211-212
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
Carlisle, Anthony quoted in <i>The
Illustrated Fly-Fisher's Text Book, </i></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-style: normal;">London,
Bohn, 1845, p 148</span></span>
<br />
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
Internet, <i>Skeptical Investigations</i>,
http://www.skepticalinvestigations.org/observer/bats.htm accessed
May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Walker, Donald.<i> Supplement to the Musical Library</i>, London,
Knight, 1834, p 54</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
Thomson, Thomas, <i>Annals of Philosophy</i>, London, Baldwin,
Craddock and Joy, 1815, p 397</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
Percy, Sholto, <i>Iron: An Illustrated Weekly Journal</i>, London,
Salmon, 1834, p 140 and 256</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
<i>Mr Goldsworthy Gurney</i>, House of Commons Papers, Vol XIII,
London, 1835, p 17</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
Gurney, Goldsworthy, in <i>The Register of Arts</i>, London, Steill,
1832, p 216</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
Maceroni, Francis, <i>Memoirs</i>, Vol II, London, Macrone, 1838, p
497</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
<i>Philosophical Magazine</i>, London, Longmans,1834, p 15</span>1</div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-39749145556177558212015-04-05T16:10:00.003-07:002021-11-26T09:44:16.004-08:0020 - Carlisle, Farington, and the Arts ©<div style="text-align: justify;">
Joseph Farington recorded in his diary in 1816; 'A Carlisle I met. According
to His visual custom to all, He put His question, "Are you
well?" — and then remarked that though thin I looked clear and
well, and that it was much better when old to be thin than fat, which
was a certain inconvenience'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
Although the patient records of Carlisle have not survived, there are
enough references to know he had many famous patients, as with the
actor, Edmund Kean (1789-1833) writing to Robert Elliston; <br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
You have pursued me by a trick, and I should deign you no reply; but I am
here, sir, under the direction of Sir Anthony Carlisle, and will not
stir from this place [Brighton] until I have gone through all the
routine of medicine and sea-bathing, prescribed for me by that great
man.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Carlisle
then replied to Elliston on Kean's behalf;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Theatre
Royal, Drury-lane, Saturday, July 28, 1821. The subjoined note, from
Mr Carlisle, proves the great impropriety of any attempt on Mr Kean's
part to appear this evening, and under the present circumstances of
the very extensive preparations for the Coronation, it has been
advisable to close the theatre. - Clarges-street, Friday, July 27,
1821. Dear Sir, Mr Kean is very unwell this morning, and the medicine
which I think needful for his recovery, will not have completed my
intention before late in the evening of tomorrow. I therefore think
it most prudent to put off his acting until Monday, indeed he might
not be capable tomorrow, and if called upon, he might be laid up for
many days afterwards. Ant Carlisle.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The
treatment by Carlisle was evidently successful, as the paper
reported; Drury Lane. Mr Kean finished his brief intercalation at
this Theatre on Monday, when he repeated his Richard III, in the
presence of the Queen. ... The part was performed with the wonted
energy of the actor, and we were glad to notice no symptoms of that
disorder which called forth such absurd medical certificates in the
play bills. Thanks to the efficacy of Mr Carlisle's doses, his
intentions were fully completed by Monday evening, and the restored
patient appeared in as big letters in the announcements, and as
vigorous glory on the stage as his ambition could covet. Both manager
and actor ought to leave off these Bartholomew-fair tricks; they are
degrading to the drama, and unworthy of themselves. Where so much
talent exists, such puffing is injurious, for it induces in every
mind the question whether there be really any talent; and, besides,
on every occasion where the system is omitted, the public impression
is, that there has been a great failure, when perhaps the merit and
the success have exceeded those instances bolstered up by quackery
(no allusion to Mr Carlisle) and showman trumpetings.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Several years later, Carlisle assisted in the preparation of the death mask
of Kean; 'We are glad to find, that, as a durable memorial of the
deceased, a posthumous bust of Mr Kean will be ready in about a week.
By permission of Mr Charles Kean, Sir A Carlisle, and Dr Carpue, a
mask of the face and cranium was taken by Mr C Panormo, of Tottenham
Court Road. We regard the mask (from which the bust is to be
sculptured) as a very faithful resemblance'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>
Another patient was
Coleridge who had and his addiction to opium. In 1810 Mary Lamb<span style="font-style: normal;">
wrote to Miss Wordsworth; 'we had
many pleasant hours with Coleridge, - if I had not known how ill he
is I should have had no idea of it, for he has been very cheerful.
But yet I have no good news to send you of him, for two days ago,
when I saw him last, he had not begun his course of medicine &
regimen under Carlisle'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a>
Later, Mary Lamb commented on his treatment of Miss Monkhouse; </span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.43cm;">
<br />
Miss
Monkhouse left town yesterday, but I think I am able to answer all
your enquiries. I saw her on Sunday evening at Mrs [Basil] Montagu's.
She looked very well & said her health was greatly improved. She
promised to call on me before she left town but the weather having
been very bad I suppose has prevented her. She received the letter
which came through my brother's hands and I have learned from Mrs.
Montagu that all your commissions are executed. It was Carlisle that
she consulted, and she is to continue taking his prescriptions in the
country. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Southey
also wrote of Carlisle's medical treatment; 'Coleridge is in London,
gone professedly to be cured of taking opium and drinking spirits by
Carlisle, really because he was tired of being here [in Keswick], and
wanted to do more at his ease elsewhere. I have had a dismal letter
about him from Carlisle. The case is utterly hopeless'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a>
A student taught by Carlisle, later friendly with Coleridge, was
James Gillman of Highgate who acquired
his first knowledge of surgery from Keymer, but completed his medical
training in London, obtaining in 1811 a prize for his essay, "Bite
of a Rabid Animal,". This
was dedicated to 'Anthony Carlisle, F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the RA and
Surgeon to the Westminster Hospital'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
From 1816 Gillman became known as Coleridge's friend.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
made a mix of profound and provocative comments at his 1816 RA
lecture;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.43cm; margin-right: 0.49cm;">
<br />
The Professor
adduced examples of distinguished men, whose labours had been
directed both to Science and to the Arts. Among the ancients he
exemplified Socrates, in his youth an eminent statuary, in his
manhood the greatest moralist of the Greeks: at the revival of
learning, Leonardo da Vinci, a profound anatomist, a mathematician,
and a civil and military engineer: in the history of our country, Sir
Christopher Wren, bred a physician, who, in an age illustrious for
both, held the first rank among scholars and mathematicians, and who
by a synchronism, at which in our time we should marvel, was in the
same years the Architect of St Stephen's church and the President of
the Royal Society. The last name was that of Robert Hook. We admired
the forcible and dignified eloquence, and the discriminating
acuteness with which the learned Professor drew, in a few words, the
character of this great man. … <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Carlisle's choice of
Robert Hooke (1635 – 1703) is interesting, perhaps as Carlisle
identified himself with Hooke, whose name is largely forgotten in the
21C. Hooke is known for first applying the word 'cell' to describe
the basic unit of life. He was an English natural philosopher, whose
adult life comprised three distinct periods: as a brilliant
scientific inquirer lacking money; achieving great wealth and
standing through his reputation for hard work and scrupulous honesty,
but eventually becoming ill and party to jealous intellectual
disputes. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Joseph
Farington</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Conversations
with Carlisle were recorded by Joseph Farington (1747-1821), the
English landscape painter and author of The Farington Diary, a 17
volume diary of daily events kept from 1793 until 1821. The Diary
gives an insight into Carlisle. Farington and he were not close
friends, but being related, dined with one another. A conversation of
1806 told of Carlisle calling on Farington in a 'handsome chariot'
and explained Carlisle's method of charging his patients;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
Carlisle told me that in his practice as a surgeon, when he goes out
of town, he charges at the rate of a guinea a mile; and that for
every day he might be detained at any place he should charge ten
guineas a day, or seventy guineas a week; which he observed was not
too much, as more than that might be lost to him eventually owing to
his being absent when persons might apply to him and thereby losing
their custom.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Farington
and Susan Mary Hammond, a relative of the Walpole family, had married
in 1776, so he and Carlisle became related by marriage when Carlisle
married Martha Symmons in 1800. Martha being a distant cousin of
Horace Walpole, who wrote of their shared Philipps ancestors; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br />
On My mother's side
it has mounted the Lord knows whither, by the Philipps's to Henry
VIII, and has sucked in Dryden for a great-uncle: and by Lady
Philipps's mother, Darcy, to Edward III. and there I stop for
brevity's sake, especially as Edward III is a second Adam; who almost
is not descended from Edward I, as posterity will be from Charles II.
and all the princes in Europe from James I. I am the first antiquary
of my race. People don't know how entertaining a study it is. Who
begot whom is a most amusing kind of hunting; one recovers a
grandfather instead of breaking one's own neck, and then one grows so
pious to the memory of a thousand persons one never heard of before.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Entries
in Farington's Diary show Carlisle ate well, but did not drink wine,
on 2 March 1807;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Carlisle does not drink wine. He found it did not agree with him and
he left it off. He said persons who are in the habit of drinking
wine, if they go through the period of 40 to 50, may go on and live
to 70 or 70, but it is a cause of disorders frequently coming on at
60. He allowed that those who drink wine are less liable to
infectious fevers than those who abstain from it. In his opinion it
is better to get drunk once a week than to drink a pint of wine every
day. The liver, he said, is disturbed by wine. He admitted that there
are constitutions in which it is necessary and as such he
occasionally prescribes it. Dr Wolcot was spoken [by Peter Pindar] of
as being in a breaking up state. Carlisle and Mrs Carlisle were at a
house where in one day [Wolcot] drank a bottle of brandy. [Pindar]
said there were three things which would preserve a man, 'Fire,
Flannel, and Brandy'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
On 23 May
<span style="font-style: normal;">1812 Farington recorded; '[Carlisle
is] one of the strongest advocates against drinking wine, yet with
respect to eating, is intemperate to excess. After having indulged to
the utmost at a dinner of luxuries he will, by way of dessert, eat a
broiled herring or two with mustard and with all this having drank
only water, will gravely exclaim against temperate eaters who drink a
few glasses of wine. </span>As he did not drink, his comments to
Farington were not from his 'cups', and normally made over dinner.
His forthright opinions of men in medical and artistic fields were
thus made in a relaxed atmosphere, as with observations in 1808.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
- Matthew Baillie (1762-1823) a Scottish pat<span style="font-style: normal;">hologist
- 'Dr Baillie who has now a high reputation, has great knowledge of
anatomy, and was an excellent schoolmaster. He gave lectures in it,
but that he had not much medical knowledge, and held the power of
medicine very cheap. For this Carlisle blamed him, as by any
attention to the progress of a complaint, medicines may undoubtedly
be occasionally employed with great effect. ... Dr Baillie was
brought into practise very much by the recommendation of his
father-in-law, Dr Denman, who would to many, signify that there was
something in their constitution which required a physician well
acquainted with anatomy, which afforded him an opportunity of naming
Dr Baillie. Hence an anatomical physician, has become is some degree
fashionable.'</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
- Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792) a portrait painter and first
President of the RA -'Reynolds was a weak man and consequently not a
man capable of judging in cases where sagacity and penetration are
necessary.'</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
- John Coakley Lettsom (1744–1815) a physician and philanthropist
-'Lettsom, he allowed to be above Reynolds in understanding, but yet
an inferior man.'</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
- George Fordyce (1736-1802) a Scottish physician, lecturer on
medicine, and chemist - 'Dr George Fordyce, he said killed himself by
drinking which habit he commenced after the untimely death of his
son. The doctor [Fordyce] contended that if drinking caused some
disorders, it prevented others, and in this Carlisle agreed with
him.'</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
- Sir Francis Milman (1746-1821) personal physician to George III
during his 'madness'. - 'Sir Francis Milman he spoke of as being a
man of sense and very capable; but doubted whether he had had
sufficient experience.'
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
- Edward Ash (1764-1829) a physician in London - 'Dr Ash he mentioned
as being the best informed man of his profession; with the additional
advantage of an extraordinary memory.'</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
- William Mackinen Fraser (c1760-1807) physician extraordinary to the
Prince of Wales - 'Dr Fraser, who died lately, he said had injured
his constitution by drinking too much which had hurt some of the
viscera; but he had abstained from it latterly.'</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
- Sir Henry Halford (1766-1844) physician in ordinary successively
to, George III, George IV, William IV, and Queen Victoria, who
changed his name from Vaughan - 'Dr Vaughan, he spoke of as being a
man amiable in his manners, but one who did not seem to possess any
great power of mind.'<br />
- Richard Warren (1731-1797) physician to George III and Princess
Amelia - 'Carlisle said that the late Dr Warren was a man of
superior abilities; had great judgement; and strong reasoning
powers, so that said he, 'Dr Warren never killed in vain!' That is,
if he found that medicines which in certain cases were reputed to be
specified, and did not produce the effect expected, he would not
adhere to them as many physicians do secundum artem, but would
consider what might be more likely to meet the case with advantage.
He had also the power of keeping up the spirits of his patients,
always endeavouring to inspire them with hope even in desperate
cases, which greatly assisted his prescriptions.'<br />
-<span style="font-style: normal;"> Lord Camelford (1775-1804) Thomas
Pitt, </span>naval officer and wastrel, best known for bedevilling
George Vancouver during and after the latter's great voyage of
exploration, was killed in a duel. <span style="font-style: normal;">–
Carlyle [sic] the surgeon told us he was much acquainted with the
Lord Camelford. He said he was a man of superior abilities but of
singular character. That his prevailing feeling was </span><i>ambition</i><span style="font-style: normal;">.
That he had declared to him (Carlyle) that he had no </span><i>animal
courage </i><span style="font-style: normal;">and procured by any
means to get the better of a weakness in this respect, by attending
cock-fightings, pugilism, etc. That in him courage was a struggle of
sentiment against constitution. He was a good chemist, a most
excellent geographer, a good seaman, could do the business.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Several
years later on 14 November 1817 Farington recorded Carlisle's comment
on the unfortunate death of Charlotte, Princ<span style="font-style: normal;">ess
of Wales. 'Smirke called. He had met Carlisle, the surgeon, who was
full of the subject of the death of Princess Charlotte and of the
unsatisfactory conduct of the medical persons who attended her.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
This was soon followed by the suicide of the Princess's doctor, Sir
Richard Croft, from his realisation of what had happened.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>The Chevalier d'Eon</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5303513832090524562"></a>
An unusual autopsy conducted by Carlisle was that of Chevalier d'Eon
(1728-1810). Of all the ambassadors or diplomatists who ever served a
sovereign, perhaps the most extraordinary was the d'Eon,
extraordinary, not for his political abilities or services, but for
his personal history. There was no doubt about his gender when he was
born, as the doctor, midwife, and other people present in the
household when d'Eon was born confirmed him male. He grew up a normal
schoolboy, although his mother was said to sometimes dress him in his
sister's clothes. This was not unusual as many young boys appear in
18C and 19C portraits dressed as girls. As a young man he reputedly
had a slight, small body and delicate formed limbs, with a slender
waist, and small hands and feet. He completed his education in
College Mazarin in Paris, wrote several books, and became secretary
to Monsieur de Sauvigny, the fiscal administrator in Paris.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">In
1756 d'Eon joined the secret network of spies called Le Secret du Roi
which worked for King Louis XV who wanted to reconcile with Russia at
that time. He sent two ambassadors to discuss the issue with Empress
Elisabeth but failed because the men were banned from the court. In
order to penetrate into the court, he needed to send a woman, but a
woman could not handle the dangerous mission. Louis, believing a
French woman (renowned for their charm, diplomacy and guile, but not
for their intelligence) might pass through Elizabeth's door; hit on
the idea of sending a 'lady' diplomat - an intelligent and gifted man
in the guise of a woman. He persuaded d'Eon to go to Russia as 'Lia
de Beaumont'', his own 'sister'', with suitably forged documents
proving 'her' parentage and patronage. He was anointed with fragrant
perfumes, with curled hair, gowns, petticoats, and stockings, of the
richest materials and adorned with bracelets, a necklace, ear-rings,
and rings. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">D'Eon remained at the Russian court for two years,
although sometimes showed a masculine tendency in voice and manners.
Nevertheless, the ruse worked brilliantly; 'Lia' was able to spend
many hours in the company of Empress Elizabeth, persuading her to
write to Louis and invite a new ambassador to Moscow. 'Lia' took a
strong liking to his pampered feminine lifestyle, but returned to
Paris to report his success. Unbelievably he was re-despatched to
Moscow by Louis XV as an embassy secretary. D'Eon then proceeded to
double as Charles at the embassy, and 'Lia' at the Russian Court,
carving an enviable reputation as a spy! After a few years, when
Paris believed his double life was about to be exposed, he was
withdrawn. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
After George III ascended the throne. England and France, after many
years of war, were making overtures of conciliation and Duke de
Nivernois was sent by Louis XV as ambassador to negotiate terms of
peace. D'Eon, accompanied him as secretary and won general favour at
court; he was of impressive appearance, managed the duties of his
position with ability, and displayed a wide range of accomplishments.
While in London, d'Eon continued his dual role as a top spy; both
Charles and 'Lia' became an accepted part of the English Court and of
the social scene around London. They were, of course, never seen
together! One strange manifestation of this, and popular as a
diversion, was that of 'Lia' d'Eon, the lady fencer, challenging the
best swordsmen in or visiting the City! He also fenced with women,
as John Taylor
commented; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.43cm; margin-right: 0.46cm;">
<br />
Mrs Batiman forced
herself upon public attention by an exhibition of her skill in
fencing, in a contest with the celebrated Chevalier d'Eon. ... I
heard that poor Chevalier d'Eon after having distinguished himself as
a politician and an historian, disgraced his character by exhibiting
himself with this woman in fencing matches at several provincial
towns.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
So well did d'Eon
conduct himself, that in 1763 he became plenipotentiary minister in
London, d'Eon using his position to collect information for a
potential invasion. Louis XV then appointed the Count de Guercy his
permanent ambassador in England, and directed d'Eon to resume his
former position as secretary of the embassy. When d'Eon learned he
was to lose his post, he complained, and disobeyed the orders to
return to France. In pique, he published most of the secret
diplomatic correspondence about his recall under the title <i>"Lettres,
mémoires, et négociations"</i>, including an accusation of
drugging against Count de Guercy, who brought an action against d'Eon
for libel. As d'Eon made neither an appearance, nor a defence, the
verdict was given against him. The French authorities were so anxious
to arrest him, they made a forced entry into a house in Scotland
Yard; but d'Eon eluded them and charged Count de Guercy of conspiracy
to murder or injure him. In response, the Count, instead of rebutting
the charge, claimed his privileges as a foreign ambassador, so that
the public formed the opinion the conspiracy charge was justified. To
resolve the issue, in 1766, Louis XV granted d'Eon a 12,000 livre
annuity, provided be became a woman and lived in political exile in
London, but likely an attempt to humiliate him. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Thence forward,
d'Eon became regarded as Madame d'Eon, and assumed female attire.
There were then great disputes concerning the sex of d'Eon, one
coming before the courts in the case of Da Costa v Jones, as an
action to recover a wager. Da Costa claiming a wager that he should
receive from Jones a sum of £300 if d'Eon should ever be proved a
female. The case was tried before Lord Mansfield and d'Eon was
invited to give evidence to resolve the claim. However, d'Eon
declined, saying an examination would be dishonourable, whatever
gender was discovered. When the jury found a verdict for Da Costa,
and awarded damages of £300, they thereby affirmed d'Eon as female.
A motion was subsequently made on behalf by Jones to arrest the
judgement, or at least to stay the proceedings, on the ground that
the action could not be supported as being upon a wager tending to
introduce indecent evidence. The question raised on the motion was
argued before the Court of King's Bench and the judges unanimously
agreed that the judgement must be arrested; the law not allowing
wagers upon subjects leading to the introduction of indecent
evidence. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
In 1774, after the
death of Louis XV, d'Eon tried to negotiate his return to France,
claiming he was not a man, but a woman, and demanding the government
recognize him as a woman. King Louis XVI and his court complied,
provided he wear women's clothing. In 1777 d'Eon returned to France,
and lived as a woman, but returned to England in 1785, having lost
his pension after the French Revolution. In England he participated
in fencing tournaments until seriously wounded in 1796. In 1805 he
signed a contract for an autobiography, but the book was never
published and he spent his last years with a widow, Mrs. Cole. On 22
May 1810, newspapers announced d'Eon had died at the Millman Street
Foundling Hospital and Carlisle performed the autopsy. D'Eon was
examined and Carlisle satisfied all present of the perfect condition
of the testicles.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a>
They were later described as; 'A testis, (extirpated and presented by
Sir Anthony Carlisle) taken from an individual who for the last forty
years of his life passed for a female.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
Lady Jerningham wrote of d'Eon's death in a letter several days
later; a Father Elise who called upon d'Eon every day during her
illness, made his final visit about two hours after d'Eon had died.
Reflecting upon the history, Elise lifted up the sheet to look. He
screamed out to the dismay of the maid, 'C'est un Homme!'</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br />
<b>Caroline Crachami </b>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
There are references to Carlisle dissecting the tiny female Caroline
Crachami in 1824, often cited as smallest person in recorded history
and claimed to be nine years old or less at the time of her death.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm;">
<br />
She was known as the 'Sicilian Fairy' or 'Sicilian Dwarf' and is the
first person recognised to have primordial dwarfism, being less than
twenty inches (50 cm) tall at the time of her death. Reputedly born
at Palermo in Sicily in 1815, and supposedly only eight inches in
height and weighing only a pound at birth. Caroline arrived in
England from Dublin in 1824 accompanied by a Dr Gilligan who
exhibited her in Liverpool, Birmingham, and Oxford before taking her
to London. She caused something of a sensation wherever she appeared
in public; each day a steady stream of a hundred or more people would
pay their shilling to see her tottering about rather unsteadily, hear
her say 'Good, good,' and pat her stomach when given a biscuit, and
tap her foot in time to music. For an extra shilling visitors were
even given the opportunity to 'handle' her.<br />
<br />
At London the cream of
Society came to see her, including king George IV as well as 'more
than three hundred of the nobility and nearly three thousand
distinguished fashionables'. Unfortunately the strain of her public
appearances appears was too much for Caroline. She suffered from
consumption, and on 3 June 1824, after receiving more than two
hundred visitors, 'a languor appeared to come over her, and on her
way from the exhibition room she expired'. There is no definitive
evidence regarding her place and date of birth, but given the
circumstances of her appearance in England, it appears likely she was
Irish rather than Sicilian. Recently it has been established her
dental age was about three years at death, and it appears a
commercial hoax led Dr Gilligan to misrepresent her age. To this day,
her skeleton is on display in the Hunterian Museum along with that of
Charles Byrne, the 'Irish Giant'.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Another
autopsy by Carlisle came as the result of an unusual bequest to him
in the will of Francis Douce (1757-1834), the author of
<i>“lllustrations of Shakespeare”.</i> Douce was a wealthy and
learned antiquary, an active author on antiquarian subjects, Keeper
of Manuscripts in the British Museum and member of the Roxburghe
Club. Douce built up a very substantial personal collection of 19,000
books and 420 manuscripts, which he used in his writing and editing,
before bequeathing them to the Bodleian Library. In particular he
specialized in collecting material related to children’s books and
games, fools and jesters, as well as death, demonology, and
witchcraft.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Douce
included Carlisle in his will in an unusual manner. Douce was a
trifle eccentric, as can be seen in the first clause of <span style="font-style: normal;">his
will; 'I give to Sir Anthony Carlisle £200 requesting him either to
sever my head or extract the heart from my body, so as to prevent any
possibility of the return of vitality'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
There is no record o</span>f the terms of the bequest being carried
out by Carlisle, but it is unlikely he would have refused. There are
varying interpretations of the clause. Firstly, that Douce was
worried about being buried alive. Premature interment was not
uncommon in the 19C, in a report Bruhier reported he had collected
180 instances. Alternatively, Douce was concerned he might end up on
Carlisle's examination table, with an attempt made to revive him, and
therefore played a strong and macabre trump, to preclude the attempt.
This may sound unlikely but, in another clause in the same will,
Douce did play a macabre trick. He willed all his personal papers to
the British Museum, but to be first sealed in a box and only opened
sixty-six years after his death;
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">I desire my executor to collect
together all my letters and correspondence, all my private
manuscripts, and unfinished or even finished essays or intended work
or works, memorandum books ... and to put them into a strong box, to
be sealed up, without lock or key, and with a brass-plate, inscribed
'Mr. Douce’s papers, to be opened on 1 January 1900,' and then to
deposit this box in the British Museum, or, if the Trustees should
decline receiving it, I then wish it to remain with the other things
bequeathed to the Bodleian Library.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Sixty-six
years is an extremely long time to make anyone wait, and there were
grumbles, nevertheless, the Museum observed Douce’s wish. </span>Finally,
on 1 January 1900 the trustees of the museum gathered with
anticipation. Newspapers reported that the mysterious box was opened
in front of the trustees, including Premier Salisbury, Lord Rosebery,
and Alfred Rothschild. When the solemnly unsealed and unlocked by the
curator, it was found to contain nothing but old fragments of paper,
torn book covers and other rubbish, with a note from Douce saying
that, in his opinion, it would be wasting any more valuable or
interesting objects, to leave them to persons of the average
intelligence and taste of the British museum trustees. It seemed
Douce had managed to play a practical joke from the grave, the
trustees tried to look amused, but the meeting dispersed in silence.
Later reports suggest the contents were found to be useful in
understanding Douce's collection.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Amongst
other celebrities associated with Carlisle were the Siamese twins.
Captain Coffin was informed by their mother she had borne seventeen
children. Once she had three at a birth, and never less than two;
though no other children were deformed. In childhood the band linking
at the waist them was proportionately much larger and shorter, so
that the twins were much closer together. Each of the youths had a
name of his own; one Ching, the other Eng; but when persons wish to
direct their joint attention to anything, they were addressed as one;
Ching-Eng. After the twins arrived in London, they had the better of
Carlisle when he proposed they be taught to read;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
[T]hey have both learned a good deal of English, and
speak it very nearly alike. They have also, of late, been taught
whist, at which they play tolerably well, and of which they are very
fond. And one of the remarkable traits attending this is, that they
play the game against each other, and most honourably abstain from
looking into each other's hands. ... They are smart in their remarks,
and very excellent mimics and imitators. The other day Sir A Carlisle
was enforcing the expediency of their being taught to read; and by
way of demonstrating the thing, he marked a big A on a card to shew
them. This he did, pronouncing in a sound pedagogue style; A, A, A.
The boys immediately sounded the letter so like their instructor as
to create considerable merriment. He then went to В and С; but
while doing so, they got a little impatient, (as schoolboys will do
with their teachers,) and one of them interrupted him; upon which he
exclaimed, "Pshaw, pshaw, atten me!" So the lesson
continued, till Chang took the pencil to make the letters, and held
it in his hand in the most awkward way; upon which Sir Anthony
interfered to set him right; but the scholar ... in his turn
exclaimed the very same "Pshaw, pshaw, atten me!" He
nevertheless drew the A capitally in his own mode.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The Siamese twins were intelligent and had a sense of humour;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">In America at the theatre, they saw
a man with one eye, and they expressed their opinion that he ought
only to pay half price for what he saw; we do not know how their own
admission would be regulated by them, if they had not a double
ticket. And in the room, on Tuesday, they asked who all the people
were that came to visit them; being told physicians; they again
inquired what that was; and being informed persons, who cured the
sick of their ailments, they expressed their utter astonishment at
having seen three funerals from their residence in the course of
their short abode in London! They thought (ignorant creatures!) that
with so many skilful doctors, nobody ought to he allowed to die! ...
On another occasion a visitor, impressed with the idea that their
religious instruction ought to be attended to, spoke to them on this
subject. In his investigation of their condition, he asked, 'Do you
know where you would go if you were to die?" To which they
replied quickly, pointing up with their fingers, "Yes, yes up
dere." Their saintly friend, unluckily for himself, persevered
in catechising; and questioned them, "Do you know where I should
go if I were to die?" to which they as promptly answered,
pointing downwards, "Yes, yes, down dere." We are afraid
that the laugh which followed was likely to efface the memory of the
well meant attempt to imbue their minds with Christian knowledge.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.6cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
The Asiatic Journal<span style="font-style: normal;"> reported on an
exhibition of the Siamese twins to Carlisle and others at the
Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, saying; 'We really think the doctors were
a little piqued for we heard great talk of dissecting the poor
Siamese.' Afterwards, Carlisle addressed a letter to the Times: </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
The
boys were dressed in the garments of their own country, and no parts
of their persons exposed save the front aspect of the living band
which connects them together, it being placed immediately below their
respective breast-bones. This joining part presents a surface of
natural and healthy skin, and to the feel it seems to include an
extension from each of the cartilages which terminate the
breast-bones. ... When either of the boys was desired to cough, it
became evident to the person grasping the band that a ruptural
protrusion was forced into the band next the individual who coughed,
and a middle shut space of more than an inch remained between those
rupture sacs. These facts are of importance, because in the event of
death to one of the twins, the life of the remaining brother might be
preserved by a prompt and skilful separation of the dead individual.
… Their general aspect was alike, and their teeth of similar
character; they were cheerful, apparently in equal good health, and
evidently unaccustomed to petty restraints. There is nothing
disgusting, or even indecorous, in the exhibition of these curious
persons; they do not deserve to be regarded as monsters, since their
slender union is but one of the many instances which happen to the
whole animal creation. If indeed, nature had not carefully provided
against its frequency to the human race, the occasional appearance of
united twins would give rise to many legal perplexities.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
The
cartoon infers Carlisle's closeness to the political scene. Carlisle
sought out other anatomical curiosities, as with Calvin Edson, The
Living Skeleton, who advertised at Philadelphia in 1832.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br />
The
public are respectfully informed that this Wonderful Curiosity has
returned from Europe, where he has been visited by Sir Astley Cooper,
Sir Anthony Carlisle, and most of the medical men, nobility and
gentry of London; and has also been introduced to the College of
Surgeons and Physicians in Paris and all pronounce him the most
extraordinary man the world ever beheld. ... Mr Edson was born in
Stafford, Connecticut; is 43 years of age, and weighs but 58lbs. His
former weight was 135 lbs. His former height was 5 feet 6 inches - he
is now but 5 feet 3 inches. He can ride on horseback, and lift 150
lbs. Eats, drinks, and sleeps as well as any man. He attributes the
cause of his wasting, to his having slept on the damp ground, the
night after the battle of Plattsburgh, at which time he was serving
in the American Army.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<b>The
Royal Academy</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle came in contact with many important people during his association
with RCS. On 19 January 1820, with Sir William Blizard he accompanied
Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, round the RCS museum, on 27
September 1831 it was Rajah Rammohun Roy, and on 27 July 1837, the
Duke of Northumberland.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
But it was via his professorship at the RA that Carlisle became an
important influence on British art and design in 1808-1824. That
influence has not yet been addressed by scholars and hence is worthy
of commentary.<span style="font-weight: normal;"> Science
generally leads to a common point of view but, with art, beauty is
very much 'in the eye of the beholder'. Hence, there are differing
opinions on the content of Carlisle's lectures as Professor of
Anatomy at the Royal Academy. During Carlisle's professorship, the
varying views of art were illustrated in a story about King George
III; </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
When
the King signed a diploma of a new Academician, the President, and
officers always attended with a specimen of the artist's talents; one
day the President and officers waited upon his Majesty to sign a
diploma, and of course brought with them a specimen of the artist's
great genius. The King after looking at the picture for some time,
turned round to a young artist who was in the room with him, and whom
he liberally patronized, and said, "Do your hear, Sir, if ever
you paint such a picture as this, I will withdraw my patronage from
you. Come, Mr West, give me the diploma, the sooner I get rid of
disagreeable business the better."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
RA was founded in 1768, the year of Carlisle's birth, with William
Hunter as first Professor of Anatomy. The
position was important for personal recognition, but not overly well
paid; 'There shall be a Professor of Anatomy, who shall read annually
six public lectures in the Schools, adapted to the Arts of Design;
his salary shall be thirty pounds a year; and he shall continue in
office during the King;s pleasure'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
For much of the period 1806-1820, Benjamin West
was President of the RA and the professors were;
<br />
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Anatomy -
Sir Anthony Carlisle - 1808-1824</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Architecture
- Sir John Soane - 1803-1837</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Painting
- Henry Fuseli - 1810-1825</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Perspective
- J M W Turner - 1807-1837</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Sculpture - John Flaxman - 1810-1826</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
was accepted as a student at the RA on the recommendation of Sir
Joshua Reynolds, after
a conversation one evening when present were; Reynolds, John Hunter,
Edmund Burke, and Carlisle himself. The introduction probably arose
from the portrait of John Hunter painted in 1788 by Reynolds, as
Carlisle was a student of Hunter at the time, and assisted with the
composition of the portrait. Through this introduction, Carlisle
became a fellow student of Hoppner, Westall, and other notable
artists.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
Being introduced by Reynolds, his credentials were impeccable and
Carlisle must have been a competent artist. However, Carlisle's 1808
election as RA Professor was contested;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
It
has been already stated that we think highly of the professional
powers of all the candidates: all are known to be most excellent
surgeons and anatomists. Messrs Brookes and Bell have long since
distinguished themselves by their lectures delivered to students
in surgery, and
Mr Carlisle by his philosophical researches, as well as in his
practice. But the author of "the
Anatomy of Expression" [Bell] has gone far beyond all this, and in that publication has
already done more for imitative art, than all the past professors of
anatomy with which the Royal Academy has been graced, from the period
of its establishment. ... Mr Bell appears therefore to us, to be so
peculiarly accomplished for a professorship to an academy of arts ...
we would humbly, for we have put off our satirical garb, recommend
that each candidate shall be invited to evince the nature and
strength of his claims in fair competition with his opponents, by
delivering two probationary lectures before the members of the Royal
Academy.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The
suggestion to have probationary lectures was not followed, and a
ballot was held, where the numbers were 25 for Carlisle, and 4 for
Charles Bell. Irvine Loudon described the result;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Charles
Bell hoped that the book would help lift him into the vacant chair of
anatomy at the Royal Academy, because at that time he saw his future
as an anatomist and illustrator. But that prig Sir Anthony Carlisle
was appointed instead. Charles Bell had met Carlisle in December 1804
and wrote that he had 'the greatest conceit of himself I ever new a
man to possess.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
But
the 25 who voted for Carlisle did not agree with Bell. One of them,
Sir Thomas Lawrence, on 10 October 1808, had written to Farington
seeking his influence in the election of Carlisle.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a>
Another, Martin Archer Shee had drawn his
friend Carlisle in 1795, as one of four portraits submitted by Shee
in seeking acceptance as an Associate of the Royal Academy. In 1824
Shee painted Carlisle in oils and in 1808 must have voted for
Carlisle, as he wrote;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
The penetrating
science of a Sheldon or a Carlisle, which has traced and detected the
mechanism of Nature, through the most miraculous minutiae of animal
organization, must submit with reluctance, to clear away common
integuments, and demonstrate muscles and bones. Such masters of
dissection teaching the alphabet of Anatomy, is like Porson
expatiating on a primer, or Newton explaining the multiplication
table. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.03cm; margin-right: -0.03cm;">
<br />
Shee infers Carlisle
was elected in the knowledge he preferred to lecture on the human
form, rather than on anatomical detail. Shee's comments are a
blueprint for Carlisle's lectures and show that criticisms as to the
direction and nature of his lectures, were not shared by the
Academicians.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
Anatomists, however
scientifically they may be acquainted with the bones, muscles, and
tendons which make up the human <i>frame</i>,
are seldom competent judges of the human<i>
form:</i>
they are so occupied in taking the machine to pieces, and examining
its minuter parts, that when the whole is put together, they know
less of its general movement and appearance, than many who have never
heard a lecture, or touched an instrument of dissection. They know
the muscular operation which is necessary to the subsistence of an
action, but not the muscular appearance which is essential to its
beauty. They study the dead subject only, and provided the parts are
in a sound dissectable state, are indifferent to their symmetry or
proportion. They can hardly be said to be acquainted with a living
muscle or an elastic motion; they understand the structure in all its
materials, its parts, and its dependencies: they are skilled in the
plan and familiar with the interior arrangements; but they want the
eye of the Artist to measure the proportions and to judge of the
elevation. In the application of anatomical science to the purposes
of the pencil, the anatomist may appear more learned, minute, and
philosophical, but the painter would be more clear, appropriate, and
impressive: where the one finds himself most out of his course, the
other would feel himself most at home; and could connect with his
illustration of the origin, insertion, and office of the muscles, a
variety of useful information, as to the beauty and grace of their
action, which will never occur but to those who spend their lives in
observing them. <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.37cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.34cm; text-align: justify;">
Given
the murders-to-order by William Hunter and his embalming of Mrs van
Butchell, together with the eccentric behaviour of Sheldon, it is
unsurprising Carlisle was conservative in his RA lectures. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">While
professor, Carlisle was able to
influence the direction of British art for sixteen years. His
pursuit of the appointment reflected his private inclination towards
the arts, rather than a public profile in anatomy or surgery. He
believed too much anatomy impaired an artist’s judgement. In his
lectures, somewhat counter-intuitively given his training, Carlisle
avoided dissections as a means of studying the human form. This was
in contrast to his RA predecessors who included the art of dissection
in their lectures. Carlisle's
opinion is conveyed in his 1815 lecture;</span></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Professor Carlisle
... has made an entirely new arrangement upon an enlarged scale, in
which he apologized for having differed from the arrangement of his
two learned predecessors, Dr John Hunter [sic s/be William Hunter]
and Mr Sheldon, whose books and manuscripts, he confessed had not
been of much service to him. He had at first adopted their mode of
teaching anatomy technically, but he had after due deliberation
abandoned it; referring the students to books and the
dissecting-room, while he would point out its application to and use
in the fine arts. He has in this course adopted with great labour and
success the elucidation of the human and animal mechanism, as
auxiliary subjects of instruction in the arts of design. On his
taking leave for the season, the professor was greeted with loud and
sincere marks of applause, and the interest which his lectures have
excited, induces us to promise a continuation and conclusion of our
epitome of them in our next number.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Remarkably,
in the years from 1810 to 1824 there were no changes in any RA
professorship and British art changed with a gradual decline of
religion and the rise of the Industrial Revolution. Rather than a
preponderance of large historical paintings, many religious in style,
created for long established families and their stately homes, there
was a rising and affluent middle class, born in the countryside, but
wealthy from manufacturing, trade, and the professions, with homes
suited to a more modest scale of painting. These patrons looked
nostalgically to their roots and there was a rise of watercolours,
landscapes, pastoral, and animal paintings. The change reflected the
nation's weariness of the Napoleonic Wars, with idyllic scenes
preferred to heroic ones. Carlisle recognised the change and, born in
County Durham, shared a nostalgia for the countryside, as seen in his
personal art collection, which included works by J M W Turner and Sir
Edwin Landseer. </span></span><br />
<br />
The
period Carlisle lectured at the RA, largely corresponded with a
period in history (circa 1815-1830) in which men could closely
inspect the physical beauty of their own sex without being thought
homosexual. Women could also comment on the male form. Thus it was
not unusual for society men, artists, and others to gather to see a
particularly fine specimen of masculine beauty, as with the subjects
Carlisle brought to his anatomy lectures. As his lecturing tenure
continued, interest in classical art with nudes and semi-clothed
figures gradually declined, with Georgian social excesses replaced by
moderation, itself later accentuated by Victorian prudery.
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Nevertheless, Carlisle was criticised by old
school thinkers, even some younger than him in years, for
not focussing more on dissections, and training students to draw
anatomical art. Artists,
such as Benjamin Haydon, persevered with historical paintings in the
manner of earlier centuries long after they were out of fashion.
Carlisle was criticised in an 1818 book,
<i>"Elements of Anatomy"</i> by James Birch Sharpe, who
appealed to his readers to attend private anatomy courses, because
the RA was unwilling to offer this kind of course.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
lectured as
Professor of Anatomy for sixteen years, always devoting his first two
lectures to the connection between anatomy and the fine arts. In <i>"The
Artist”,</i> Carlisle contributed an <i>“Essay
on the Connexion between Anatomy and the Fine Arts,”</i>
in which he declared that to be a good painter or sculptor one need
not be a minute anatomist. In his first lecture, he showed a
willingness to make his lectures entertaining, by exhibiting Gregson
the boxer to demonstrate muscle groups;</div>
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
On Monday the 23d
ult. the lectures at the Royal Academy commenced with the
inauguration lecture of Anthony Carlisle, the new professor of
anatomy; who, with zeal and promptitude that can not be too much
commended, commenced a course of lectures on anatomy within two
months after his election to the professor's chair. Mr Carlisle began
with eulogium and biographical account of his much lamented
predecessor, the late John Sheldon, esq. and gave a slight but
spirited sketch of his professional life from the commencement of his
studies under the celebrated Hunter, to the time of his death ... Mr
Carlisle is a man of a cultivated mind, and who appears to have made
the philosophy of the fine arts his particular study, and is
therefore, well qualified for the academic honour, with which he has
so justly been invested. His eulogium on the Greeks and their Style
of Sculpture was as justly delineated as it was true. ... After
expatiating to the students on the antiquity, utility, and other
qualities of the science of anatomy, he proceeded to a general
explanation of the component parts of man, as divided into head,
trunk, and extremities, with their greater subdivisions, and by a
method as novel as it is likely to be useful, he described
geometrical diagrams on the body of the model (the celebrated
Gregson, who is reckoned to approach nearer to the proportions of
Lord Elgin's admirable Theseus than any other known model), correctly
dividing the abdomen, and its region, into more accurate proportions
than by former methods, and every artist is indebted to the learned
professor, for the ease with which he may now acquire this elementary
branch of the fine arts. Professor Carlisle has wisely promised to
abandon technical terms as much as possible, which will certainly
make the science more easy of acquisition. Mr Carlisle has since
continued his lectures with unabated success.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
His
lectures were not enthusiastically received by David Wilkie, who in
his journal for 20 November 1809 wrote:
'Went to the Academy, and heard a lecture by Carlisle on anatomy,
which struck me as a very inefficient one indeed: he concluded by
illustrating part of his subject with a drawing, which being in
invisible ink excited great applause.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a>
But another report was more supportive; 'This lecture (which was
completely introductory) was illustrated by some excellent diagrams
of a novel and most excellent kind. The first was, a geometrical
figure of the straight lines of the human hand, with the fingers
extended, that could be positively drawn by rules, when upon applying
a liquid chemical menstruum over those lines, it made the outlines to
appear, (which had been previously drawn with sympathetic colours)
containing in themselves the geometrical definitions. The next was
geometrical figures, bounding the grand proportion of the whole body,
which by the same process exhibited the entire human skeleton. Mr
Carlisle received much well deserved applause'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The general structure, content, and popularity, of Carlisle's lectures were described in 1809; Mr Carlisle's second anatomical lecture was delivered to a crowded audience. ... He observed that 'The human body is constructed upon the same general plan with the other parts of the animal creation. The form of man, his organs, and the texture of his constituent materials, are adapted to his wants, and to the destinies of his nature'. … The remainder of the lecture was extemporaneous, and consisted of a demonstration on the skeleton, under the general divisions of head, trunk, limbs, or extremities...... The uses of the general form of the head, &c. and the geometrical direction and adaption of the shafts of the limbs and the structure of joints. We lament that our present limits will not allow us to give each of his interesting discourses at greater length. The third and fourth lectures were also devoted to the skeleton. The third contained a more particular explanation of the head and trunk; the fourth, those of the upper and lower extremities. In the two concluding lectures, the Professor described the origin, insertion, and use of the superficial muscles; and after pointing out the circumstances which disguise and soften their appearance, demonstrated them on the living subject in the various and opposite actions of pulling, pushing, &c. by a machine constructed for the purpose.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
An even more favourable review was reported in The New Monthly Magazine for January 1814. Interestingly, Carlisle disputed the phrenological findings of Gall even at this early stage;
Mr Carlisle ... has continued and concluded his admirable course of lectures on the five succeeding Monday evenings, to the most crowded auditories ever witnessed within the walls of the royal academy, the great exhibition room, though excellently arranged as a theatre, being scarcely able to contain his numerous and attentive auditors. Indeed, we cannot but remark the increased appearance of regular attendance, attention, and respect, of late years among the students, to that useful department of our royal academy the annual lectures ... He characterized different national characters, as exhibited in the cranium, and ably controverted the metaphysical system of Gall.[even in 1814, Carlisle opposed Gall and phrenology] <a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
That was not a view shared by a prudish writer under the name, Cato; as censors of the public taste, and as guardians of our national morals, I think your duty called on you to enter your solemn protest against the practice adopted by Mr Carlisle, of exhibiting before a mixed audience, the nude figures of prize-fighters, and such-like characters. The study of the naked figure, and the sight of individuals remarkable for powerful muscular features, may have their advantages with the solitary student; but why have such exhibitions to give <i>eclat</i> to the conclusion of lectures, where the plaister figure only has been had recourse to, for purposes of illustration, and which has been found sufficient for every necessary want in the lecturer?<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
However, others were
impressed; Carlisle's 1815 lecture, five months after Waterloo, was
described;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
The learned
professor commenced, as he has hitherto always done, with an entirely
new introductory discourse, in which he animadverted on the passing
events of the times as connected with the fine arts, particularly the
dispersion of the ill-gotten treasures called the Napoleon Museum at
Paris, which he contended was no loss to the students of the English
Academy. He recorded the advancement in art of the British school;
eulogized the Prince Regent for his love and patronage of the fine
arts; exhorted the students to diligence, perseverance, and obedience
to the laws of the institution that fostered their rising talents;
bestowed the just need of praise on the great but eccentric Barry;
pointed out the uses of anatomical studies to the artists of every
denomination, and the increased conveniences for its studies afforded
by the Royal Academy [sic s/be RCS], who had added to their
anatomical collection a dried prepared subject, [the mummy of Mrs van
Butchell] containing the origin and insertion of every muscle, for
the more perfect understanding of the technicalities of which he
would deposit in the plaister academy a lexicon of Quincy. ... He
added that Mr Brooks had generously opened his anatomical theatre,
gratuitously to the students of the Royal Academy, where they might
see every dissection necessary for art.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
1820 Carlisle's lectures were unfavourably compared to Wordsworth's
poetry; 'Mr Wordsworth's peasants are brought in, pretty much as
Surgeon Carlisle, the lecturer, brings in Sam, the academy model, to
shew the students how a man moves his legs when he walks forwards,
and how when he walks backwards! In the lecturer this proceeds from
quackery; in the poet it is system'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
Carlisle was also criticised by Benjamin Haydon
(1786-1846), who arrived in London to study art. In late 1805, three
years before Carlisle began lecturing at the RA, Haydon wrote;
<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
On
my return to town I had set vigorously to work, and the autumn
beginning, I got nearly a whole subject to myself at a surgeon's in
Hatton Garden. The sight of a real body laid open exposed the secrets
of all the markings so wonderfully that my mind got a new and
confirmed spring. The distinction between muscle, tendon, and bone,
was so palpable now that there could be no mistake again for ever. No
principles without this previous information could have availed. I
came to the conclusion (which subsequent research has confirmed) that
the Greeks must have pursued the same course, however imperfectly.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Haydon's
attitude towards the cadaver is cold and clinical, with a lack of
sensitivity, as to why, and how, the body had reached the surgeon.
Thirty years later, after Carlisle's death, Haydon expressed similar
views in his <i>"Lectures on Painting and Design"</i>.
Haydon was an anachronism, clinging to historical concepts of art,
when British art had moved on. In fact, at age sixty-one, Haydon
committed suicide at the third attempt, as he believed his career had
been a failure. Even so, his comments are often repeated as the basis
for subsequent, and undefended, criticism of Carlisle.<span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The British Army became very interested in systematic physical training and, in 1822, obtained the services of The Swiss Army Officer and director of gymnastics, Phokion Clias, who was given charge of all physical training in the military and naval schools. He was injured and left England in 1825, but prior to that in late 1822, he became another attraction at Carlisle's RA lectures;
[M Clias] is now in England and has the honour of being permitted by his royal highness the commander-in-chief, to introduce his plan of exercise into the Military Asylum at Chelsea. The exhibition of his muscular powers, and imitations of the attitudes of some of the finest ancient statues, at the last lecture of Sir Anthony Carlisle at the Royal Academy, met with the greatest applause; as well as the marked approbation of the president and council by whom he has been employed to train and improve the attitudes and muscular exertions of their living model.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Carlisle was
accustomed to illustrate his lectures by the exhibition of the Indian
jugglers, or any other of the fashionable athlete of the day, whose
muscular systems were well enough developed to claim the students'
eyes. In 1815; 'Mr Carlisle in one of his late lectures on Anatomy
informed his auditory that he had seen an undoubted thigh bone of
Scipio Africanus. It was taken from a coffin bearing his full
description, and from the thigh bone Scipio appears to have been
about 5 feet 9 inches in height.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
Later that year Carlisle's lectures were attended by the Italian,
Antonio Canova, who portrait was painted by various artists during
his visit to London; 'Canova, the celebrated sculptor has been
present at several lectures given at the RA by Professor Carlisle, on
Anatomy; last week this celebrated sculptor dined with the
Academicians in the council room of the RA'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
There were times
when his anatomy lectures at the Academy drew such crowds that people
fought to get in, and officers from Bow Street had to be stationed at
the door to keep out the disorderly element, as Carlisle made a point
always of providing something sure of attracting the town. One night,
when the crowd was more than usually great, Henry Fuseli (1741-1825)
set out to mount the great staircase. The effort was a trying one;
every step was crowded with expectant sightseers, a great majority of
whom were doctors of station and celebrity. Through this scientific
mass Fuseli toiled his weary way, struggling, pushing, advancing,
receding, remonstrating, rebuking; until at length he gained the
haven of the lecturer's room, his brows bedewed with moisture, his
clothes half torn off his back, his temper fatally ruffled. He forced
his way up to Carlisle and, looking at him indignantly, muttered as
if in soliloquy, in his thick European accent; 'Parcel of damed
'potticaries' 'prentices!' Carlisle, though the mildest and most
polite of men, could not swallow silently this aspersion on the
dignity of his professional admirers on the staircase. 'Really, Mr
Fuseli', he gently remonstrated, 'I have brought no apothecaries
apprentices here!' 'I did not say <i>you</i> did,' was Fuseli's
prompt retort, 'but they are 'potticaries' 'prentices <i>for all
that!'</i><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Carlisle regarded anatomy as principally useful to an artist through fixing attention upon the human body, saying, 'Anatomy is subservient to precision and truth in design; it may secretly give correctness to drawing, but if urged further, it will create disgust'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a> Which is not to say Carlisle never introduced body parts to his lectures, nor that they were boring. A contemporary reference is to William Hazlitt attending Carlisle's lectures;
Mr Hazlitt having met Sir Anthony Carlisle ... at a conversazione at Mr Basil Montagu's, in Bedford Square, and having heard him, in his grandiloquent manner, utter some startling; expressions about "the uselessness of poetry!" he was desirous to see more of a person who could propound with such importance so novel a proposition, and wished to satisfy his curiosity as to his ability and character. He therefore requested me to take him to hear one of his anatomical lectures, delivered to the students of the Academy. I consequently accompanied him one appointed evening to Somerset House. This celebrated surgeon generally treated the artists, his hearers, with some exhibition of novelty or interest, and his lectures were consequently always crowded. Once he had six or eight naked Life-guardsmen going through their sword exercise, exhibiting the varied muscular action of the human body. On another occasion he had some Indian or Chinese jugglers, performing their feats of agility, showing the flexibility of their joints, and what suppleness training may produce in the frame of man. On the evening I speak of, <u>the lecturer, when speaking of the emotions and passions of the mind, handed round upon a dinner-plate the brain of a man, and on another a human heart</u>. [my emphasis] As these severally came to Hazlitt for observation, and to be passed round, he shrank back in sensitive horror, closed his eyes, turned away his pale, shuddering countenance, and appeared to those near him to be in a swooning state. I was glad, however, after a little while to observe him rally, when he whispered in nervous accents, "Of what use can all this be to artists? Surely the bones and muscles might be sufficient". He was highly amused to see the lecturer in full court dress, with bagwig, curled and powdered, his cocked hat, and lace ruffles to his wrists, and laughing, said, "I should not have known my unpoetic acquaintance in that disguise; he seems like the owl peeping and. winking in an ivy-bush upon some ancient turret, and I cannot conceive of such an arrant puppy finding anything good, or of use, or beauty in poetry. I now know the man". As we retired down the great staircase at Somerset House, some one passed us quickly, throwing his capacious mantle over his shoulders with an air of affected consequence. Hazlitt observed, "That will be some one of the mighty RA's, but, depend upon it, he will never paint below the fifth button-hole".<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Carlisle published as an advertisement on the front page of <i>The Times</i>, his account of the jugglers;
This extraordinary display of the muscles in forms and uses never before beheld, was a circumstance of the utmost service to artists, it was a display that might never again appear in Europe; the actions of an African, at the Academy, had surprised them, those of the Indian Jugglers had astonished them, but the present ones surpassed all belief or power of description. Mr Carlisle then, before the Jugglers were bought forward, made a few more remarks on the naked figure. The Chinese Jugglers then performed; their positions and distortions of their extremities surpassed everything that could have been conceived of them. Mr Fuseli, the keeper, was in the chair, and the room was immensely endowed: the applause at the conclusion was general.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a>
<br />
<br />
Adjacent to Carlisle's account in <i>The Times</i> was a report, perhaps also supplied by him;
Outrage - It will be recollected, that a short time since four resurrection men, as they are called, were held to bail, at Union-bail, on a charge of forcing their way into the dissecting-room at St Thomas's Hospital, assaulting two of the students, and cutting to pieces two bodies prepared for the purpose of lecturing upon the following morning. On Friday last, about six o'clock in the evening, four men again found their way into the dissecting-room, and destroyed two bodies, a male and a female, before they were seen by the person who has care of the room, who immediately, on discovering them, placed himself as a guard at the door, and sent for an officer, before he arrived, however, they had got out at a window, and escaped over the back part of the premises.
<br />
James Elmes expressed his view of Carlisle and his 1818 lecture:<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
Mr Carlisle has not yet got rid of his deriving propensities; formerly it was Greek and Latin, and now, thank God, it is only French and Italian, and we hope by next year it will slide off altogether. A great many of his foibles, however, we were happy to perceive he had left off. First he did not flatter the Academicians so grossly as formerly, this was a great improvement, next, he did compliment his two learned predecessors, this was also a very great improvement, and thirdly he had left off his bag tail, which is also the greatest of all improvements …<br />
At the second Lecture this same Mr Carlisle, who complains of the indelicacy of dissection, brought a human heart, and in explaining the circulation of the blood, came to a part of the heart, wherein he said, with great feeling for the stomachs of his auditors, that the cook usually put the stuffing! This is Mr Professor Carlisle, who wears weepers and complains of the delicacy of exhibiting a naked model! One of the poor unfortunate students, whom we suppose had a heart for dinner that day, overcome with the crowd of associations, that must have rushed into his head at this information, fainted away and was carried out. This is the Professor who abstained from bringing the dissected muscles of an arm, or any part of the body, which a man might bear, and by way of proving how delicate he is, brings a human heart torn from a human bosom, which few can bear; and then by the way of making it more agreeable to our senses, connects it with associations of our food, and points out to his half sickened audience the place in a human heart, where the cook puts the stuffing in one belonging to a bullock!<br />
Mr Carlisle, ... always endeavours to supply his want of original matter with some novelty or trick; thus in his first course we perfectly remember one night, when every body was beginning to yawn, he suddenly held up a blank sheet of paper stretched on a frame, at which every body stared with amusement; he then look a large sponge and rubbed over it, when lo, behold a skeleton which we suppose had been drawn with sympathetic ink, started to view. Great applause immediately followed from all the academicians. We should not be at all astonished next season, if one night the President and all the Academicians were to find, each of them, a heart in his pocket by a sudden trick of legerdemain. However, here is one thing we defy him to do with all his skill, that is, to put genius into their heads: if Mr Carlisle succeeds in doing this, we will acknowledge we are wrong in our estimation of him, and that he really has a great deal more power than we gave him credit for. Another of his tricks formerly was, apparently drawing before his auditors with great facility, a human ear and other parts of the body. We own we were surprised at the way in which he drew an ear one night, and being rather incredulous, wicked dogs as we were! we contrived to get into the lecture-room the next lecture night before the students, when to our great surprise, on the black board whereon Mr Carlisle was to exhibit his power of drawing, we found the things that he was to draw that night before the audience, dotted in outline to guide his hand in so delicate a manner, that it was totally impossible, a few feet off, to see any thing upon the board.<br />
At the end of the concluding lecture, Mr Carlisle exhibited four life guardsmen to do the sword exercise, which is the best thing he has yet done. The voluntary action of four men, without restraint, will do more to impress the students with a knowledge of action and repose, than twenty separate lectures, or twenty insipid Academy models pulled about by the Professor, unexcited by any emotion. Mr Carlisle complained that some uncivil remarks had been made in our work (he did not mention it by name) relative to his objecting to exhibit the figure quite naked. We do not wish the figure more naked than it was on that night in a public assembly: it was naked enough to impress the spectators with the beauties of nature. What we apprehended, and what Mr Carlisle certainly meant, was to exclude the naked figure altogether from public exhibition. This would have been a deathblow to public taste, and we are happy to see that Mr Carlisle has had manliness enough to relinquish these absurd notions. One of the models, we heard, was Corporal Major of the 2nd life guards, who distinguished himself gallantly at Waterloo.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
</div>
</div>
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<br />
A further opinion of Carlisle was recorded by Farington; 'Henry
Fuseli spoke rather slightingly of Carlisle's lecture delivered in
Monday last, but allowed that he had ingenuity. The sum of his
lecture said [Fuseli], was, that Art and Science should go hand in
hand. Carlisle spoke of Phidas etc. as knowing nothing below the
surface of the body, but he named two Greeks of Alexandra who had
anatomical knowledge'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a>
Apart from Fuseli being Carlisle's colleague, Mary Wollstonecraft
was, for a period, infatuated with Fuseli and it has been suggested
her expressed contempt for the convention of marriage was occasioned
when Fuseli, in 1788, married Sophia Rawlins, instead of
acknowledging Mary's attentions. Fuseli was friendly with Johann
Kaspar Lavater from school days, and he published an English edition
of Lavater's work on physiognomy, with Carlisle's friend Thomas
Holcroft undertaking the translation. Fuseli contributed paintings to
Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery, it was said Fuseli had read
Shakespeare's plays so thoroughly, he was able to recollect any
passage quoted. In 1799 Fuseli exhibited a series of 47 paintings
from subjects in the works of John Milton, with a view to forming a
Milton gallery corresponding to Boydell's Shakespeare gallery. The
exhibition was a commercial failure, but both the Shakespeare and
Milton exhibitions were of keen interest to Martha Carlisle's uncle,
Rev Charles Symmons, who wrote biographies of both men.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<b>Carlisle and
Dissection</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
ancient Greek attitude to anatomy is outside the scope of this
review, but the views critical of Carlisle, by Sharpe, Haydon,
Wilkie, and others, on his avoidance of dissection do invite comment.
The stance adopted by Carlisle is not what one might expect of a
trained anatomist. One expects an anatomist to welcome an opportunity
to lecture on anatomical specimens and undertake dissections.
Instead, he denounced aspects of dissection and was critical of
detailed anatomical representations in art. Instead, Carlisle
encouraged students to visit the Hunterian Collection, where there
were many specimens and anatomical preparations on view, including
the embalmed bodies of Miss Johnson and Mrs van Butchell. His
aversion to public dissection of human subjects was reflected in his
personal research where he preferred to concentrate on the anatomy of
animals. Nevertheless, he was asked to conduct many autopsies, so was
not against undertaking dissections as such.
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
So why
did Carlisle adopt a stance, not just of avoiding dissections in his
RA anatomy lectures, but actively arguing against dissection as part
of the study of art? It implies strong views on his own part. He was
opposed to capital punishment as a source of subjects, but those
lawful subjects were a tiny minority of those dissected. Carlisle's
aversion to capital punishment commenced when, as a youth training in
Durham, he was sent to collect from the gallows, warm bodies of
executed felons. But most subjects for dissection by anatomists were
resurrected and a disapproval of capital punishment does not explain
his approach at the RA. His negativity is, however, linked to the
need to use resurrected subjects at dissections. In this he was an
exception, resurrected subjects not being a hindrance to other
surgeons.<br />
<br />
The logical scenario is that Carlisle
understood the need to dissect bodies of felons and of bodies
snatched from graves, but did approve of the practice. Why not?
Because he was aware 19C resurrectionists were supplementing exhumed
deliveries to anatomists, with burked subjects. Carlisle could not
condone this and was only comfortable with a dissection where he
knew the general circumstances of death; as when asked to perform an
autopsy. Knowing of the prevalence of burking, Carlisle wished to
protect himself and the RA from the risk of damaging scandal, in case
a burked or snatched body at his lecture was recognised by students
as a relative or acquaintance, as had happened with Sheldon and other
anatomists on various occasions;
</div>
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<br />
About
four years ago (c1821) Hollis, one of the most noted of the
resurrection men, brought to the dissecting room of St Thomas's
Hospital, among the other spoils of a vault at the west end of the
metropolis, the body of a female child about six or seven years old,
which had fallen a victim to that formidable malady the scrofula.
This body, from the ravages which the disease had made on it, was
easily distinguishable from any other, and one of the students on
entering the dissecting room, instantly recognised it as his sister's
child. His feelings may be easily imagined: instead, however, of
philosophically consigning the remains of the poor little sufferer to
the dissecting-knife, he addressed an indignant remonstrance to the
professor under whom he was studying, Mr Green, who was quite content
to pacify the student and hush the matter up, by ordering the body to
be interred in the burying ground of the hospital.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a>
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.06cm;">
A
similar circumstance happened in the Burke and Hare case in
Edinburgh, when students recognised under dissection, the body of
Mary Patterson as a prostitute known to them, and also happened much
earlier with the body of the author Lawrence Sterne in 1768. Sterne
had a close shave with dissection when his remains were recognized
under dissection in the anatomical school of Oxford, and instead
buried in the cemetery of St George's, Hanover Square. When St
George's was redeveloped in the 1960s, his skull was disinterred,
partly identified by the fact that it was the only skull of the five
in Sterne's grave which bore evidence of having been anatomised.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a>
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.06cm;">
That scenario does
not fully explain why Carlisle was unsupportive of anatomical
representations in teaching art. But stepping back, the logic for
Carlisle's stance is more apparent. During the 18C Smellie and Hunter
had published their anatomical atlases, featuring extensive
dissections of undelivered female subjects. Dissections for Hunter's
atlas were performed by his younger brother, John Hunter, and
Carlisle, as his favoured student, was in a position to be privy to
details of Hunter's life work. Hence Carlisle knew that Smellie's and
Hunter's works depicted murdered subjects.
Also, with his own RA training, the anatomists depicted by Hogarth in
his series The Stages of Cruelty were readily apparent to Carlisle.
He thus believed to encourage anatomical dissection in art, was to
implicitly encourage murder, by encouraging anatomists to obtain the
freshest possible subjects for their art. Carlisle's distaste was
reason to distance his lecturing style from that of William Hunter.
He accordingly varied his lecturing content, lest it be interpreted
he and Hunter were cast from the same mould. In this context, it is
noteworthy Carlisle retired from lecturing after sixteen years as
professor, one year longer than Hunter's fifteen years as professor.
Carlisle had kept score and, as with his Mrs Carver novels, left a
hidden message he was 'one better than Hunter'.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
orientation of Carlisle's lectures towards beauty and form of the
human body, did find favour with some sections of society. In his
1836 book <i>"Beauty
in Woman"</i> Alexander Walker wrote; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
Sir Anthony Carlisle
thinks a taste for beauty worthy of being cultivated. "Man,"
he observes, "dwells with felicity even on ideal female
attributes, and in imagination discovers beauties and perfections
which solace his wearied hours, far beyond any other resource within
the scope of human life. It cannot, then, be unwise to cultivate and
refine this natural tendency, and to enhance, if possible, these
charms of life. We increase and heighten all our pleasures by
awakening and cultivating reflections which do not exist in a state
of ignorance. Thus, the botanist [Banks or John Symmons] perceives
elegances in plants and flowers unknown and unfelt by the vulgar, and
the landscape painter [Turner] revels in natural or imaginary
scenery, with feelings which are unknown to the multitude.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In contrast to those critical of Carlisle and his omission of anatomical dissection; there were others who thought his lectures too scientific, such as D E Williams; 'I believe Sir Anthony Carlisle's lectures have always been considered too scientific for the object for which they were intended. They were not perhaps sufficiently scientific for the theatre of a Hospital and too scientific for the students of an Academy of Art'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a> Despite the varying opinions of Carlisle's lectures, to some extent influenced by varying levels of professional jealousy, on his retirement from the RA Carlisle carried with him the good wishes of the RA members, who voted £50 for plate to be presented to him on his resignation of the Professorship of Anatomy. In the terminology of the day, plate referred to sterling silver and the gift comprised a handsome salver which was inscribed: 'Presented to Sir Anthony Carlisle, Kt. with the unanimous thanks of the President and Members of the RA of Arts, for the zeal, attention, and ability with which, during sixteen years, he fulfilled the duties of Professor of Anatomy to that institution, and as a Testimony of their respect and esteem. London, 1825'.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a>
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<b>Carlisle and Artists</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0.5cm;">
Carlisle
collected art, and a visit to his personal collection was recalled by
R D Dove in 1876. Dove commented that years earlier in London, he
made the acquaintance of M Linstant, a young Haitian who had been
studying law in Paris, and then gone to England to better learn the
English language. A friend presented them to Carlisle who showed them
his collection of paintings. His gallery included five works by Sir
Edwin Landseer, also works by Sir Martin Archer Shee (likely the oil
portrait of Carlisle) and Mr. Howard RA. Dove said they found
Carlisle a very courteous gentleman, and listened with pleasure to
his eloquent remarks upon paintings and artists. Dove was surprised
to find Carlisle ridiculed the idea of the poetry of painting, saying
it was 'ideality' which enabled a great artist to portray humanity,
endowed with grace and perfection, and which his genius thus rendered
palpable, although it may be invisible to the masses until it glows
upon his canvass.
“You see,” said Sir Anthony, “how natural these animals appear
from the pencil of Landseer.”<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Earlier
Robert Southey had referred to; 'This tattooing in historical
hieroglyphics, is practised in New Zealand. I have seen in the
possession of my friend, Mr Carlisle, a portrait of the king of that
island drawn by himself, which is the most curious portrait in Europe
... except that of the queen, by the same hand. Whatever the likeness
may be in other respects, the royal artist has carefully attended to
the history of his exploits, with which the whole face is covered.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
It is unclear whether these portraits were paintings or, 'The dried
heads of a male and female New Zealander tattooed in the usual
manner' gifted by Carlisle to the RCS museum.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a>
As a patient of Carlisle, J M W Turner (1775-1851), presented
Carlisle with <i>"Hastings:
Fish Market on the Sands, Early Morning",</i>
now in the Hastings Museum and Art Gallery, being purchased in 2006
for £262,000.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a>
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle's
charitable interest in artists and former colleagues, was recalled by
Southey in a letter of 1829 written to Allan Cunningham and
concerning the Irish artist James Barry RA (1741-1806),. Barry had
been Professor of Painting at the RA from 1782-1799. Southey wrote in
1829, but referred to an incident closer to 1800, when Barry had been
occupied in painting <i>"The
Birth of Pandora"</i>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
I knew Barry, and have been admitted into his den on his worst (that is to say maddest) days, when he was employed upon his Pandora. He wore at that time an old coat of green baize, but from which time had taken all the green, that encrustations of paint and dirt had not covered. His wig was one which you might suppose he had borrowed from a scare-crow; all around it there projected a fringe of his own grey hair. He lived alone, in a house which was never cleaned; and he slept on a bedstead with no other furniture than a blanket nailed on the one side. I wanted him to visit me. "No," he said, "he would not go out by day, because he could not spare time from his great picture; and if he went out in the evenings, the Academicians would waylay and murder him." In this sullen solitary life he continued until he fell ill, very probably for want of food sufficiently nourishing; and after lying two or three days under his blanket, he had just strength enough left to crawl to his own front door, open it, and lay himself down with a paper in his hand, on which he had written his wish to be carried to the house of Carlisle in Soho Square. There he was taken care of; and the danger from which he had thus escaped seems to have cured his mental hallucinations.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a>
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Barry had
considerable merit as a landscape painter, but a corresponding
inability to manage his financial affairs. He had earlier published a
paper<i> Letter to the Dilettanti Society</i>,
of which John Symmons was a member, and the content of the paper led
to Barry's dismissal from his post of Professor of Painting, thus
forfeiting the £30 a year remuneration. As a result, it was believed
his financial situation was parlous and his debts unmanageable when
Farington recorded in his Diary in 1806, 'This day died James Barry,
historical painter, aged 65'. Barry had attended a meeting of the
Society of the Arts, but had neglected to wear 'the thick Spenser
which he usually wore'. As a consequence he caught a severe chill and
was found that night at a nearby eating house scarcely able to speak.
Barry worsened and died, but 'Dr Ferris, Mr Carlisle the surgeon, and
another gentleman, thought it better not to report his death for a
day or two, to give them time to remove his effects from his ruinous
house in Margaret Street'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a> </div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Benjamin West then informed Farington, 'it appeared that violent
humours had been floating in his constitution which at one time
seemed to produce an effect like apoplexy, but it was not so, and the
disorder which became positive was in his chest'. Carlisle commented
to Farington; 'Barry died of an inflammation of the lungs...such as
people who are advanced in years and asthmatically inclined are
subject to. Barry was in that state. [Carlisle] said that had Barry
been bled at an early period of his disorder he might probably been
saved'. The physician who failed to bleed Barry, was Dr Fryer, at the
time the custodian of the Birth of Pandora and Sir Robert Peel
offered £200 towards the funeral expenses. But to general surprise;
'Carlisle now told me that being one of those who have the management
of his affairs. He could inform me that Barry at his death,
possessed; £1500 in the American Funds, £500 Bank Stock, and had
£400 at Wright, the Bankers in Henrietta St, Covent Garden, which
had laid there 3 years'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
The
theme of the <i>Birth
of Pandora</i>
is that Pandora was created by the gods to punish humanity for
Prometheus' theft of fire from the sun. Given a casket she was told
never to open, Pandora could not resist and on opening it, released
evil into the world. Although now known as <i>Birth
of Pandora</i>,
a contemporary account infers the title was <i>
Origin of Evil, Grief, and Pain</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a>
Knowledge of this painting and its link to Carlisle, as surgeon to
Barry, and the seeker of the hidden secret of muscular motion, was
part inspiration for Mary Shelley with <i>Frankenstein
– The Modern Prometheus</i>.
Barry exhibited a drawing of the subject in 1775, but commenced
without a commission on a large canvas, so the painting remained in
his studio at his death, a sign of change in British taste. Barry
represents Pandora reclining on a chair, surrounded by the gods of
the classical pantheon.<br />
<br />
His work was appreciated by his fellow
artists, but without the charity of Carlisle the masterpiece may
never have been completed. It took him from 1791-1804 to complete and
is huge in size, 279
x 520 cm. Barry lies next to Joshua Reynolds in St Paul's Cathedral and Pandora is
housed in the Manchester Art Gallery. Carlisle was one of very few
remaining friends; "Barry is an instance of genius lost by grossness of manners, inattention to
proprieties, and some say, ingratitude to his friends. It is at least
certain, that he had many friends in the course of his life, but lost
every one".<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
was also doctor to the artist, John Opie, like Barry a previous RA
Professor of Painting (1805-1807) and who painted the oil portrait of
Mary Wollstonecraft. On 3 April 1807 Farington and Carlisle called on
S<span style="font-style: normal;">ir Thomas Lawrence and Carlisle
reported on Opie, the 'Cornish Wonder', saying, '..it was all over
with Opie: that he had first complaints which appeared to be
rheumatics; but there now seemed to be a complication of disorders,
and that he had a complaint in his bladder. He said he hourly grew
worse, and it must be a change of which there was no prospect, that
could recover him... He will die'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66sym" name="sdendnote66anc"><sup>lxvi</sup></a> </span></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Carlisle was correct in his prediction as Opie the man who lived to
paint, rather than painted to live, died six days later. Farington
gave an account of his final illness; '[Opie's] complaint was thought
to be in his bladder, but it was not so; the physicians [not
Carlisle] who first attended him judged it to be inflammatory, and
bled him and purged him. Dr Alderson ... gave a different opinion. He
thought it arose out of a morbid habit and tended to putridity'. The
illness had commenced on 9 March, when Opie walked home on a
cold snowy night from a dinner and felt unwell. In the following
days, Opie complained of back pain and a suppression of urine. First
thought to be a surgical case, Carlisle was called and drew off urine
using a catheter. It was then decided to be a medical case and Opie
was bled, but he grew worse, with increasing pain. As he was in
delirium, Opie's head was shaved and blistered by the physicians to
relieve him. Farington recorded there had been multiple adverse
symptoms which baffled the most eminent medical men; Pitcairne, Ash,
Alderson, Vaughan, Baillie, and an apothecary, such that the real
cause of his death could not be known until Carlisle opened the body.
Afterwards, Carlisle advised;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
He
had this morning opened Opie and found everything as he had expected
it would be. An inflammation upon the spine above the Os Coxcygus, an
inflammation of the brain, part of which was dissolved, and five
ounces of water in the brain, whereas there ought to have been no
more than half an ounce. There was also inflammation of the bowels.
The case was singular and like that described by the Roman physician.
It was incurable from the first, but being inflammatory the principle
which had been acted upon was right. Had it been possible for Opie
to have recovered, he would have been for the remainder of his life
an idiot.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67sym" name="sdendnote67anc"><sup>lxvii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
As indicated by the description below, the funeral of Opie was a
major event, with Carlisle in the eighteenth of thirty coaches. The
funeral procession for Opie making a striking contrast to the trip of
any executed felon from gallows to dissection room.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68sym" name="sdendnote68anc"><sup>lxviii</sup></a>
Many famous artists attended as mourners.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
following is the inscription on the coffin </div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">JOHN
OPIE ESQ </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Royal
Academician and Professor in Painting </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Died April 9 1807 Aged 45 years</span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: -0.03cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">ORDER </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Street
keepers and Constables to clear the way.</span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Six
men in black caps, two and two. </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Mr
Pringle, the undertaker, on horseback. </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Two
funeral-conductors on horseback. </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Four
cloakmen on horseback. </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Two
conductors ditto. </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Two
City marshals, in full uniform and black sashes, on horseback.</span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Two
Marshals' men with their staves.</span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">State
lid of feathers, with a page on each side. </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">THE
HEARSE </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And
six horses, with pages on each side. </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">ORDER
OF MOURNING COACHES </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">1st
Coach Pall bearers; Sir John St Aubyn, Sir John Leicester, Samuel
Whitbread Esq MP </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">2nd
Coach Pall bearers; Hon William Fullarton Elphinstone, Lord de
Dunstanville, William Smith Esq MP </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">3rd
Coach Chief Mourners; Mr Alderson, Dr Woodhouse, Mr Henry Thompson,
Mr J Penwarne </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">4th
Coach Members of RA; B West, President, H Fuseli, Keeper, J Soane,
Prof Arch, J Richards, Secretary </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">5th
Coach Academicians; E Garvey Esq, J Northcote Esq, W Owen Esq, R
Westall Esq, </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">6th
Coach Associates; Messrs Samuel Woodford, Westmacott, Theoph, Clarke,
Callcott. </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">7th
Coach Ditto; Messrs H Twiss, Oliver Ashby, Edridge </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">8th
Coach Ditto; Mr Artand, Sir William Beechey, Sir Francis Bourgeois,
Mr Edward Birch </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">9th
Coach; Messrs George Dance, James Farington, John Flaxman </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">10th
Coach Messrs John Hoppner, J Loutherbourg, Joseph Nollekens, </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">11th
Coach Charles Rossi, Robert Smirke, Thomas Stoddart, MA Shee </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">12th
Coach Messrs Henry Tresham, JWM Turner, Thompson, James Wyatt </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">18th
Coach Messrs Henry Howard, Henry Bone, George Gerrard </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">14th
Coach Messrs WR Bigg, Philips, James Heath</span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">15th
Coach Dr Charles Burney, Mr Prince Hoare, Sir William Rush, Major
Hamilton </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">16th
Coach Alderman Boydell, Rev J Straithfield, Mr D Giddy, Mr R Wilson </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">17th
Coach Sir W Blizard, Sir D Williams, Sir J Eamer, Dr R Edwards </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">18th
Coach Dr Pearson, Dr Ogilvie, Mr Carlisle, Mr Rogers </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">19th
Coach Mr Slade, Mr Fauntleroy, Mr Favell, Mr Silk </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">20th
Coach Messrs Phillips, D Jones, M Gifford, R Taylor </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">21st
Coach Messrs Taylor, Jeremiah Taylor, Holcroft, Boaden </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">22nd
Coach Messrs Dyer, Perry, ES Biggs, Penwarne (23rd Coach not
recorded)</span></div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">24th
Coach Messrs Tuffin, Longman, Tobin, Woodroffe </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">25th
Coach Mr Gurney, Mr L Roberts, Mr J Kingston, Mr P Martineau </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">26th
Coach Messrs Allen, Stevenson, Bullock, Watts </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">27th
Coach Messrs Glints, Stone, Wilkie, Stewardson </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">28th
Coach Messrs Clover, Lane, Reynolds, Haydn </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">29th
Coach Messrs Williams, Todd, Bernard, Colonel Phillips </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">30th
Coach Empty - The thirty Noblemen and Gentlemen's Carriages had the
blinds up </span>
</div>
<div align="CENTER" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
attended other fatal illnesses, including<span style="font-style: normal;">
John Hoppner; '[Hoppner was] described to be on his last legs,
oppressed with a dropsy...had been attended by Dr Baillie and other
physicians, but had dismissed them all. Carlisle..said Hoppner was in
a state in which medical men might try any experiment, meaning they
could do him neither good nor harm'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69sym" name="sdendnote69anc"><sup>lxix</sup></a>
In this</span> he was correct as Hoppner died less than a year later
aged fifty-one. Farington mentioned other cases, with a common thread
that medical men often differed in their opinions, revealing a lack
of understanding of acute medical conditions. Carlisle was physician
to the sculptor Joseph Nollekens (1737-1823), who had earlier
sculpted Caroline Symmons. In his will, Nollekens <span style="font-style: normal;">stated;
'I desire that Mr Carlisle the Surgent (sic) be presented with a note
of £50 for his attendance on me', quite a substantial sum, but Rev
Charles Symmons received £200. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">At an earlier date</span> Nollekens
had prepared a list of one hundred people to whom he wanted to leave
£1000 each, one of whom was Carlisle,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70sym" name="sdendnote70anc"><sup>lxx</sup></a>
and Dr Simmonds (sic) another, but in the event Nollekens left the
bulk of his vast fortune of over £200,000, to two friends, Francis
Palmer and Francis Douce.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71sym" name="sdendnote71anc"><sup>lxxi</sup></a>
It being commented of Nollekens; <span style="font-style: normal;">Sir
Anthony Carlisle who for a long time had visited him at all hours,
and who was always with him at the shortest possible notice and whose
kind and skilful hand frequently relieved </span><span style="font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">his
sufferings, for he had been visited in the course of his life with
three paralytic seizures.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72sym" name="sdendnote72anc"><sup>lxxii</sup></a>
He had no feigned cough, no imaginary gout, no assumed palsy, nor
ailment of the fancy wherewithal to deceive his visitors: all with
him was real and unfeigned: he was daily sinking under the load of
infirmities, and not all the skill of Carlisle could retard his
dissolution. Having lasted eighty-six years, he was released gently,
and without suffering, from the ties which had so long united him to
the earth, on the 23d day of April 1823.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73sym" name="sdendnote73anc"><sup>lxxiii</sup></a>
</span></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The artist William Owen RA (1769-1825) was a patient who died from an unfortunate accident. He had been for some time in the habit of taking an opening draught prescribed by Sir Anthony Carlisle, and he also took every evening thirty drops of a preparation of opium known by the name of 'Battley's Drops'. In consequence, however of the culpable carelessness of an assistant at a chemist's shop where Mr Owen's medicines were usually procured, who erroneously labelled two phials, the one containing the opening draught, and the other Battley's Drops, Mr Owen, very early in the morning of Friday the 11th of February, 1825, swallowed the whole contents of a phial of the latter. He soon became exceedingly lethargic, and his appearance exciting a suspicion of the mistake that had been committed, medical assistance was instantly sent for. Attempts, which were partially successful, were made to dislodge the laudanum. Mr Owen, however, who was in a state of stupor, gradually became worse; and after lingering until nearly four o'clock in the afternoon, he expired.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74sym" name="sdendnote74anc"><sup>lxxiv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<b>Pugilism</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle's
focus on perfect form is apparent with his interest in pugilism. In
his <i>Enquiries
into the effects of fermented liquors</i>,
Carlisle made remarks on the diet and regimen to be observed in
training pugilists. An
incident related to Farington in 1807, sparked Carlisle's focus on
the physique of boxers as a means of studying the human figure.
Carlisle attended after a duel on 21 September 1806 at Blackheath
between a pugilist, Richardson, and Baron Hompesch, 'said to be a
paltry figure'. Hompesch was unpopular as, in 1798,
Malta had fallen into the hands of Napoleon by the cowardly
capitulation of Hompesch, then Grand Master of the Knights of Malta
(St John), and possibly the dispute related to this. While
under the influence of alcohol, Richardson pushed Hompesch into a
London gutter. Hompesch then forced Richardson into a duel, but with
a fine disregard for the code duello, the code requiring that duels
should be between social equals. Carlisle said;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
[Richardson]
was shot through the body, the ball passing through the liver, lungs,
and grazing some of the vessels near the heart. On receiving the
wound he fell, and was convulsed, and for an hour appeared to be
dying, but afterwards recovered his senses and was brought to his
lodgings in Parliament St and was able to walk from his carriage to
an apartment on the ground floor, and to assist in undressing
himself. His constitution being very strong ,he was able to endure
the vast evacuations that alone could save his life by preventing
inflammation and fever, as had suppuration taken place his death
would have been certain. In thirteen days, 236 ounces of blood were
taken from his arm, besides three quarts of blood from his side. He
was reduced to the lowest state possible without extinguishing life.
For the first five days he had no sustenance allowed him and then
only a piece of toasted bread which had been steeped in water. Some
female friends at one period having observed him to be very low, gave
him a half pint of milk porridge, which soon raised his pulse from 76
to 120 and it became necessary to bleed him twice to prevent the
worst consequences. At last he recovered.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75sym" name="sdendnote75anc"><sup>lxxv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Bleeding to this extent was unusual, but bleeding was applied even to royalty. Much later, in January 1820 when George III died, the Prince Regent succeeded as George IV. But no sooner had the proclamation been read than the new king succumbed to an acute inflammation of the lungs and for a few tense days it looked as if his reign might end almost before it had begun. Treatment included bleeding him of 150 ounces of blood.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote76sym" name="sdendnote76anc"><sup>lxxvi</sup></a> He had been treated in a similar manner the day after the birth of the Princess Charlotte in 1796, when he was seized with one of his sudden and mysterious attacks of illness, brought on, no doubt, by the agitation and excitement of the event. That attack, which was very violent, as well as another in 1804, were treated with profuse bleeding, leaving him in a state of extreme weakness. The King's closeness to death led to Carlisle, three months later on 5 April 1820, being appointed as Surgeon Extraordinary to George IV. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In his Diary for 22 July 1807, Farington had recorded, 'Carlisle called, and talked of a plan of making the public exercises of the pugilists, a school of study for artists who study the human figure...to pugilists he would add tumblers etc. to obtain as great a variety as possible'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote77sym" name="sdendnote77anc"><sup>lxxvii</sup></a> Farington then recorded attending a breakfast given by Carlisle at his home in Soho Square in 1808, where Bob Gregson (1778-1824) the noted pugilist was displayed in the front drawing room striking poses, while the gentlemen visitors wandered round him for half an hour. Gregson was called the Poet of Pugilism and had been captain of the Liverpool Wigan Packet for several years before he fought his way to County Champion. He went to London, but was twice beaten by Gully (1783-1863) for the Championship, in October 1807 and again in May 1808. He was then beaten for the Championship by Cribb (1781-1848) in February 1809 when he retired from the ring. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Farington commented; 'We found Gregson the Pugilist stripped naked to be exhibited to us on account of the fineness of his form - he is six feet two inches high - all admired the beauty of his proportions. He was placed in many attitudes, stripped naked, to be admired on all account of the fineness of his form'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote78sym" name="sdendnote78anc"><sup>lxxviii</sup></a> However, Benjamin West, drew their attention to something of the heaviness about the thighs.
The sculptor Charles Rossi, (1762-1839) was also present at Carlisle's home when Gregson was exhibited and some years later, in 1828, Rossi created a sculpture called <i>"The British Pugilist"</i> which was purchased by the Earl of Egremont for Petworth House. In that same summer of 1808, Gregson spent two hours striking poses beside ancient Greek statues in a temporary museum near Piccadilly. Artists and gentlemen paid five shillings each to compare Gregson's naked body with the sculptures in the collection that Lord Elgin had recently brought from the Parthenon in Athens. A month later, during three boxing matches on the same site, connoisseurs watched contemporary human muscles in action beside muscles carved from marble in the fifth century BC. Boxing was popular as a spectator sport and Gregson attracted the attention of Lord Byron, who in 1808 wrote;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
I remember, (and do
you remember, reader, that it was in my earliest youth, 'Consule
Planco') on the morning of the great battle, (the second) between
Gulley and Gregson, Cribb, who was matched against Horton for the
second fight, on the same memorable day, waking me (a lodger at the
inn in the next room) by a loud remonstrance to the waiter against
the abomination of his towels, which had been laid in lavender. Cribb
was a coal-heaver and was much more discomfited by this odoriferous
effeminacy of fine linen, than by his adversary Horton, whom he
'finished in style', though with some reluctance; for I recollect
that he said, 'he disliked hurting him, he looked so pretty', Horton
being a very fine fresh-coloured young man.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote79sym" name="sdendnote79anc"><sup>lxxix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
While
Carlisle was a student of John Hunter in 1788, he would have
discussed with Hunter a case where Hunter was called in to examine a
newly born baby with a deformed foot. The baby, George Gordon Byron,
later became famous as Lord Byron. The later relationship by
marriage of Byron and Anthony Carlisle has been discussed, and it is
possible Byron was present at Carlisle's home when Carlisle arranged
for Gregson to pose for guests in 1808. Byron was then in London, as
recorded in the story that whenever Byron was in London he would go
to Manton's shooting gallery in Davies Street, to get in some
practice, being constantly fearful for his life in a duel. In 1808,
Wedderburn Webster accompanied Byron who boasted to Manton that he
(Byron) was the best shot in London. "No, my Lord", replied
Manton, "not the best, but your shooting today was respectable",
whereupon Byron left in a rage. Later
that year Byron wrote to Mr Hodgson from Newstead Abbey;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
My dear Hodgson, ...
'Now mark what follows,' as somebody or Southey sublimely saith, on
this day, 17 December, arrives an epistle signed Ben Drury,
containing not the smallest reference to tuition, but a petition for
Robert Gregson, of pugilistic notoriety, now in bondage for certain
paltry pounds sterling, and liable to take up his everlasting abode
in Banco Regis. Had this letter been from any of my lay acquaintance,
or, in short, from any person but the gentleman whose signature it
bears, I should have marvelled not. If Drury is serious I
congratulate pugilism on the acquisition of such a patron, and shall
be happy to advance any sum necessary for the liberation of the
captive Gregson.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote80sym" name="sdendnote80anc"><sup>lxxx</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.05cm;">
<br />
It
was characteristic of Byron, afterwards a member of the Pugilistic
Club, that he should be willing, impecunious as he was, to come to a
bankrupt boxer's aid. For these were the Golden Years of the ring,
when pugilism was what football is today. A famous pair could fight
in the presence of 20,000 men, most of whom had ridden, or driven, or
walked, many miles to see the bout and £100,000 might change hands
on the event. It was even said, 'Gulley and Gregson, as being nearer
to a state of nature, are more poetical boxing in a pair of drawers
than Hector and Achilles in radiant armour, and with heroic
weapons'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote81sym" name="sdendnote81anc"><sup>lxxxi</sup></a>
Gregson
standing six feet one inch, was a boxer of tremendous energy and
courage. When Gully fought Gregson in 1808 Earl Grey sent the result
of the battle to his colleague, Windham, in a ministerial
despatch-box, by a ministerial courier. Thus
Carlisle's
exhibition of Gregson at his home was an important social occasion,
as was his RA lecture; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br />
… two living
subjects were exhibited, and confirmed to demonstration the ingenious
remarks of the learned gentleman. They were directed one after the
other to raise a considerable weight by means of the lever, which
they pushed from them the body in an inclining posture, and then
reversing their position, they let the weight gradually descend,
following the lever as the weight declined; so that the operation of
the anterior and posterior muscles were visibly demonstrated. These
experiments gave general satisfaction. The figures exhibited were
those of Gregson, the pugilist, and a sawyer whose name we could not
learn: the former has a fine trunk, but his figure is by no means
perfect, and is deficient in strength from the knee downwards. The
figure of the sawyer was an infinitely better study, though
diminutive in stature compared with the former. ... The lecture was
numerously attended, and, in addition to the académiciens and
students, many professors of surgery were present, and a long
etcetera of professional men of all descriptions.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote82sym" name="sdendnote82anc"><sup>lxxxii</sup></a>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In 1810 Carlisle was called upon to treat a 'Black man' in one of the hospitals for an injury, and was so impressed with the 'extraordinary fine figure' of the man he tried to interest Lawrence.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote83sym" name="sdendnote83anc"><sup>lxxxiii</sup></a>
Carlisle reported him to be 'an extraordinary fine figure' and took him to show Thomas Lawrence and Benjamin West. They considered him the finest figure they had ever seen, 'combining the character and perfection of many of the antique statues'. Lawrence made a sketch on canvas. 'When his arm was suspended,' he told Farington, 'it appeared like that of the Antinous, when contracted for exertion it was like the Farenese Hercules.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote84sym" name="sdendnote84anc"><sup>lxxxiv</sup></a> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Although Lawrence did not pursue it further, Carlisle did excite the interest of George Dawe; Sir A Carlisle, that eminent surgeon told Dawe that he had lately sent to Bartholomew's Hospital a negro of prodigious power and fine form, such as he had never before seen, and the sight of whom had given him better conceptions of the beauty of Grecian sculpture than he had previously possessed. Struck with this account Dawe went to the Hospital, where he found the man had been discharged ... [and] induced the man to go home with him, where he maintained him some time; and the Negro having, among other instances of his strength, told him of his once seizing a buffalo by the nostrils and bearing it down to the ground, Dawe was so struck by the fact as suited for the composition of a powerful picture, that he placed the man in the posture he described, and drew him in that attitude.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote85sym" name="sdendnote85anc"><sup>lxxxv</sup></a> </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
It is likely Carlisle, with his own drawing training and ability, drew sketches of Gregson and others, so it is a regret his personal papers seem not to have survived. Benjamin West had a high opinion of Carlisle, so that, in 1810 when Thomas Sully, the famous American portraitist, sought West's advice;
To ascertain the level of Sully's skills he asked him to draw a portrait. Sully painted King. After looking at it, West judged his drawing and modelling weak; to improve Sully's understanding of human bone structure he advised him to study anatomy and osteology by taking Sir Anthony Carlisle's lectures at the Royal Academy, which Sully dutifully did.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote86sym" name="sdendnote86anc"><sup>lxxxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Farington, Joseph, <i>The Farington Diary</i>, New York, Doran,
1928, p 91</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
Raymond, George,<i> Memoirs of Robert William Elliston, Comedian,</i>
Vol 2, London, Ollivier, 1846, p 359</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
<i>The Literary Gazette</i>, London, 1821, p 492-493</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
<i>The Court Journal</i>, London, Henry Colburn, 1833, p387</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Lamb, Mary, The Works of Charles and Mary Lamb, Vol. 5</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
Griggs, Earl Leslie, <i>Collected Letters of Samuel Taylor
Coleridge: 1807-1814</i>, OUP, 2000, p 298</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Gillman, Alexander, <i>The Gillmans of Highgate, </i>London, Elliott
Stock, 1895, p 1
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Elmes, James, <i>Annals of the Fine Arts for MDCCCXVI</i>, London,
1817, p 363-364</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
Smith, G H, <i>Some Physician
Friends of Joseph Farington, RA, </i>Yale J Biol
Med. 1942 March; 14 (4), p 408-409</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
Walpole, Horace, <i>The Letters of Horace Walpole, </i>Vol IV,
Philadelphia, Lee & Blanchard, 1842, p 135</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
Smith, G H, <i>Some Physician
Friends of Joseph Farington, RA, </i>Yale J Biol
Med. 1942 March; 14 (4), p 420-421</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Smith, G H, <i>Some Physician
Friends of Joseph Farington, RA, </i>Yale J Biol
Med. 1942 March; 14 (4), p 409-410</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Farington, Joseph, The Farington Diary, Vol 2,
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
Smith, G H, <i>Some Physician
Friends of Joseph Farington, RA, </i>Yale J Biol
Med. 1942 March; 14 (4), p 411</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Taylor, John, <i>Records of My Life</i>, New York, J & J Harper,
1833, p 191</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
Taylor, Alfred Swaine, <i>Medical Jurisprudence</i>, London, J
Churchill, 1858, p 660</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
<i>Brookesian Museum,</i> London, Gold and Walton, 1828, p 42</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
Nichols, John, <i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, William
Pickering, 1834, p 216</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
Nichols, John, <i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, William
Pickering, 1834, p 216</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
<i>The Literary Gazette, A Weekly Journal of Literature, Science,
and the Fine Arts</i>, London, 1829, p 847</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
<i>The Literary Gazette, A Weekly Journal of Literature, Science,
and the Fine Arts</i>, London, 1829, p 780 and p 847</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in <i>The Asiatic Journal and Monthly
Miscellany,</i> Volume 29, London, 1829, p 757
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
<i>Daily Chronicle</i> 18 Jan 1832, Philadelphia</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Cole, R J, <i>Annals of Science, </i>Volume 8, Issue 3<a href="http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title%7Edb=all%7Econtent=g739368818" target="_top">
</a>September 1952, p 255 - 270
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">Elmes, James,
</span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>Annals
of the Fine Arts</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">,
London, Sherwood, Neely, and Jones, 1818, p 547</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
Cole, R J, <i>Annals of Science, </i>Volume 8, Issue 3<a href="http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title%7Edb=all%7Econtent=g739368818" target="_top">
</a>September 1952, p 255 - 270
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a><i>
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">Pettigrew, Thomas Joseph,
</span><i>Biographical memoirs</i>, London, Fisher, 1838 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
<i>The Satirist,</i> Vol III, London, Samuel Tipper, 1808, p
367-371</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
Loudon, Irvine, <i>Sir Charles Bell and the Anatomy of Expression</i>,
London, BMJ, Voll 285, 1982, p 1794-1796
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
www.racollection.org.uk Royal Academy<span style="font-weight: normal;">
of Arts Archive, Sir Thomas Lawrence, PRA, 1777-1831, </span></span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Shee, Martin Archer, <i>Elements of Art,</i> London, William Miller,
1809, p 70-71
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
<i>New Monthly Magazine,</i> London, Henry Colburn, 1815, p 537</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
<i>Monthly Magazine and British Register, </i>Vol 27, London,
Richard Phillips, 1809, p 179-180</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
Olney, Clarke, <i>Benjamin Robert Haydon Historical Painter,</i>
Athens, UGP, 1950, p 43
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
<i>The Monthly Magazine</i>, Vol XXVIII, Part II, London, Richard
Phillips, 1809, p 520</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
<i>Monthly Magazine and British Register, </i>Vol 28, London,
Richard Phillips, 1809, p 611-612</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
<i>New Monthly Magazine,</i> London, E W Allen, 1814, p 544</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a><i>
New Monthly Magazine,</i> London, E W Allen, March 1814, p 140</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in <span style="font-style: normal;">Pettigrew,
Thomas Joseph,</span><i> Biographical memoirs</i>,
London, Fisher, 1838 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
<i>The London Magazine,</i> London, Baldwin, Craddock, 1820, p 278</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
Haydon, B R, <i>The Autobiography and Journals of Benjamin Robert
Haydon</i>, London, Macdonald, 1950, p 34-35</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
Haydon, Benjamin Robert, and Evans, E, <i>Lectures on Painting and
Design</i>, London, Longmans, 1844, p 21-26
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
<i>Monthly Magazine and Register</i>, London, February 1823, p 102</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>The European magazine, and
London review of the Philological Society (Great Britain)</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">,
London, 1815, p 523</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
<span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>The European
magazine, and London review of the Philological Society (Great
Britain)</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">,
London, 1815, p 557</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
Collins, Wilkie, <i>Memoirs of the Life of Wilkie Collins</i>, Vol
I, London, Longmans, 1848, p 35-36</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a><i>
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">Pettigrew, Thomas Joseph,
</span><i>Biographical memoirs, </i>London, Fisher, 1838 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Bewick, William,</span><i> Life and letters of William Bewick</i>,
London, Hurst and Blackett, 1871, p 140</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
<i>The Times</i>, London, 25 December, 1816</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<pre class="western"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a> Elmes, James, <i>Annals of the Fine Arts</i>, London, Sherwood, Neely, and Jones, 1818, p 604-607</span></pre>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Farington, Joseph, quoted in </span>Smith,
George H, <i>Some Physician Friends of Joseph Farington, RA,</i> p
411 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a>
Millard, Ann, <i>An Account of the Circumstances</i>, London, Ann
Millard, 1825, p 15</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
<i>Wikipedia,</i> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_Sterne ,
accessed April 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a>
Walker, Alexander, <i>Beauty in Women,</i> London, Effingham
Wilson, 1836, p 2</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
Williams D E, <i>Life and Correspondence of Sir Thomas Lawrence</i>,
Vol I, London, Colburn, 1831, p 283-284</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a><i>
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">Pettigrew, Thomas Joseph,
</span><i>Biographical memoirs</i>, London, Fisher, 1838 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
Dove, R D, <span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>The Christian
Recorder,</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"> 12 October
1876, http://negroartist.com/writings/sculptors.htm</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
Southey, Robert, <i>History of Brazil,</i> London, Longmans, 1810, p
655</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
Cole, R J, <i>Annals of Science, </i>Volume 8, Issue 3<a href="http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title%7Edb=all%7Econtent=g739368818" target="_top">
</a>September 1952, p 262</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
BBC http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/southern_counties/5064952.stm
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a>
Southey, Charles Cuthbert, <i>The
Life and Correspondence of Robert Southey,</i>
New York, Harpers, 1851, p 479</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Farington, Joseph, quoted in </span>Smith,
George H, <i>Some Physician Friends of Joseph Farington, RA, </i>p
412-414</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a>
Farington, Joseph, <i>The Farington Diary,</i> Vol IV, New York,
Doran, 1924, p 34</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
<i>The European Magazine</i>, Vol 49, London, Phil. Society, 1806, p
250</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
Taylor, Charles, <span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;"><i>The Literary
Panorama</i></span><span style="font-family: Times New Roman, serif;">, London, C
Taylor, 1807, p 1382</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote66">
<div class="western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66anc" name="sdendnote66sym">lxvi</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Farington, Joseph, quoted in </span>Smith,
George H, <i>Some Physician Friends of Joseph Farington, RA,</i>, p
414-416</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote67">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67anc" name="sdendnote67sym">lxvii</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Farington,
Joseph, quoted in </span>Smith, George H, <i>Some
Physician Friends of Joseph Farington, RA</i>, p
414-416</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote68">
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0.5cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68anc" name="sdendnote68sym">lxviii</a>
Williams D E, <i>Life and Correspondence of Sir Thomas Lawrence</i>,
Vol I, London, Colburn, 1831, p 274-276</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote69">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69anc" name="sdendnote69sym">lxix</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Farington, Joseph,
quoted in </span>Smith, George H, <i>Some
Physician Friends of Joseph Farington, RA</i>, p
417</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote70">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70anc" name="sdendnote70sym">lxx</a>
John Thomas Smith, <i>Nollekens and His Times,</i> Vol II, London,
Henry Colburn, London, 1828, p 28-40</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote71">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71anc" name="sdendnote71sym">lxxi</a>
Cunningham, Allan, <i>The lives of the most eminent British
painters, etc.</i>, London, John Murray. 1830, p 194</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote72">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72anc" name="sdendnote72sym">lxxii</a>
John Thomas Smith, <i>Nollekens and His Times,</i> Vol II, London,
Henry Colburn, London, 1828, p 16</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote73">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73anc" name="sdendnote73sym">lxxiii</a>
Cunningham, Allan, <i>The lives of the most eminent British
painters, etc.</i>, London, John Murray. 1830, p 193
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote74">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74anc" name="sdendnote74sym">lxxiv</a>
<i>The London Literary Gazette</i>, London, 1826, p 45</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote75">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75anc" name="sdendnote75sym">lxxv</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Farington, Joseph,
quoted in </span>Smith, George H, <i>Some
Physician Friends of Joseph Farington, RA</i>, p
411-412</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote76">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote76anc" name="sdendnote76sym">lxxvi</a>
Plowden, Alison, <i>Caroline and Charlotte</i>, London, Sedgwick &
Jackson, 1989, p 211-212</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote77">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote77anc" name="sdendnote77sym">lxxvii</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Farington, Joseph,
quoted in </span>Smith, George H, <i>Some
Physician Friends of Joseph Farington, RA</i>, p
411</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote78">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote78anc" name="sdendnote78sym">lxxviii</a>
Farington, Joseph, quoted in Johnson, Paul, <i>The Birth of the
Modern World Society,</i> NY, Harper, 1999, p 459-460</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote79">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote79anc" name="sdendnote79sym">lxxix</a>
Byron, Lord, <i>The Works of Lord Byron. Letters and Journals</i>,
Adamant, 2002, p 579-580</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote80">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote80anc" name="sdendnote80sym">lxxx</a>
Byron, Lord, <i>The Works of Lord Byron. Letters and Journals</i>,
Adamant, 2001, p 208</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote81">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote81anc" name="sdendnote81sym">lxxxi</a>
Byron, Lord, <i>The Works of Lord Byron. Letters and Journals</i>,
Adamant, 2002, p 549</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote82">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote82anc" name="sdendnote82sym">lxxxii</a><i>The
Universal Register</i>, Vol XI, London, Sherwood, Neely, and Johens,
1809, p 243</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote83">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote83anc" name="sdendnote83sym">lxxxiii</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Farington, Joseph,
quoted in </span>Smith, George H, <i>Some
Physician Friends of Joseph Farington, RA</i>, p
411</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote84">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote84anc" name="sdendnote84sym">lxxxiv</a>
O'Keeffe, Paul, <i>A Genius for Failure,</i> London, Bodley Head,
2009, p 93</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote85">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote85anc" name="sdendnote85sym">lxxxv</a>
<i>Magazine of the Fine Arts</i>, London, M Arnold, 1831, p 84</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote86">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote86anc" name="sdendnote86sym">lxxxvi</a>
Clubbe, John, <i>Byron, Sully, and the Power of Portraiture</i>,
Aldershot, Ashgate, 2005, p 57</span></div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1011681182245722621.post-14025897336714912192015-04-05T16:00:00.001-07:002021-11-26T09:44:43.504-08:0021 - Reviving the Recently Dead and the Secret of Muscular Motion ©<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle was
intellectually linked to the early 19C; artistic, medical, literary,
social, and scientific. As such, he was a bee cross-pollinating
between various disciplines, linking back to his friends, Southey and
Godwin, and to Mary Shelley. In 1818 it was already said of his
published papers;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.45cm;">
<br />
From
these may be seen Mr Carlisle's fund of varied information, and that
he is not one that in his investigations pursues the beaten track; on
the contrary, there is an originality of thinking and manner, that
marks the trait of genius. As such we are doubtful whether he will
ever stoop to court the arts of practice so as to equal a Cline or a
Cooper, except in knowledge and talent.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1sym" name="sdendnote1anc"><sup>i</sup></a>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Anon, <i>Authentic Memoirs of Eminent Physicians and Surgeons,</i>
London, Sherwood, 1818 <br /></span></div>
</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The
main focus of Carlisle's personal research was the secret of
'muscular motion', a term used to express the concept of research
into the essence of life itself, and implicitly revival of the
recently dead. The phrase 'muscular motion' being used to minimise
the risk of adverse Church reaction, had the term 'resurrection of
the deceased' been used. In this he followed the lead of Sir Isaac
Newton, John Hunter and others. Many Croonian
Lectures read before the Royal Society addressed muscular motion.
John Hunter read six between 1776 and 1782. In 1790 one was read by
Sir Gilbert Blane, twelve by Sir Everard Home between 1795 and 1828,
and three by Carlisle in 1804, 1805 and 1807.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle was inspired by Hunter's work, but in pursuing the revival
of life, they were not the first, with the fear of grave robbing
thousands of years old. Ancient Egyptians left curses within their
tombs as they believed that if the body was disturbed, the deceased
would be unable to rise from the dead. This paralleled a belief that
without the possessions included in the tomb, the dead would be
unable to resume a life socially comparable with the earthly world
left behind. Despite the curses, many Egyptian mummies were stolen
from their tombs. Embalming, as a prelude to burial, was practised by
the Egyptians, but also in London by barber-surgeons, with the
reasons set out in a 1705 letter, from Thomas Greenhill to Charles
Bernard, Master of the Surgeon's Company;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.61cm;">
<br />
The first Cause was the securing of the Living from the pestiferous
Exhalations of the Dead, the Medicinal or preserving Art being little
known, and less used in the earlier days of Antiquity. The second
Cause was the alleviating of the Grief of the Living for the loss of
their Friends, by removing their Corpse out of sight. The third was
the Indecency and Unnaturalness of seeing a Man's Body exposed to
Beasts and Birds of Prey. The Fourth was the Excellency of Man's
Body, to which we ought to shew the greater Honour and Respect in
that it is the Receptacle of the Immortal Soul. The fifth and
ultimate End of Burial, to be the confirming of the assured Hopes of
a future Resurrection.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2sym" name="sdendnote2anc"><sup>ii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Discussion
by the London intelligentsia included Egyptian concepts of
mummification and afterlife, all inevitably intertwined with
discussions on the nature of life itself. Mummies were opened for
inspection in London, as on 16 December 1763, when William Hunter and
John Hunter, together four others, met at the house of John Hadley to
unwrap a mummy gifted by the Duke of Norfolk to the Royal Society.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3sym" name="sdendnote3anc"><sup>iii</sup></a>
The mummy was in poor condition, but inspiration for William Hunter
to experiment, and later embalm the wife of Martin van Butchell, and
the mistress of John Sheldon. Twenty-five years later there was a
similar event, where Carlisle would have been present. An Egyptian
mummy of a child of six years old, belonging to John Symmons, was
unwrapped in London on 29 March 1788, 'in the presence of many
learned persons'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4sym" name="sdendnote4anc"><sup>iv</sup></a>,<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5sym" name="sdendnote5anc"><sup>v</sup></a>
<i>The Times</i> reported;</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">On Saturday morning last, John
Symmons Esq of Grosvenor House, had a mummy dissected there by Mr
John Hunter, at which were present Doctor Brocklesby, and others of
the faculty, with several of the </span><i>Literati.</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
The origin of the mummy was supposed to be that of an Egyptian
Princess, of about three thousand years old; but as to the
particulars of her life, no information is to be derived either from
history or tradition. In the language of surgery, however, </span><i>she
cut up swell,</i><span style="font-style: normal;"> and corroborated
to other experiments of the </span><i>mode</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
of performing the very extraordinary instances of human preservation.
As soon as the ceremony of the operation was over, the remains of her
Royal Highness were carefully deposited in a box, and the company,
after the custom of ancient funerals, dined together, and afterwards
poured libations to her memory. The flesh of mummies is reckoned very
useful in some medical preparations, and at times brings a very high
price.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6sym" name="sdendnote6anc"><sup>vi</sup></a></span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
A further dissection of this mummy was reported in 1793, when John Frederic
Blumenbach wrote;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.3cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br />
I had an opportunity to examine one more mummy at the honourable
Charles Greville's, FRS, which had four years before ... been already
opened in the presence of several curious spectators. It belonged to
John Symmons Esq of Grosvenor House, Westminster.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7sym" name="sdendnote7anc"><sup>vii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
The study
of Egyptian mummies occurred in conjunction with 18C attempts to
revive victims of accidents, but a hurdle faced by progressive
medical men was a tide of religious prejudice running against men who
presumed to bring the dead to life. Attempts at revival from
accidents were regarded by some physicians and philosophers as idle
and visionary, and placed upon a level with charlatans professing to
raise the long dead. Nevertheless, there was discussion about
reversing premature deaths, including drowning, suffocation,
freezing, asphyxiation, choking, or hanging. Attempts had been made
before, Vesalius reported using bellows to resuscitate asphyxiated
dogs.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8sym" name="sdendnote8anc"><sup>viii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
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inspiration was the 1650 case of Anne Green, a servant to Sir Thomas
Read, sentenced to death by hanging after being accused of murdering
her own child, which she claimed had been born dead.</div>
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<br />
She hung about half an Hour ... Being cut down, she was put into a
Coffin, and brought away to a House to be Dissected … when ... Sir
William Petty, then Ænatomy Professor ... came to prepare the Body
for Dissection [he] perceived some small rattling in her Throat;
hereupon desisting from their former purpose, they presently used
means for her Recovery, by opening a Vein, laying her in a warm Bed,
and causing another to go into Bed to her; also using divers Remedies
respecting her senselessness, Head, Throat, and Breast, in so much
that within 14 Hours, she began to Speak, and the next Day Talked and
Prayed very heartily.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9sym" name="sdendnote9anc"><sup>ix</sup></a>
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Anne's
experience was recorded in a rhyme of the time;</div>
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<br />
Ann Green was a slippery quean,</div>
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In vain did the jury detect her;-</div>
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She cheated Jack Ketch, and then the vile wretch</div>
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'Scap'd the knife of the learned dissector.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10sym" name="sdendnote10anc"><sup>x</sup></a></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Other
cases of successful resuscitation were reported, one being a report
of reviving a clinically dead coal miner, overcome after entering a
burned-out mine.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11sym" name="sdendnote11anc"><sup>xi</sup></a>
The discussion about the nature of life, followed on the work of Sir
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) who queried what caused muscular, or animal
motion. Newton's Query 24 as<span style="font-style: normal;">ked, 'Is
not animal motion performed by the vibration of this medium, excited
in the brain by the power of will, and propagated from thence
through....the nerves into the muscles, for contracting and dilating
them?'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12sym" name="sdendnote12anc"><sup>xii</sup></a> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">Revivals of apparently drowned persons, gave an increasing awareness
death was not a sure and certain state, as had been recognised by
Pliny, who wrote; 'Such is the condition of humanity, and so
uncertain is men's judgement, that they cannot determine even death
itself'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13sym" name="sdendnote13anc"><sup>xiii</sup></a>
This confusion did not sit well in the public mind. If one could be
mistaken for dead when one c</span>ould possibly still be
resuscitated, one could also be buried alive, as evidenced by
periodic discovery of premature burials. Caution was reinforced in
1751 by Jacques Benigne Winslow. Fear of premature burial became a
worry, with wealthy persons fitting coffins and crypts with
signalling devices which could be used to alert the outside world.
The concern still prevailed in 1885;
'It is true that hardly any one sign of death, short of putrefaction,
can be relied upon as infallible'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14sym" name="sdendnote14anc"><sup>xiv</sup></a>
</div>
In 1788, Charles Kite recorded the quandary;
<br />
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<br />
<div style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;">
</div>
Many, various, and even opposite appearances have been supposed to indicate
the total extinction of life. Formerly, a stoppage of the pulse and
respiration were thought to be unequivocal signs of death; particular
attention in examining the state of the heart and larger arteries,
the flame of a taper, a lock of wool, or a mirror applied to the
mouth or nostrils, were conceived sufficient to ascertain these
points; and great has been the number of those who have fallen
untimely victims to this erroneous opinion. Some have formed their
prognostic from the livid, black, and cadaverous countenance; others
from the heavy, dull, fixed, or flaccid state of the eyes; from the
dilated pupil; the foaming at the mouth and nostrils, the rigid and
inflexible state of the body, jaws, or extremities; the intense and
universal cold, etc. ... it is therefore evident that these signs
will not afford certain and unexceptionable criteria, by which we may
distinguish between life and death.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15sym" name="sdendnote15anc"><sup>xv</sup></a>
</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgV7l0bW1vdq-IbfomAxajVWSzoAvAl6B9tR_QAeRcQJwJMXRtgRlmXn_bPFb4TsUNHTpgxyhR53Gm4jO01E400dfc9NE1QGkUc56RlfCL0fLUzRykDdvwJVXZHDNPkqPqtRqDmsbeXI1c/s1600/21-1.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgV7l0bW1vdq-IbfomAxajVWSzoAvAl6B9tR_QAeRcQJwJMXRtgRlmXn_bPFb4TsUNHTpgxyhR53Gm4jO01E400dfc9NE1QGkUc56RlfCL0fLUzRykDdvwJVXZHDNPkqPqtRqDmsbeXI1c/s1600/21-1.jpg" width="342" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The idea of life as an entity distinct from the body came to the mid 19C
as the 'Vital Principle' the name proposed by Barthez, but it is
difficult to arrive at any clear conception as to the nature of this
principle. John Hunter compared it to electricity and galvanism; by
Lamarck it was considered a compound of electricity and light; and
others considered it a principle 'sui generis' and, as with Alison,
denied it could be defined; but it seems it was agreed that it must
have a fixed place and habitation. By Harvey it was located in the
blood, or rather was the blood; according to others, a numerous band;
it had its seat in the nervous system, especially in the
cerebro-spinal portions of it; but on this point the neurologists
were divided.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16sym" name="sdendnote16anc"><sup>xvi</sup></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<br />
The arrival of electricity seemed to provide an opportunity to confirm
death, if there was no response to its application, and also as a
means to revive the apparently dead. Electricity was a major topic of
debate among natural philosophers in the 18C, with discussion
commencing around 1720 when static electricity was created by rubbing
a glass rod, and later used in party type entertainments to give
people static electric shocks. Later leading to Carlisle's discovery
of electrolysis.<br />
<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg36N1kFNIZo0jeFZGe-XDEhj-PQlih8G_ZKWEfGDYdVLsTOHhKLj-0b6cN3AVCeKkVicTiujQnERx-yVPLdZkNXRA9dCDMszFqzNpsyBUaUe0Er3lMnYVS6euMdnzM59W9RygAe_RChg4/s1600/21-2.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="341" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg36N1kFNIZo0jeFZGe-XDEhj-PQlih8G_ZKWEfGDYdVLsTOHhKLj-0b6cN3AVCeKkVicTiujQnERx-yVPLdZkNXRA9dCDMszFqzNpsyBUaUe0Er3lMnYVS6euMdnzM59W9RygAe_RChg4/s1600/21-2.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
A serious study of electricity took place in Leyden,
Holland leading to invention of the Leyden jar, the first device able
to store electricity. It was made in the laboratory of Professors
Pieter van Musschenbroek (1692-1761) and Jean-Nicholas-Sebastien
Allamand FRS (1713-1787), who experimented in the company of Andreas
Cunaeus (1712-1788). </div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A
recently discovered miniature portrait in enamel of Allamand was painted by the Swiss miniaturist Johann Heinrich Hurter (1734-1799) who married Allamand's widow, Magdelaine
Crommelin. She was baptised on 28 October 1739 and had three marriages; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.39cm;">
<br />
1 - 5 May 1761
Rotterdam - Justus Lodowig Schlemm, Died 17 Sept 1779 Delft, buried
Weende. </div>
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2 - 22 August 1784
Leiden - Prof. Dr. Jan Nicolaas Sebastiaan Allamand, born 18 Sept
1713 Lausanne, died 2 March 1787 Leiden. </div>
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3 - 12 July 1790
Leiden - Freiherr Johann Heinrich von Hurter, son of Freiherr Hans
Jacob von Hurter and Anna Meyer, born 9 Sept 1734, died 2 Sept 1799,
Pempelfort. </div>
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<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEga624bFllegWGkG9Wk5Da0tpuE_Z8VI2sLSHGY9E1vUS8abfOdyTICYGAGZLoDrRBZ2Eie6DreXEtfzjAHCwzQ_6fDA3dECMWHN3ksbXoiA7o3TNAkqMrl9kPjN-w3_l64fRF_9o7YGvQ/s1600/21-3.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEga624bFllegWGkG9Wk5Da0tpuE_Z8VI2sLSHGY9E1vUS8abfOdyTICYGAGZLoDrRBZ2Eie6DreXEtfzjAHCwzQ_6fDA3dECMWHN3ksbXoiA7o3TNAkqMrl9kPjN-w3_l64fRF_9o7YGvQ/s1600/21-3.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">JNS Allamand</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9DmUnLfXe786jN-K1nH8ugN-GzXye2PPA3nIYASAN781O0eDU_OKyz73buoR7vzQp7veOMgiZdUSL48qv1g1ywJemiVggAwiPwwQk6ENOtX5SQ8E4C5hZEXSVbj5_YaXKdCyBA_Abh14/s1600/21-4.jpg" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9DmUnLfXe786jN-K1nH8ugN-GzXye2PPA3nIYASAN781O0eDU_OKyz73buoR7vzQp7veOMgiZdUSL48qv1g1ywJemiVggAwiPwwQk6ENOtX5SQ8E4C5hZEXSVbj5_YaXKdCyBA_Abh14/s1600/21-4.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">JNS Allamand obit d 2 Maart 1787</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Musschenbroek
is relatively well known, and taught Peter Camper, whereas Allamand
is a little researched, but important natural philosopher of the 18C,
a member of the Royal Society of London who deserves mention.
Allamand was born at Lausanne in Switzerland and moved to Leyden,
where he acquired an extensive knowledge of natural philosophy,
chemistry, natural history, and mathematics. In 1749, the chair of
philosophy in the university of Leyden was offered to him. To this
was added the professorship of natural history, which he held until
his death. </div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In the years after 1766, the chief
additions to the growing stock of information concerning anthropoid
apes came from Holland, where there was a lively competition to
obtain and describe the Bornean orang-outang.
Allamand enjoyed much respect and Dutch seamen took to him any curious plants,
animals, or fossils they collected during their voyages.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17sym" name="sdendnote17anc"><sup>xvii</sup></a>
Peter Camper obtained his first orang-outang in
1770, about the same time as Allamand obtained one for the University
of Leyden.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18sym" name="sdendnote18anc"><sup>xviii</sup></a>
In common with John Hunter and Carlisle, Allamand researched electric
eels. In 1754 in answer to a query, he received a reply which said
the eel (sidder-vis, or tremble fis<span style="font-style: normal;">h)
'produces the same effect as the electricity, which I felt when I was
with you, when holding in the hand a [Leyden] bottle fastened to the
electrified tube by an iron wire'. These eels were still rar</span>e
in Europe when, in 1774, John Hunter 'danced a jig' after being
presented with four electric eels preserved in spirits.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19sym" name="sdendnote19anc"><sup>xix</sup></a>
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Allamand devoted much attention to the subject of electricity, and a
discovery at Leyden led to the Leyden Jar. Musschenbroek, Allamand,
and Cuneus, were aware the great obstacle to progress, was the
difficulty of accumulating and retaining it. They used, for a
conductor, a small iron cannon, suspended by silk threads. This
cannon they could charge with electricity, but in a few seconds after
ceasing to turn the handle of the machine, the electricity had
escaped. It occurred to Musschenbroek that, perhaps an electrified
body might be surrounded by a non-conducting substance so the
electricity could not escape. </div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In January 1746 Musschenbroek partly
filled a bottle with water, knowing water was a conductor of
electricity. While holding the jar with his right hand and a piece of
wire with his left hand, he had one of his colleagues connect it to
the friction electrical machine, and then turn its glass globe.
Nothing occurred, until Cunaeus placed one end of the wire into water
while Musschenbroek, being grounded, was still holding the wire. A
violent shock was felt by Musschenbroek. The jar had accumulated the
electricity produced by the static machine and all at once it
discharged. Most histories record Musschenbroek as the first to feel
the shock, but the words of Allamand suggest he experienced the shock
before Musschenbroek, as Allamand wrote to Nollet;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.4cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<br />
The first time I tried it, the blow left me breathless for a few moments.
Two days later, Musschenbroek tried it with a glass phial and was so
stunned that when he came to see us a few hours afterwards, he was
still shaken and told me that nothing in the world would persuade him
to repeat it.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20sym" name="sdendnote20anc"><sup>xx</sup></a>
… [Musschenbroek] felt himself struck in his arms, shoulders, and
breast, so that he lost his breath, and was two days before he
recovered from the effects of the blow and the terror. ... [he] would
not take a second shock for the kingdom of France.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21sym" name="sdendnote21anc"><sup>xxi</sup></a>
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
occasion was five
years before Benjamin Franklin proposed his lightning experiment with
a kite in 1750. Franklin and Allamand did later corroborate on
several experiments in London, where Franklin spent most of the years
from 1757 to 1775. The importance of the discovery was already
recognized by 1760; 'The fortunate discovery of M Muschenbroek and M
Allamand with the improvements that have since been made upon it puts
it in our power to increase electricity to what degree we please'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22sym" name="sdendnote22anc"><sup>xxii</sup></a>
Allamand
purchased, for Leiden University, an electrostatic generator and nine
accompanying demonstration toys, including a "thunder house"
and a doll with hair from the instrument maker John Cuthbertson in
1775. Also, an even more dramatic (and expensive) electric machine
from the collection of the Russian Ambassador Prince Dmitri de
Gallitzin in 1782. </div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Allamand was also responsible for purchasing the
university's first model steam engine in 1762.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23sym" name="sdendnote23anc"><sup>xxiii</sup></a>
He always maintained an interest in electricity and it was reported
'Professor Allamand of Leyden had a magnet supporting from eighty to
one hundred and twenty pounds. It is now in the collection of the
Rotterdam Society of Arts and Sciences'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24sym" name="sdendnote24anc"><sup>xxiv</sup></a>
Apart from
discussing electricity, Allamand attended Franklin's experiment in
London to show the wave calming effects of oil on rough water.
Allamand then saved thousands of lives after widely urging seamen to
spread oil as a safety device, when faced with dangerous seas.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25sym" name="sdendnote25anc"><sup>xxv</sup></a>
Hence the phrase "pouring oil on troubled waters".
</div>
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<br /></div>
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Having
learned the human body responded to electric shocks, 18C philosophers
experimented with electricity seeking to prove health giving
properties. Experiments were also carried out by John Hunter, whose
initial interest in bodily revival occurred in 1762 when he was with
the British Army in France. Hunter conducted experiments to stimulate
regeneration in humans and undertook rudimentary transplants, such as
transferring healthy teeth from the mouths of young servants to use
in the sugar blackened and decayed mouths of their society
mistresses. He transplanted and tried to grow a healthy human tooth
in a cock's comb. Hunter even sought to create life, and did so when
he performed the first recorded case of human artificial
insemination, after first experimenting with moths. In 1767 he kept a
female moth in confinement until she laid some unfertilized eggs. He
then dissected a male moth to obtain semen which he combined with
the unfertilized eggs.<br />
<br />
His theory was proved when eight eggs hatched
at the same time as a control group of eggs fertilized in the normal
manner. This gave him the confidence to apply a similar theory to
humans where a husband suffered from a rare abnormality, where his
urethral opening was a the base of his penis, instead of the normal
tip. The chances of him impregnating his wife were minimal and the
wife had been unable to conceive. Hunter advised the couple have
intercourse as normal to arousal but, prior to ejaculation, collect
the husband's semen in a warmed syringe and inject this into the
wife's vagina. The couple followed this procedure and soon had a
child. John Hunter was less successful with attempts to revive frozen
animals when, in 1767, he commenced experiments to test a common
belief that fishes and reptiles could regain life after being frozen.
He was unsuccessful with some carp, which he had placed in a tub of
ice and snow, initially as the ice kept melting. After persevering
for some time with fresh ice and snow, the carp eventually froze
solid, but attempts to revise them failed.<br />
<br />
Hunter also applied the
process of freezing to a dormouse. Initially his experiment failed
because, although its feet froze, the thickness of the dormouse's fur
acted as sufficient insulation for its body from the ice. Hunter
therefore tried again after having drenched the dormouse in cold
water. This time it froze solid, but like the carp did not recover
when thawed. That humans were his real target is revealed by a later
statement to his pupils;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.54cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">I own (says he) I once thought [of]
the possibility of prolonging life to any period, by freezing a
person in the frigid zone, in which I fancied action and waste would
cease till he thawed. ...Till this, I fancied that if a man would
give up the last ten years of his life to this alternate oblivion and
action, I might prolong it for a thousand years, by thawing him every
hundredth anniversary, when he might learn what had happened during
his frozen condition, being thawed to precisely the same condition at
which I froze him. I even fancied, like other schemers, I might make
my fortune by it.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26sym" name="sdendnote26anc"><sup>xxvi</sup></a></span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
Although
Hunter failed, his experiments have overtones of Frankenstein, and
his theory is pursued in the 21C via the science of cryonics. A
central premise of cryonics being that memory, personality, and
identity are stored in cellular structures and chemistry, principally
in the brain.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The theme
re-emerges in <i>Roger Dodsworth, the Reanimated Englishman</i>,
Mary Shelley's 1826 tale of a man unfrozen after 200 years, where the
precise medical references and reference to 'some ten centuries'
cause one to wonder if the plot was discussed with Carlisle, with
word-plays on Mount St Gothard, as 'got hard' as in 'got frozen', Dr
Hotham, 'hot ham' as John Hunter, and Mr Dodsworth for Rev William
Dodd, who Hunter attempted to revive in 1777 after he was taken from
the gallows.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Resuscitation
of the Recently Dead</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Interest
was aroused by genuine cases where the dead seemed to have been
revived; '<span style="font-style: normal;">Dickson, a fish-wife, was
charged with concealing that she was pregnant with an illegitimate
child after an affair with an innkeeper. The baby died and she left
the corpse on a riverbank. But the body was found and identified and
Dickson was hanged in the Grassmarket in 1728. However, while her
body was being taken back to her native Musselburgh, in East Lothian,
for burial, noises were heard coming from the coffin – and she was
found to be still alive'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27sym" name="sdendnote27anc"><sup>xxvii</sup></a>
</span><br />
<br />
Revivals after recovery from apparent drownings also occurred;
with so much river traffic in London, an unfortunately common cause
of death. Organised resuscitation of apparently drowned people
commenced in Holland, which had numerous canals and many water
accidents. In 1767 a society was formed at Amsterdam offering rewards
to those who saved the life of a citizen. Others followed, a
governmental edict of 1766 from Zurich read: '<span style="font-style: normal;">Experience
has shown that the drowned who are considered dead and that lay for
some time under water have often been restored again and kept alive
by proper manoeuvres. From which one rightly concludes that life has
not been completely suspended in the drowned, but that there is hope
to save them from death if, as soon as they are withdrawn from the
water, prompt and careful help is administered'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28sym" name="sdendnote28anc"><sup>xxviii</sup></a>
</span><br />
<br />
Inspired by these examples, magistrates at Milan and Venice
issued orders in 1768 for the treatment of drowned persons. The city
of Hamburg in 1769 published an ordinance to extend succour not
merely to the drowned, but to the strangled, those suffocated by
noxious vapours, and to the frozen. Initial attempts moved from
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation of drownings, to the more impressive use
of bellows. Even so, bellows were not always available and simple
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation continued, just as midwives did with
newborns.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
Amsterdam reports were translated into English in 1773 by Thomas
Cogan (1736-1818), in order to convince the British public of the
practicability of recovering persons who apparently dead. No sooner
had they been translated than they caught the attention of William
Hawes (1736-1808). He adopted as a crusade, the hope of saving the
lives of his fellow men but, in making the attempt he encountered
both ridicule and opposition, as the practicability of resuscitation
was denied. To counter this opposition, he offered to reward persons
who rescued drowned persons from the water and brought them ashore.<br />
<br />
Many lives were thus saved and, as a result of this, in 1774 Hawes
and Cogan formed the Society for the Recovery of Persons Apparently
Drowned in London. It soon evolved into the Humane Society and later
into the Royal Humane Society. Few people were able to swim and in
1773, the year before the Society was founded, 123 people were
reported drowned in London alone.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29sym" name="sdendnote29anc"><sup>xxix</sup></a>
Apart from drownings, there was concern at the number of people
wrongly taken for dead - and, in some cases, buried alive. <span style="font-style: normal;">The
Society set out five key aims:</span></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br />
- to publish information on how to save people from drowning</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
- to pay two guineas to anyone attempting a rescue in the
Westminster area of London</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
- to pay four guineas to anyone successfully bringing someone back
to life</div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
- to pay one guinea to anyone - often a pub-owner - allowing a body
to be treated in his house</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
- to provide volunteer medical assistants with some basic
life-saving equipment</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Three
months after the 1774 founding, a society member named Squires
attempted to revive a three year old child named Catherine Sophie
Greenhill.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30sym" name="sdendnote30anc"><sup>xxx</sup></a>
She had fallen from an upper story window onto flagstones and been
pronounced dead. Squires was on the scene within twenty minutes and
proceeded to give the clinically dead child several shocks through
the chest, reported using a device for transferring shocks from one
person to another, which had been used as a party piece. The shocks
enabled the child to regain pulse and respiration, and she eventually
recovered.<br />
<br />
From the autumn of 1776 the Society gave a course of
lectures on suspended animation, the term used to describe those to
be attempted to be revived. The lectures led to consideration of the
various effects which interrupt the action of the brain, the heart,
or the lungs, and to pointing out the best methods to use in reviving
persons from fainting, inebriation, trance, drowning, suffocation by
the cord, noxious vapours, intense cold, or lightning. Hawes at a
considerable personal expense, distributed seven thousand copies of
his <i>"Address on Premature Death and Premature Interment"
</i><span style="font-style: normal;">and in 1776 </span>John Hunter
published, <i>"Proposals for the Recovery of People Apparently
Drowned"</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31sym" name="sdendnote31anc"><sup>xxxi</sup></a>
Although specifically directed towards drownings, the content was
recognised as more widely applicable. Hunter did try the following
year, to use electric shocks from a Leyden jar in his attempt to
revive Dodd, after his hanging at Tyburn. Hunter looked upon the
drowned as in a trance;
</div>
<blockquote class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.37cm; text-align: justify;">
I should consider the situation of a person drowned to be similar to
that of a person in a trance. In both the action of life is suspended
without the power being destroyed; but I am inclined to believe that
a greater proportion of persons recover from trances than from
drowning, because a trance is the natural effect of a disposition in
the person to have the action of life suspended for a time; but
drowning being produced by violence, the suspension will more
frequently last for ever, unless the power of life is roused to
action by some applications of art.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32sym" name="sdendnote32anc"><sup>xxxii</sup></a>
</blockquote>
<blockquote class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm; text-align: justify;">
What Hunter was drawing attention to, was a belief it may be possible
to activate muscles after death and tha<span style="font-style: normal;">t
the living principle is inherent in the blood. </span>Hunter's view
was that the muscle power of arms, legs, or the heart was not
immediately destroyed, but the action of life was suspended;
</blockquote>
<blockquote class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.37cm; text-align: justify;">
These appearances shew that the living principle exists in the
several parts of the body, independent of the influence of the brain,
or circulation, and that it subsists by these, or is indebted to them
for its continuance; and in proportion as animals have less of brain
and circulation, the living power has less dependence on them, and
becomes a more active principle in itself and in many animals there
is no brain nor circulation; so that this power is capable of being
continued equally by all the parts themselves, such animals being
nearly similar in this respect to vegetables.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33sym" name="sdendnote33anc"><sup>xxxiii</sup></a></blockquote>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br />
Carlisle
was experimenting with live animals by 1796 as Southey wrote to
Bedford, on 29 August 1796; 'Do not hurt the polypi for the sake of
trying experiments; mangle the dead as much as you please, but let
not Carlisle dissect dogs or frogs alive. Of all experimental
surgeons, Spallanzani is the only fair one I ever heard of'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34sym" name="sdendnote34anc"><sup>xxxiv</sup></a>A resuscitation in 1797 encouraged Carlisle. The Peace of Tolentino
ended Napoleon's invasion of the Papal States. The Austrian army was
brushed aside and Pius VI forced to sue for peace. This was
disappointing to those hoping Napoleon would crush the power of the
Pope. One such man was Don Mariano Louis Urquijo, the Spanish charge
de affaires in London. So hostile was he to the Church of Rome, that
when he first heard that Bonaparte had spared the Papal Government,
he ran like a maniac from his house for more than a mile on the
Uxbridge road and threw himself in despair into a pond. Carlisle
passed by as Urquijo was dragged out in a state of insensibility and
superintended his recovery, then retaining a friendship with
Urquijo.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35sym" name="sdendnote35anc"><sup>xxxv</sup></a>
The incident inspired Carlisle to describe a drowned body in his
novel, <i>The Old Woman</i>.
</div>
<blockquote class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm; text-align: justify;">
The concept gained more interest when the effect of the application
of electricity to frogs' legs was noticed by Luigi Galvani
(1737-1798) an Italian physician and physicist. In 1792, he reported
a discovery made several years earlier. This was that muscles of dead
frogs twitched when struck by a spark. In 1783 Galvani had dissected
a frog at a table where he had been conducting experiments with
static electricity, when his assistant touched an exposed sciatic
nerve of the frog with a metal scalpel, which had picked up a charge.
At that moment, they saw sparks and the dead frog's leg kick as if in
life. The phenomenon was later dubbed "galvanism", after
Galvani, on the suggestion of his peer and sometime intellectual
adversary Alessandro Volta. </blockquote>
<blockquote class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm; text-align: justify;">
Over the next thirty years there were
further experiments initially with frogs, but later with other
animals and fresh human corpses. In
1788, a silver medal was awarded by the Humane Society to Charles
Kite, who had developed his own electrostatic revivifying machine,
which used Leyden jar capacitors in a manner similar to a modern
cardiac defibrillator. In April 1799 new reports of
great interest to Carlisle were published in London, detailing
Galvanism experiments by members of the National Institute of France;
</blockquote>
<blockquote class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.37cm; text-align: justify;">
It consists in effecting, by the use of the exciting apparatus, a
mutual communication between any two points of contact, more or less
distant from one another, in a system of nervous and muscular organs.
… If the integrity or Galvanic susceptibility of the animal arc be
suspended by the separation of any of its parts, to some distance
from one another; it may by restored by the interposition of some
substances, not of an animal nature, between the divided parts.
Metallic substances are in particular fit for this use. But the
mutual contiguity of all the substances entering into the composition
of the arc must ever be carefully preserved. The muscular organs
which indicate, by contraction the presence of the Galvanic
influence, are always those in which the nerves of a complete animal
arc have their ultimate termination. … at the medical school of
Paris they made a number of experiments, in order to ascertain what
new modifications the Galvanic energy undergoes in various cases of
suffocation or asphyxia. These last mentioned experiments were made
upon hot-blooded animals, of which some were reduced into the state
of asphyxia by submersion, some by strangulation, some by the action
of gases, while others were killed <i>in vacuo</i> by the discharge
of the electric spark. … the causes of suffocation or asphyxia do
not act upon all parts of the muscular system in the same manner. But
the heart is very often found in a state extremely different from
that of the other muscles. … <u>There is no truth in the assertion
of certain physiologists, that the experiments of Galvanism fail when
tried upon the heart and those other muscles of which the
contractions depend not upon volition. For these organs have been
found to be actually subject to the influence of Galvanism.</u> [my
emphasis] Such are the principal results of this very valuable train
of experiments upon Galvanism. It is easy to discern, that they have
only opened up, for a few paces farther, a path, of which there
remains yet very much to be explored, and which promises discoveries
the most interesting and important to the philosopher and the
physician.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36sym" name="sdendnote36anc"><sup>xxxvi</sup></a>
</blockquote>
<blockquote class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm; text-align: justify;">
This was followed by the discovery of the battery which, over the
next fifty years, inspired many men to concentrate on reviving the
dead using jolts of electricity. Galvani's investigations had led to
the invention of an early battery, but not by Galvani, who did not
see electricity as the essence of life, instead believing that animal
electricity came from the muscle. Alessandro Volta instead reasoned
that the animal electricity was a physical phenomenon and the two
scientists respectfully disagreed until Galvani's death. They were
followed by news of Volta building the first battery which became
known as Volta's 'pile', or more often as a 'voltaic pile'. </blockquote>
<blockquote class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm; text-align: justify;">
On
receipt of a letter from Volta, in March 18<span style="font-style: normal;">00,
Carlisle and William Nicholson diverted from their chosen
researches to build the first electrical battery in Britain.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37sym" name="sdendnote37anc"><sup>xxxvii</sup></a>
To
Carlisle, the ability for repeated and apparently perpetual
electrical impulses from the battery, represented the pumping of a
human heart. The wording of the letter
from Volta makes it obvious Carlisle was excited at the prospects of
using the invention to research and initiate muscular motion. Volta
described the battery and considered its influence as truly
electrical, resembling in form the electrical organ of the torpedo
and gymnotus [electric eels]. To the battery he gave the appellation
of 'the artificial electrical organ';
</span></blockquote>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br />
The
principal of these results, which comprehends nearly all the others,
is the construction of an apparatus which resembles in its effects,
that is, in the commotions it excites, the Leyden phial, or rather
the electrical batteries slightly charged, which however continue to
act, and after each explosion, recharge themselves; in other words
which contain an inexhaustible charge, an action or an impulse of the
electrical fluid apparently perpetual.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38sym" name="sdendnote38anc"><sup>xxxviii</sup></a></div>
<blockquote class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
The
battery set the scene for philosophers and anatomists such as
Giovanni Aldini (1762-1834), an Italian physicist born at Bologna and
nephew of Luigi Galvani, to seek to revive life in spectacular
fashion. Aldini visited London in 1803 and demonstrated the effects
of applying a powerful electric current to a freshly executed corpse.
The background to the experiment being, that George Forster, a
harness maker, was tried at the Old Bailey on an indictment he did
drown Jane, his wife and Louisa, his infant daughter, on Sunday 5
December, 1802.</blockquote>
<blockquote class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnyh9QVoIsIuO8bi5DLUuQ1_yPOrBItFJDzMk2wmNenPO6Q5r8dskSnglOr-FJq-VJX9roJdG6QsRaflMs2czIzeJUa9EF0-saghvH2wdZM96iIwZQ1kEvtLJg2xvKTg9tc5oM7QSE3Zs/s1600/21-5.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnyh9QVoIsIuO8bi5DLUuQ1_yPOrBItFJDzMk2wmNenPO6Q5r8dskSnglOr-FJq-VJX9roJdG6QsRaflMs2czIzeJUa9EF0-saghvH2wdZM96iIwZQ1kEvtLJg2xvKTg9tc5oM7QSE3Zs/s1600/21-5.jpg" width="273" /></a>Forster was found guilty at his trial and sentenced
to death. His body was removed from the gallows and taken to the RCS.
There, before an audience of Mr Keate, Mr Carpue, and others,
including Carlisle, Aldini applied an electric current to the corpse.
It was an alarming and frightening exhibition and the spectators
truly felt the hairs rise on the back of their necks. The process
involved an electrical machine, or battery, of 240 metal plates wired
to the corpse's head. On the first application of the electrical
current to the face, the jaw of the deceased Forster began to quiver
and the adjoining muscles were horribly contorted and one eye
actually opened. The climax of the performance came as Aldini probed
Forster's rectum, causing his clenched fist to punch the air, as if
in fury, his legs to kick and his back to arch violently. It appeared
to those present the wretched man was on the point of being restored
to life. It was frightening to watch, especially when the right hand
was raised by the electricity and struck Mr Pass, the Beadle of the
Surgeon's Company; who fainted and died that very afternoon from the
shock. Afterwards, Carlisle went to William Godwin's home where he
relayed events to Godwin, Humphry Davy, Charles Lamb, and Samuel
Taylor Coleridge.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39sym" name="sdendnote39anc"><sup>xxxix</sup></a>
Carlisle's later comments, show he did not support this type of
experiment, as he knew Hunter had tried, unsuccessfully, similar
experiments on Dodd.</blockquote>
<blockquote class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnyh9QVoIsIuO8bi5DLUuQ1_yPOrBItFJDzMk2wmNenPO6Q5r8dskSnglOr-FJq-VJX9roJdG6QsRaflMs2czIzeJUa9EF0-saghvH2wdZM96iIwZQ1kEvtLJg2xvKTg9tc5oM7QSE3Zs/s1600/21-5.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><br /></a></div>
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbl0qKf_rI8p788hV4BjUjIiiQgyQsWzOyS8-HXxL-76cQ9xURzI-f2xSj9_wjMRGFqV3K8fnwPry4OJXd1pzjV7YhCR6XW-ucBpJWsmcLH1yqsWynM7qKcxwtOWiaDhy40oRx4Nn1UKs/s1600/21-6.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="233" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbl0qKf_rI8p788hV4BjUjIiiQgyQsWzOyS8-HXxL-76cQ9xURzI-f2xSj9_wjMRGFqV3K8fnwPry4OJXd1pzjV7YhCR6XW-ucBpJWsmcLH1yqsWynM7qKcxwtOWiaDhy40oRx4Nn1UKs/s1600/21-6.jpg" width="320" /></a>Nevertheless, the Aldini experiment excited much comment and Thomas
Green Fessenden (1771-1837) writing as Christopher Caustick, penned a
lengthy satirical poem of 1803 titled; <i>"The Modern
Philosopher"</i>.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40sym" name="sdendnote40anc"><sup>xl</sup></a>
Fessenden also lampooned the claims of Benjamin Perkins (1774-1810),
son of Elisha Perkins (1741-1799) who professed to cure people using
metal devices called metallic tractors and tried to add credibility
to his claim by residing at 28 Leicester Square, previously home of
John Hunter. Fessenden who had arrived from America in 1801,
criticised Erasmus Darwin, Giovanni Aldini, and the Forster
experiment; linking Perkins and Aldini, in writing ironically;
</blockquote>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
The experiments of Aldini, as well as those of certain learned and
respectable chymists, the discerning reader will perceive, from the
manner in which they are treated, that I have introduced merely for
the purpose of giving them publicity, and thus promoting the interest
of science. Indeed, it would be very ill judged in the author to
discourage Galvanick experiments, when not attended with inhumanity.
Every advance in that science is a step nearer the top of the
eminence on which Perkinism rests.<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbl0qKf_rI8p788hV4BjUjIiiQgyQsWzOyS8-HXxL-76cQ9xURzI-f2xSj9_wjMRGFqV3K8fnwPry4OJXd1pzjV7YhCR6XW-ucBpJWsmcLH1yqsWynM7qKcxwtOWiaDhy40oRx4Nn1UKs/s1600/21-6.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><br /></a>
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheDRbg8H-JfgRmThPagiNOaqD4coBg3xIB-xQF446tNVZeJrhRo1tZcYPJ-Yt07IH-3_hWnhdRCjQTHaeUqR9NZrTWgdNYnxP_5AGrhBccIdLoMW7303IsweKGVRF-h46aMEh_IFyjeY8/s1600/21-7.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="226" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheDRbg8H-JfgRmThPagiNOaqD4coBg3xIB-xQF446tNVZeJrhRo1tZcYPJ-Yt07IH-3_hWnhdRCjQTHaeUqR9NZrTWgdNYnxP_5AGrhBccIdLoMW7303IsweKGVRF-h46aMEh_IFyjeY8/s1600/21-7.jpg" width="320" /></a><br />
I am not, however, very sanguine
that Perkinism is likely to derive that immediate support from the
step-by-step progress which Galvanism is making, that one would, on
the first reflection, be led to imagine. I fear the medical
profession will fail to support Galvanism the moment it is attempted
to be applied to any useful purpose, that is to an easy and cheap
mode of curing diseases; for then it will become identified with the
other offending practice. Perkins and Aldini I conceive go hand in
hand, but the former cures diseases (ay, there's the rub) and thereby
encroaches on the province of the faculty.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41sym" name="sdendnote41anc"><sup>xli</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbl0qKf_rI8p788hV4BjUjIiiQgyQsWzOyS8-HXxL-76cQ9xURzI-f2xSj9_wjMRGFqV3K8fnwPry4OJXd1pzjV7YhCR6XW-ucBpJWsmcLH1yqsWynM7qKcxwtOWiaDhy40oRx4Nn1UKs/s1600/21-6.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><br /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheDRbg8H-JfgRmThPagiNOaqD4coBg3xIB-xQF446tNVZeJrhRo1tZcYPJ-Yt07IH-3_hWnhdRCjQTHaeUqR9NZrTWgdNYnxP_5AGrhBccIdLoMW7303IsweKGVRF-h46aMEh_IFyjeY8/s1600/21-7.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><br /></a></div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In
viewing Perkins and Aldini as hand-in-hand, Fessenden added<span style="font-style: normal;">;
'It is to be hoped, in case this Mr Professor [Aldini] undertakes any
future operations of this nature, that some more cholerick dead man
will not only clench his fist like Forster, but convince him by dint
of pugilistick demonstration, that he is not to disturb with impunity
those who ought to be at 'rest from their labours'. </span><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Fessenden
appended a poem alluding </span>the social and moral implications of
Aldini reviving felons <span style="font-style: normal;">'nine times'</span>. The poem likens batteries to 'Metallick Tractors' and, in part,
reads;</div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="338*"></col>
<col width="338*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Behold what ought to raise
your spleen high, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Perkins supposed by Aldini! </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">It must have been most sad,
foul weather, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">From Italy to blow him
hither. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">My
wrath, indeed, is now so keen, I </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Ev'n
wish, for sake of that Aldini, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">This
ink were poison for the wizard, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">This
pen a dagger in his gizzard! </span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">For he ('tis told in publick
papers) </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Can make dead people cut
droll capers; </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And shuffling off death's
iron trammels, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">To kick and hop like dancing
camels. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">To
raise a dead dog he was able, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Though
laid in quarters on a table, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And
led him yelping, round the town, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">With
two legs up, and two legs down; </span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And, in the presence of a
posse </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Of our great men, and
Andreossi, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">He show'd black art of worse
description, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Than e'er did conjuring
Egyptian. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">He
cut a bullock's head, I ween, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Sheer
off, as if by guillotine; </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Then
(Satan aiding the adventure) </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">He
made it bellow like a Stentor! </span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And this most comical
magician </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Will soon, in publick
exhibition, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Perform a feat he's often
boasted, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And animate a dead pig -
roasted. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">With
powers of these Metallick Tractors, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">He
can revive dead malefactors; </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">For
such a chap, as you're alive </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Full
many a felon will revive. </span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And as he can (no doubt of
that) </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Give rogues the nine lives
of a cat; </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Why then, to expiate their
crimes,</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">These rogues must all be
hung nine times.</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">What
more enhances this offence is, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">'Twill
ninefold government's expenses; </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And
such a load, in name of wonder, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Pray
how can Johnny Bull stand under? </span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Then why not rise and make a
clatter, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And put a stop to all this
matter. </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Why don't you rouse, I say,
in season, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And
cut the wicked wizard's weasand?</span></div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">For,
gentlemen, the devil's to pay, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">That
you forsake the good old way, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">And
tread a path so very odd, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">So
unlike that your fathers trod."<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42sym" name="sdendnote42anc"><sup>xlii</sup></a></span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
As reported; 'Some curious Galvanick experiments were made on Friday
last, by professor Aldini, in doctor Pearson's lecture room. They
were instituted in the presence of his excellency, the ambassadour of
France, general Andreossi, lord Pelham, the duke of Roxburgh, lord
Castlereagh, lord Hervey, the hon Mr Upton, &c. The head of an
ox, recently decapitated, exhibited astonishing effects; for the
tongue being drawn out by a hook fixed into it, on applying the
exciters, in spite of the strength of the assistant, was retracted,
so as to detach itself, by tearing itself from the hook; at the same
time a loud noise issued from the mouth, attended by violent
contortions of the whole head and eyes'. Other verses are relevant to
Mary Shelley's discussion of thunder in Frankenstein;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="328*"></col>
<col width="328*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small; font-style: normal;">O
could I but affairs contrive </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">To be for one half hour
alive, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">What thunder bolts of
indignation </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">I'd
hurl at imps of Tractoration!</span></div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">The
laws of nature constantly unfold!</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Behold
Galvani's vivid, viewless flame, </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Bids
mimick life resuscitate the frame </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">Of
man deceas'd; - the vital lamp to burn, </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western">
<span style="font-size: small;">With
<i>transitory</i> glow, in death's cold urn.</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">And</span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 100%px;">
<colgroup><col width="328*"></col>
<col width="328*"></col>
</colgroup><tbody>
<tr valign="TOP">
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Now tells each trembling
bed-rid zany</span></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Terrifick tales of one
Galvani; </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">How Franklin kept, to make
folks wonder, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">A
warehouse full of bottled thunder! </span>
</div>
</td>
<td width="50%"><div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Thus
Shakspeare's Macbeth's wicked witches </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Even
carry'd matters to such pitches, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">In
hoity-toity midnight revel, </span>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal;">
<span style="font-size: small;">The
old hags almost rais'd the devil!<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43sym" name="sdendnote43anc"><sup>xliii</sup></a></span>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.24cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The Fessenden paper reveals sections of society saw Galvanism as akin
to a freak-show, with those involved as no better than quacks. The
reference by Fessenden in his poem;
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<br />
Give rogues the nine lives of a cat;
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
Why then, to expiate their crimes,</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
These rogues must all be hung nine times.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
paralleled Carlisle's thoughts in assessing the ethics of executions
and dissections. A similar satirical view by Corry in 1804 linked
Perkins to the resurrectionists, with a risk for the wider community
if the lame, blind, and maimed were healed; so needing to change from
begging to crime to live;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.56cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">All the ridiculous monkish
superstition of the days of yore bids fair for a revival, under the
auspices of the Perkinean Society, and we may soon expect to behold
Benjamin Perkins, Squire Grimstone, and Co. forming a procession
through the streets; and by the astonishing virtues of two bits of
metal, restoring the blind to sight, the lame to activity; nay, </span><span style="font-style: normal;"><u>for
aught we know, turning </u></span><i><u>resurrection-men,</u></i><span style="font-style: normal;"><u>
and raising the dead</u></span><span style="font-style: normal;">. [my
emphasis] This last effort of their miraculous powers, however, might
be attended with several unpleasant circumstances, both social and
political. Heirs, now in possession of the estates of their deceased
parents, would become disinherited - the resurrection of millions,
who are not</span><i> dead but sleep</i><span style="font-style: normal;">
beneath the surface of the earth, would produce famine; and, as there
can be no possibility of death, when the Perkinean system of medicine
is established, the unfortunate beings restored to life must of
course turn depredators on the property of others. From this view of
things, the miraculous Perkinean Society may be deterred from raising
the dead; but they will undoubtedly run the risk of doing more harm
than good, by healing the diseased. </span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.41cm; margin-right: 0.5cm;">
For instance a numerous tribe of lame blind and maimed who inhabit
the <i>rich</i> and <i>perfumed</i> chambers of St Giles's, would be
deprived of their present mode of subsistence by a restoration to
health. Me thinks I hear the lazy beggars exclaim, “d--n the
Tractors, they'll be the ruin of our trade; nobody will give us any
thing when we are restored to health, and we shall be obliged to
work.” “No,” exclaims one of the fraternity, “if the Tractors
can set me upon my legs again I shall levy contributions upon the
highway, before I submit to the <i>drudgery</i> of <i>earning</i> a
livelihood!” ... Even in this age of reason when water-closets are
constructed on mathematical principles, we find that excellent man
the Rev Dr T[rotter] <i>trotting</i> or <i>scampering</i> about from
house to house, and working miracles on the burnt hands of our <i>silly
women </i>with the Tractors. <i>O horrible, O horrible, most
horrible!</i> that a man, whose avocation should be the dispensing of
die bread of life to a Christian household, should spend his time in
applying <i>two skewers</i> to the <i>inflamed</i> and <i>inflaming</i>
eyes, bosoms, and hands of the fair sex!<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44sym" name="sdendnote44anc"><sup>xliv</sup></a>
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<b>Carlisle's Research into Muscular Motion</b></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Carlisle's
scientific papers show his aim w</span>as to revive the deceased, but
instead of applying Galvanism direct to the muscles of a deceased
body, his belief was the life force was contained within blood, the
circulation of which provided the means for muscular motion. But he<span style="font-style: normal;">
needed to avoid public accusation and ridicule linking him with the
charlatanism of Galvanism and Perkinism. </span>Carlisle refrained
from the showmanship involved in a direct attempt to revive hanged
criminals with electricity, instead he sought to follow a more
scientific approach to revival. He was conscious blood coagulated and
his theory sought to reverse this, to revive the blood, and pump the
renewed blood into a cadaver to revive the heart and body to life.
His work commenced even before 1801;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br />
... the velocity of the blood, which, it is well known, moves quicker
in the arteries near the heart than in the remote branches, and the
frequent communications in the cylinders in the sloth must produce
eddies which will retard the progress of the fluid. It may be
difficult to determine whether the slow movement of the blood sent to
these muscles be a subordinate convenience to other primary causes of
their slow contraction, or whether it be of itself the immediate and
principal cause. The facts at present ascertained relative to
muscular motion do not authorize Mr C[arlisle] to treat decidedly of
the share which vascular system holds in the operation of muscular
contraction.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45sym" name="sdendnote45anc"><sup>xlv</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
realised the arteries in sloths tended to retard the velocity of the
blood, to secure a greater supply to muscles which, only moving
slowly, required that their system be constantly in action;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.37cm;">
<br />
<span style="font-style: normal;">During the state of contraction, as
has been often noticed, the muscles of animals with red blood become
of a paler colour, and recover their former redness on the subsequent
relaxation; it may therefore be affirmed, that muscular fibres are
not distended with blood when in the state of contraction, but that
the replenishing with blood is to supply some fresh material, which
is employed in muscular action. Whatever substance this may be, it is
less required for the irritability of the muscles in some animals
than in others.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46sym" name="sdendnote46anc"><sup>xlvi</sup></a>
… That these parts are truly muscular, I have ascertained by their
excitation with the Galvanic metals .... the replenishing with blood
is to supply some fresh material, which is employed in muscular
action ... researches in natural history seem to promise a more
ample, and a clearer view of the gross arrangements which attend the
structure of muscles ..... and the immediate phenomena of muscular
actions.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47sym" name="sdendnote47anc"><sup>xlvii</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Carlisle
was elected to the Royal Society on 8 March 1804, and </span>on 8
November he delivered his first Croonian Lecture, opening cautiously;
'<span style="font-style: normal;">Many of the phenomena of muscles
remain unexplained, nor is it to be expected that any sudden
insulated discovery shall solve such a variety of complicated
appearances. ... it may not be unreasonable to hope for an ultimate
solution of these phenomena, no less complete, and consistent, than
that of any other desideratum in physical science'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48sym" name="sdendnote48anc"><sup>xlviii</sup></a>
</span>Carlisle referred to natural electrical batteries within
species of electric eel and to experiments on frogs;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br />
Sir Anthony Carlisle has shown that a muscle is stronger while it
retains its irritability, than when it has lost that property. He
laid bare the muscles of the two hind thighs of a frog, and removed
the femoral bone. He then attached weights to each set of muscles
till it was ruptured. The experiment was made upon the muscles of one
leg while they retained their irritability, and upon the muscles of
the other leg, after the irritability was gone. The muscles retaining
their irritability were ruptured by a weight of six pounds
avoirdupois; those that had lost it by a weight of five pounds.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49sym" name="sdendnote49anc"><sup>xlix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.46cm; margin-right: 0.55cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Carlisle
opposed experiments on live animals, which surprised Sir Joseph
Banks; 'There seems to be a spirit rising against experiments on
living animals. I was astonished to hear the other day that Carlisle
in his lecture to the Royal Academy had introduced rather abruptly an
attack against these experiments.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50sym" name="sdendnote50anc"><sup>l</sup></a>
However, Carlisle did use Galvanism in his experiments on dead
animals; 'That these parts are truly muscular, I have ascertained by
their excitation with the Galvanic metals'</span><sup><span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51sym" name="sdendnote51anc"><sup>li</sup></a></span></sup><span style="font-style: normal;">
and 'Discharges of electricity passed through muscles, destroy their
irritability, but leave them apparently inflated with small bubbles
of gas'.</span><sup><span style="font-style: normal;"><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52sym" name="sdendnote52anc"><sup>lii</sup></a></span></sup><span style="font-style: normal;">
It must be presumed Carlisle's reluctance referred only to large
animals, as he </span>described experiments in drowning hedgehogs
with, implicitly, his next stage to revive a hedgehog. In the context
of what constituted death, Carlisle commented;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
The blood of an animal is usually coagulated immediately after death,
and the muscles are contracted; but in some peculiar modes of death,
neither the one, nor the other of these effects are produced: with
such exceptions, the two phenomena are concomitant. A preternatural
increase of animal heat delays the coagulation of the blood, and the
last contractions of the muscles: these contractions gradually
disappear, before any changes from putrefaction are manifested; but
the cup in the coagulum of blood does not relax in the same manner,
hence it may be inferred, that the final contraction of muscles is
not the coagulation of the blood contained in them neither is it a
change in the reticular membrane, nor in the blood-vessels, because
such contractions are not general throughout those substances. <u>The
coagulation of blood is a certain criterion of death</u>. <u>The
repeated visitations of blood are not essential to muscular
irritability [i.e. movement], because the limbs of animals, separated
from the body, continue for a long time afterwards capable of
contractions, and relaxations.</u><span style="text-decoration: none;">
[my emphasis] </span><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53sym" name="sdendnote53anc"><sup>liii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: small;">That
is, limbs and muscles retained their physical characteristics longer
than blood and implicitly, fresh blood could revive muscles. In</span>
focusing on blood, Carlisle was followed the lead of John Hunter, an
extreme vitalist who had seen blood as alive.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54sym" name="sdendnote54anc"><sup>liv</sup></a>
Carlisle wrote<span style="font-style: normal;">; 'it is known that
most of the disorderly errors of the living body depend upon the
flowing of the blood, and on the contractions of the heart, which,
acting the part of a hydraulic machine, is mainly engaged in
propelling the blood through two extensive series of vessels called
arteries and veins.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55sym" name="sdendnote55anc"><sup>lv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
That
Carlisle's investigations were in the realm of reconstituting blood
is conveyed by his comments in his 1804 lecture; <span style="font-style: normal;">'The
constituent elementary materials of which the peculiar animal and
vegetable substances consist, are not separable by any chemical
processes hitherto instituted, in such manner to allow a
recombination into their former state'. </span>The implication being
Carlisle had been unsuccessfully been experimenting in this
direction, but that he believed it should be possible to reverse the
coagulation of blood and use it to revive animals, as revealed by his
comment;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
Until by synthetical experiments the peculiar substances of animals
are composed from what are considered to be elementary materials, or
the changes of organic secretion imitated by art, it cannot be hoped
that any determinate knowledge should be established upon which the
physiology of muscles may be explained. Such researches and
investigations promise, however, the most probable ultimate success,
since the phenomena are nearest allied to those of chemistry, and
since all other hypotheses have, in their turns, proved
unsatisfactory.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56sym" name="sdendnote56anc"><sup>lvi</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.32cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
was considering the steps involved in the chemical manufacture of a
blood substitute from elementary materials which could then be
transfused into a deceased body with a view to its revival. The next
year, on 7 November 1805, Carlisle delivered to the Royal Society;
<i>"The Croonian Lecture on the Arrangement and Mechanical
Action on the Muscles of Fishes".</i><a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57sym" name="sdendnote57anc"><sup>lvii</sup></a>
His opening words harked back to his 1804 lecture, <span style="font-style: normal;">'It
was my intention to have continued my physiological inquiries on the
phenomena of muscular motion, by a series of chemical experiments; …
but an unexpected request ... obliges me to defer those researches'.
Carlisle's papers continued in 1807, with; "</span><i>On the
Natural History and Chemical Analysis of the Substances which
Constitute the Muscles of Animals</i><span style="font-style: normal;">";</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.56cm; margin-right: 0.34cm;">
Mr Carlisle in the Croonian Lecture ... took a physiological view of
the Circulation of the Blood, and of the Influence of the Nerves so
far as they operate on the muscular fibre. He then noticed the
existence of an oxide of iron discovered in the red globules of the
blood, which he considered as materially influencing the muscular
fibre, and the healthful stale of the animal economy, and proceeded
to relate the results of numerous experiments on vegetable and animal
substances, in all of which he found an oxide of iron, as in peas,
yolks of eggs, bile, urine, &c. The yolks of eggs he discovered
to be entirely composed of a fatty oil and an oxide of iron.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58sym" name="sdendnote58anc"><sup>lviii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A further example of his interest in circulation of the blood is in a
1807 report of an autopsy;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
A paper from Mr Carlisle was read ... A female about 19 years of age
was seized with a slight pain, accompanied with numbness and
insensibility, in her foot which gradually ascended to the groin, and
in six weeks occasioned her death. When she died her body was opened,
and the valves of the heart were found so imperfect, as not to be
capable of conveying the blood to the aorta, whence it might
circulate to the extremities. During the progress of the
mortification, the patient was occasionally in such a low state as to
appear on the eve of expiring.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59sym" name="sdendnote59anc"><sup>lix</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">The
importance of Carlisle's work was acknowledged in a paper of 17
February 1814 where Davy commented, 'the observations that have been
collected are very few in number and with the exception of those of
Messrs Hunter and Carlisle are scarcely perhaps deserving of
confidence'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60sym" name="sdendnote60anc"><sup>lx</sup></a>
John Abernathy also acknowledged Carlisle</span><i>;</i>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
Mr Carlisle in whose talents and accuracy we are all disposed to
place confidence, in the Croonian Lecture printed in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1805, says that he can distinctly see
an ultimate muscular fibre which he describes as a solid cylinder,
the covering of which is reticular membrane and the contained part a
pulpy substance irregularly granulated.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">In
the same paper </span>Abernathy summarised the accepted view in 1814,
including that of Carlisle;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
Mr Hunter doubtless thought, and I believe most persons do think,
that in magnetic and electric motions, a subtle invisible substance,
of a very quickly and powerfully mobile nature, puts in motion other
bodies which are evident to the senses, and are of a nature more
gross and inert. To be as convinced as I am of the probability of Mr
Hunter's Theory as a cause of irritability [i.e. muscular motion], it
is I am aware necessary to be as convinced as I am that electricity
is what I have now supposed it to be, and that it pervades all
nature.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61sym" name="sdendnote61anc"><sup>lxi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.24cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1812 the RCS had prepared “Regulations Relating to the Bodies of
Murderers”, which still applied in 1827 for the dissection of Mary
Wittenback, discussed in an earlier chapter, where Carlisle was one
of three signatories required to authorise her dissection. Carlisle
was a prominent member of RCS and would have attended experiments on
human hearts, including in 1812;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
… the College men wished to explore how long a heart could be made
to move after the moment of death. This was the beginning of such
experiments at these public dissections, and they continued until
1827. Sometimes the men who were present were content to observe a
heart pulsating of its own accord. At others, they artificially
stimulated it. Some hearts were cut out of bodies, placed in a saucer
and watched. When they finally lay still, they were nudged with a
scalpel to see if they would begin to move again. The motion of
Bellingham's right auricle was observed with care. Its movement was
assessed as being 'not strictly a contractile action, diminishing in
any Sensible degree the cavity of the Auricle', but 'undulating and
weak, sometimes beginning at the right extremity of the Auricle &
moving to the left: at other times commencing & proceeding in the
contrary direction. The surgeons experienced one of their greatest
triumphs with this man's heart, for its right auricle continued to
move 'without the application of any Stimulus, during the period of
nearly four Hours from the Time of Execution, and for about an Hour
Longer, upon being touched with a Scalpel'.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62sym" name="sdendnote62anc"><sup>lxii</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">While
Carlisle would have attended, it seems from his comments of 1815 that
he disapproved of the experiment. </span>Although an atheist,
Carlisle invoked God in condemning 'cruel experiments', by
anatomists. In his lectures of November 1815, just before Mary
Shelley commenced writing Frankenstein, Carlisle recorded his
two-fold disapproval. Firstly, he did not believe the application of
Galvanism to cadavers would work; considering the method was flawed,
as proved by previous experiments. Secondly, he was pursuing a method
of reviving the recently dead which he believed had a better chance
of success, by revitalising blood to achieve muscular motion.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.53cm;">
[Carlisle] deprecated the cruel experiments of some late and present
anatomists; conjured the students never to lend themselves to such
tortures for the discovery of the hidden principles of vitality,
which he declared to be worse than useless, as this principle was one
of those wisely concealed from our present view; hoped the Academy
would never suffer any future professor to defile the walls of their
society by such practices, which he declared to be both unuseful to
science and offensive to God.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63sym" name="sdendnote63anc"><sup>lxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
But
Galvanic experiments continued; including Andrew Ure in Glasgow in
November 1818 on the body of Matthew Clydesdale, and in Germany by
Karl August Weinhold on animals in 1817.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64sym" name="sdendnote64anc"><sup>lxiv</sup></a>
At this time, Carlisle was physician to Andrew Crosse (1784-1855),
another early experimenter with electricity.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65sym" name="sdendnote65anc"><sup>lxv</sup></a>
Crosse became notorious after press reports of an experiment during
which insects 'appeared'. Later commentators agreed that the insects
were probably mites which had contaminated his instruments. Crosse
has been linked with Percy and Mary Shelley as they attended a
lecture by him in December 1814 in London, but the 'insect' incident
took place 20 years later.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1818
Carlisle continued his work on blood and circulation;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.63cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.63cm;">
The laws which regulate the transmission and extravasated deposit of
serous and other fluids from the circulating mass, appear to us to be
still involved in a good deal of what is doubtful in premise, and
false in inference: and we think that physiology and pathology may
still be very profitably exercised in further investigations of these
important points. Mr Carlisle has well said in his recent lectures
before the College of Surgeons, that since the discovery of the
absorbents we have been too disposed supinely to attribute all
obscure functions to their agency, to endow them with faculties and
accuse them of faults, without due evidence of their being either
possessed of one, or chargeable with the other.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66sym" name="sdendnote66anc"><sup>lxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
And in
1818 he wrote on surgical ethics;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
Desperate operators should be reminded, that it is not uncommon for
persons to recover from diseases, which are generally supposed to be
mortal; but I must reserve the further observations upon that grave
and momentous subject, until I am enabled to lay before the Public
the particular evidences of my own practice, and my special
deliberations upon Surgical Ethics.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67sym" name="sdendnote67anc"><sup>lxvii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
At
the time 'disease' was a very broad term, so Carlisle's use of the
term 'recover from diseases' included premature death by drowning,
suffocation, accidental hanging, cold, and asphyxiation; as in his
evidence to a Select Committee, wherein he said 'disease' included
whatever was injurious to 'health' or was a 'deviation from health'. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
There is
evidence Carlisle believed he was close to reviving life in an
important letter he wrote in 1823 to Samuel Parr (1747-1825). The
timing of the letter is significant, as it was written at the time
Carlisle was posing for, or contemplating the iconography of his
portrait by Sir Martin Archer Shee. Thus, the wording of the letter
can fairly be read in conjunction with the iconography. Carlisle had
a special relationship with Parr, a schoolmaster, clergyman and
author, whose life is covered in <i>"The Works of Samuel Parr"</i>
which includes the letter from Carlisle to Parr dated 5 August 1823;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<br />
I want you to live many more years, and, among other reasons, I feel
an interested vanity in wishing you to see the ultimate work of my
cogitations. A work so wide in its moral and physical bearings that I
dare not say what it is, excepting that the same has been
contemplated by many of the first Philosophers, of all ages and
countries, and that it embraces a great number of natural facts which
conspire to effect a most important practical result.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68sym" name="sdendnote68anc"><sup>lxviii</sup></a></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
This was a bold
statement by Carlisle, and the following points should be noted:</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
-<span style="font-style: normal;"> 'the ultimate work of my
cogitations' - a belief it would be his most important discovery.</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
- 'wide moral and physical bearings' - shows it had ethical
significance, not just scientific.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
- 'I dare not say what it is' - infers he was concerned as to the
public reaction to his work.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
- 'contemplated by many of the first philosophers, of all ages and
countries' - a concept of old he was investigating, not a new one.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.47cm; margin-right: 0.57cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">- 'embraces a great number of
natural facts ... to effect a most important practical result' -
infers a </span>widely available benefit if he succeeded.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1830 Carlisle
discussed experiments with hibernating animals and reviving frozen
muscle tissue;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.48cm; margin-right: 0.48cm;">
Diminished
respiration is the first step into the state of torpidity: a deep
sleep accompanies it; respiration then ceases altogether; the animal
temperature is totally destroyed, coldness and insensibility take
place, and finally, the heart concludes its motions, and the muscles
cease to be irritable. It is worthy of remark, that a confined air,
and a confined respiration, ever precede these phenomena: the animal
retires from the open atmosphere, his mouth and nostrils are brought
into contact with his chest, and enveloped in fur; the limbs become
rigid, and the blood never coagulates during the dormant state. On
being roused, the animal yawns, the respirations are fluttering, the
heart acts slowly and irregularly, he begins to stretch out his
limbs, and proceeds in quest of food. During this dormancy, the
animal may be frozen, without the destruction of the muscular
irritability and this always happens to the garden snail, and to the
chrysalides of many insects … From other experiments, it appears
that the irritability of the heart is inseparably connected with
respiration; and that, according to the nature of the inhaled gas,
the actions of the heart are altered or suspended, and the whole
muscular and sensorial systems partake of the disorder. The blood
appears to be the medium of conveying heat to the different parts of
the body, and the changes of animal temperature are connected with
the degree of rapidity of the circulation … A smaller quantity of
blood flows through a muscle during the state of contraction than
during the quiescent state, as is evinced by the pale colour of the
red muscles when contracted. But when the muscles are vigorously
contracted, their sensibility to pain is nearly destroyed: this mean
is employed by jugglers, for the purpose of suffering pins to be
thrust into the calf of the leg and other muscular parts with
impunity.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69sym" name="sdendnote69anc"><sup>lxix</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle continued
his research into blood and muscular motion, stating; </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.62cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.62cm;">
When
it is known that most of the disorderly errors of the living body
depend on the flowing of the blood and on the contractions of the
heart which acting the part of an hydraulic machine is mainly engaged
in propelling the blood through two extensive series of vessels
called arteries and veins that the greater or less force and
frequency of the heart's action are the known causes and signs of
inflammatory diseases a class of maladies the most extensive and
destructive if not understood and controlled how is it possible to
imagine that a medical practitioner ignorant of the circulation of
the blood is capable of treating such diseases either rationally or
with any chance of success?<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70sym" name="sdendnote70anc"><sup>lxx</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.45cm; margin-right: 0.62cm;">
On 16 November 1831, he delivered a public lecture where he commented;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.36cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.36cm; margin-right: 0.42cm;">
When blood is drawn
from the living frame it presently becomes a solid firm jelly, which
is termed its coagulation; within a few hours the congealed mass
gradually parts into two portions, a liquid called serum, like whey;
and a red coagulum, this last however consists of two distinct
substances, the colouring matter being merely entangled in the
congealed mass, and consisting of minute red particles the congealed
part is called fibrin, because it assumes a thready texture. The
entire blood contains the raw materials for the growth, the repairs,
and the natural purification of the living body, and the proportions
of its elements are continually varying under every meal of food and
drink, and under the appointed purifying discharges, such as the
urine.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Electricity was part of his attempt to reverse the coagulation of
blood, but he hints he also used alcohol, in the form of gin, as part
of his research, as with his observation that 'The fluid found in the
ventricles of the brain had also been observed to have the smell the
taste and the inflammability of gin.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71sym" name="sdendnote71anc"><sup>lxxi</sup></a>
'It is added that the liquid was inflammable. It would have been
desirable that Dr Cooke, or rather his informer, Sir A Carlisle, had
mentioned how the inflammability was proved; for some fallacy may be
strongly suspected; because gin of sufficient strength to take fire
could not enter the blood vessels-without coagulating the blood, and
so preventing its further progress.'<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72sym" name="sdendnote72anc"><sup>lxxii</sup></a>
Reports show Carlisle's continuing research was quoted by
contemporary authors;</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.49cm; margin-right: 0.59cm;">
Mr Mayo by employing the heart of a dog has obviated the objections
which exist against the experiments of Sir G Blane and Sir A Carlisle
he finds the bulk to remain precisely the same during the states of
contraction and relaxation. ... Sir A Carlisle also ... states, in a
loose way, that the muscles become pale during contraction, without
alleging any proof the fact; and it may be remarked, that, if, as he
supposes, the absolute size of the muscle be not affected by
contraction, it does not seem likely that the quantity of blood in it
will be diminished. … Sir A Carlisle observes that animals which
are less easily drowned than others and gives us the results of some
on hedge hogs in proof of his position. …<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73sym" name="sdendnote73anc"><sup>lxxiii</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.43cm; margin-right: 0.52cm;">
But the most interesting is the ulterior distribution of the arterial
and venous vessels in the extremities. Sir A Carlisle was the first
to show, that they form plexuous ramifications, consisting of a large
number of narrow cylindrical vessels anastomosing together. Eighteen
years ago, I repeated the observations of this excellent anatomist on
various animals, and confirmed their veracity against the objections
of Oken and Gaimard.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74sym" name="sdendnote74anc"><sup>lxxiv</sup></a></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Carlisle
was still seeking to revive the recently dead at age 70, as revealed
in his thoughts of 1839;
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.53cm; margin-right: 0.26cm;">
<span style="font-style: normal;">Several physiologists have proved by
experiment, that the heart will continue to beat after it has been
removed from the body. In cold-blooded animals its contraction has
been observed for 30 hours; and in a warm-blooded animal Haller
observed it to continue for seven hours. After its contraction has
ceased, it may be renewed by immersing it in warm water, and by the
use of various stimulants. It is remarkable that the internal surface
is considerably more sensible to stimuli than the external, and its
sensibility lasts for a longer time. How are we, then, to explain its
impulse? ... Mr Carlisle gives a very ingenious explanation of it, he
observes that the anterior fibres of the heart are longer than the
posterior, and therefore in their contraction will lose more of their
length, and consequently must have the effect of bringing its apex
forwards.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75sym" name="sdendnote75anc"><sup>lxxv</sup></a>
</span>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.03cm;">
Also in a report of his experiments at this time, where the
significance to Carlisle of arborescing (i.e. the changing of states
or patterns in liquids) in connection with blood, can be seen in
three experiments he conducted, to show that a similar arborescent or
dentritic appearance to that in newly organized structures is assumed
by inorganic bodies, or bodies void of vitality </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
Experiment 1. If
common whiting be mixed with water, so as to reduce it to the
consistency of a thin cream, and a few drops of it be placed upon a
piece of glass by means of a common brush, it will be found that in a
few moments, arborescing figures begin to appear in every part, and
which, converging together, produce a very beautiful ramifying
appearance, traversing every portion of the glass over which the
mixture had been spread. This effect can be produced more quickly
when the glass is placed either in the vertical position or at an
angle of 45º. </div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
Experiment 2. Having
mixed common potter's clay with sufficient water to render it capable
of being dropped upon a plate, and then dipping the point of a quill
into the mocha fluid hereafter described, carefully touch the surface
of the liquid clay with it: and as soon as this has been done, it
gives rise to a beautiful arborescence, presenting all the
appearances of minute vascular injection. It is this figure which in
our potteries is distinguished by the name of mocha pattern.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.42cm; margin-right: 0.4cm;">
Experiment 3. If
blood just taken from a patient labouring under an acute inflammatory
disease, be allowed to remain at rest for a short time, the buffy
coat begins to form; and if before it has become at all crisped or
dry, <u>a single drop of uncoagulatcd blood be allowed to touch its
surface, it is immediately diffused in an arborescing manner</u>. [my
emphasis]</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.58cm;">
From this it is
clear that Carlisle was still seeking to reverse the coagulation of
blood.<a class="sdendnoteanc" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote76sym" name="sdendnote76anc"><sup>lxxvi</sup></a>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: 0.29cm;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
In the early 19C, scientific concepts were broadening and advancing rapidly, inevitably with many evolutionary dead-ends, such as the work of Lavater, Gall, Spurzheim, and Aldini, and medical treatments such as bleeding. Whereas other scientific concepts which seemed to fail, or to be of little use at the time, subsequently became important, such as; photography, electrolysis, nitrous oxide, flight, evolution, and sonar. In the early 19C, it was impossible to anticipate which scientific concepts would succeed and which fail. Some seemed to herald great possibilities for human life, and for revival after apparent death. Carlisle died soon after releasing his 1838 book, but taken together, his writings show Carlisle spent forty years working towards reviving life, by de-coagulating and revitalising blood, with a view to reviving muscular motion in animals and, by implication, in humans. </div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
History tells us he was unsuccessful, but if his personal papers had survived, they would be fascinating.
The events are far removed from those prevailing in the 21C, but do represent the social genesis of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein. As had Fessenden, Carlisle thought beyond the actual fact of revival, to consider the moral aspects. What were the implications for the mind and personality of a revived corpse, and what was the responsibility of the reviver of a corpse? This becomes the focus of Frankenstein, and the writings of Fessenden become part of that mix.
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
<br /></div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
Give rogues the nine lives of a cat;
</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
Why then, to expiate their crimes,</div>
<div class="western" style="font-style: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0.5cm;">
These rogues must all be hung nine times.</div>
<br />
This reference by Fessenden, is a key reason for Mary to choose to end Frankenstein with the Creature speeding away to be lost in the icy wastes. He could not be seen to end by drowning, nor be sentenced to execution by hanging for murder, as they would both imply a continuing, and ongoing, ability to revive the Creature. In an endless cycle of death and life, as foreshadowed by Fessenden
We have seen Carlisle made observations relevant to a Theory of Evolution in the late 18C and early 19C. He did not accept the Church view of creation, but was careful to say the absence of early man did not negate the Mosaic account. Carlisle had a broad and intuitive view of science, but his interests were so wide, he did not follow up in the detail which would have brought him deserved and lasting fame. This characteristic followed him in other areas of his scientific investigations. Instead he focused his prime effort to try and discover the secret of muscular motion. Carlisle was unsuccessful in this and in finding a way to revive recently dead humans by reversing the coagulation of blood, but his attempt has survived him in a way he could not have anticipated. Through many facets and revivals as inspiration for the persona of Victor Frankenstein in Mary's novel. It is now time to reach through the swirling mists to seek more clues demonstrating the influence of Carlisle on literature, including Mary Shelley and <i>Frankenstein</i>.
<br />
<div id="sdendnote1">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote1anc" name="sdendnote1sym">i</a>
Anon, <i>Authentic Memoirs of Eminent Physicians and Surgeons,</i>
London, Sherwood, 1818</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote2">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote2anc" name="sdendnote2sym">ii</a>
<i>The History of the Works of the Learned</i>, London, H Rhodes,
1705, p 551</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote3">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote3anc" name="sdendnote3sym">iii</a>
<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, Vol XIV, London, Davis and
Reymers, 1764, p 1</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote4">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote4anc" name="sdendnote4sym">iv</a>
<i>Archaeologia, Miscellaneous Tracts Relating to Antiquity</i>, Vol
XXXVI, London, Soc. of Antiquaries, 1834, p 162
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote5">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote5anc" name="sdendnote5sym">v</a>
Pettigrew, Thomas Joseph, <i>A History of Egyptian Mummies</i>,
London, Longmans, 1834, p
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote6">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote6anc" name="sdendnote6sym">vi</a>
<i>The Times,</i> London, 4 April 1788</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote7">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote7anc" name="sdendnote7sym">vii</a>
Kippis, Andrew, <i>The New Annual Register, </i>London, G G and J
Robinson, 1794, p 129</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote8">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote8anc" name="sdendnote8sym">viii</a>
Internet, http://www.trauma.org/archive/history/resuscitation.html
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote9">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote9anc" name="sdendnote9sym">ix</a>
Plot, Robert, <i>The Natural History of Oxfordshire</i>, London,
Broome, 1705, p 201</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote10">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote10anc" name="sdendnote10sym">x</a>
Sinclair, H M, and Robb-Smith, A H T, <i>History of Anatomical
Teaching in Oxford</i>, Oxford, OUP, 1950, p 13</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote11">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote11anc" name="sdendnote11sym">xi</a>
Internet, http://www.trauma.org/archive/history/resuscitation.html
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote12">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote12anc" name="sdendnote12sym">xii</a>
Newton, I, quoted by Latash, M L and Zatsiorsky, V M, <i>Classics in
Movement Science</i>, Champaign, Human Kinetics, 2001, p 32</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote13">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote13anc" name="sdendnote13sym">xiii</a>
Winslow, Jacques Benigne, <i>The Uncertainty of the Signs of Death</i>,
London, 1751, title page</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote14">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote14anc" name="sdendnote14sym">xiv</a>
<i>British Medical Journal</i>, 31 October 31, 1885, p 841
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote15">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote15anc" name="sdendnote15sym">xv</a>
Kite, Charles, <i>The Recovery of the Apparently Dead</i>, London,
1788, p. 92
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote16">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote16anc" name="sdendnote16sym">xvi</a>
<i>Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science</i>, London,
McGlashan & Gill, 1858, p 424</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote17">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote17anc" name="sdendnote17sym">xvii</a>
<i>The Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of
Useful Knowledge,</i> Vol II, London, Longmans, 1843, p 180-182</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote18">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote18anc" name="sdendnote18sym">xviii</a>
Abel, Clarke, <i>Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China,
</i>London, Longmans, 1818, p 365</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote19">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote19anc" name="sdendnote19sym">xix</a>
Delbougeo, J, <i>A most amazing scene of wonders</i>, Cambridge, MA,
Harvard University Press, 2006, p 179-194</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote20">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote20anc" name="sdendnote20sym">xx</a>
Allamand, J N S, quoted by Pera, Marcello, <i>The Ambiguous Frog</i>,
Princeton, PUP, 1992, p 12</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote21">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote21anc" name="sdendnote21sym">xxi</a>
Noad, Henry M, <i>Lectures on Electricity</i>, London, George
Knight, 1844, p 4</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote22">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote22anc" name="sdendnote22sym">xxii</a>
<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, London, Royal Society, 1760, p
374</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote23">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote23anc" name="sdendnote23sym">xxiii</a>
Clark, Golinski, and Schaffer, <i>The Sciences in Enlightened
Europe</i>, Chicago, UCP, 1999, p 369</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote24">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote24anc" name="sdendnote24sym">xxiv</a>
Silliman, Benjamin, <i>The American Journal of Science and Arts</i>,
New Haven, Hezekiah Howe, 1831, p 335
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote25">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote25anc" name="sdendnote25sym">xxv</a>
Mertens, J, <i>The honour of Dutch seamen: Benjamin Franklin's
theory of oil on troubled waters</i>, The Hague, 2005</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote26">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote26anc" name="sdendnote26sym">xxvi</a>
Adams, Joseph, <i>Memoirs of the life and doctrines of the late John
Hunter</i>, London, J Callow, 1818, p 88
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote27">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote27anc" name="sdendnote27sym">xxvii</a>
<i>The Scotsman</i>,
http://news.scotsman.com/latestnews/Drop-in-to-capital39s-grisly.4625978.jp
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote28">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote28anc" name="sdendnote28sym">xxviii</a>
Internet,
http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/PersonsApparentlyDead.htm accessed
May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote29">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote29anc" name="sdendnote29sym">xxix</a>
Royal Humane Society,
http://www.royalhumanesociety.org.uk/html/history.html accessed May
2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote30">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote30anc" name="sdendnote30sym">xxx</a>
Internet, http://www.trauma.org/archive/history/resuscitation.html
accessed May 2009</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote31">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote31anc" name="sdendnote31sym">xxxi</a>
Hunter, John, <i>Proposals for the Recovery of People Apparently
Drowned</i>, London, Phil Trans, 1776, pp. 412-425
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote32">
<div align="LEFT" class="sdendnote-western" style="margin-bottom: 0.5cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 1cm; text-indent: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote32anc" name="sdendnote32sym">xxxii</a>
Hunter, J, <i>The works of John Hunter</i>,
ed. by J.F. Palmer, London, Longman, 1837, p 166-167, p 173</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote33">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote33anc" name="sdendnote33sym">xxxiii</a>
Hunter, John, <i>The Natural, History of the Human Teeth,</i>
London, J Johnson, 1778, p 139</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote34">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote34anc" name="sdendnote34sym">xxxiv</a>
<span style="font-style: normal;">Southey, Robert, </span><i>The
Collected Letters of Robert Southey</i>, UMD,<span style="font-weight: normal;">
letter 170, accessed April 2009</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote35">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote35anc" name="sdendnote35sym">xxxv</a>
Fox, Henry Richard,<i> Foreign Reminiscences</i>, London, Longmans,
1851, p 100-101</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote36">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote36anc" name="sdendnote36sym">xxxvi</a>
<i>The Monthly Magazine</i>, Vol VII, London, Phillips, 1799, p
189-194</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote37">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote37anc" name="sdendnote37sym">xxxvii</a>
Nicholson, William, <i><span style="font-weight: normal;">A
Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts</span></i><span style="font-weight: normal;">,
London, 1800,
</span><cite><span style="font-weight: normal;">www.archive.org/stream/philosophicalmag09lond/philosophicalmag09lond_djvu.txt
</span></cite><span style="font-weight: normal;">p
179-187</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote38">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote38anc" name="sdendnote38sym">xxxviii</a>
Volta, Alessandro, quoted in Smollett, Tobias, <i>The Critical
Review, </i>Vol 32, London, Simpkin, 1801, p 297-298</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote39">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote39anc" name="sdendnote39sym">xxxix</a>
Internet, <i>Britain Unlimited</i>,
http://www.britainunlimited.com/Biogs/mary%20shelley.htm accessed
June 2010</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote40">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote40anc" name="sdendnote40sym">xl</a>
Fessenden, Thomas Green, <i>Original Poems</i>, Philadelphia,
Bronson, 1806, p 200</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote41">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote41anc" name="sdendnote41sym">xli</a>
Fessenden, Thomas Green, <i>The Modern Philosopher, </i>Philadelphia,
Bronson, 1806, p xxvii-xxviii</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote42">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote42anc" name="sdendnote42sym">xlii</a>
Fessenden, Thomas Green, <i>The Modern Philosopher,</i>
Philadelphia, Bronson, 1806, p 125-133</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote43">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote43anc" name="sdendnote43sym">xliii</a>
Fessenden, T G, <i>The Modern Philosopher, </i>Philadelphia,
Bronson, 1806, p xxxi, p 131, p 141, 153</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote44">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote44anc" name="sdendnote44sym">xliv</a>
Corry, John, <i>A Satirical View of London</i>, London, Ogle, 1804,
p 128-130</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote45">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote45anc" name="sdendnote45sym">xlv</a>
<i>The Gentleman's Magazine</i>, London, 1801, p 625</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote46">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote46anc" name="sdendnote46sym">xlvi</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>An Account of a peculiar Arrangement in the
Arteries, </i><span style="font-style: normal;">London, Bulmer, 1804,
p18- 20</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote47">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote47anc" name="sdendnote47sym">xlvii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Continuation of an Account of a Peculiar
Arrangement in the Arteries, </i>Dec., 1803, p 17-22</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote48">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote48anc" name="sdendnote48sym">xlviii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>The Croonian Lecture on Muscular Motion</i>,
read 8 November, 1804</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote49">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote49anc" name="sdendnote49sym">xlix</a>
Thomson, Thomas, <i>Chemistry of Animal Bodies</i>, Edinburgh, Adam
an Charles Black, 1843, p 274</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote50">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote50anc" name="sdendnote50sym">l</a>
Banks, Joseph, <i>The Letters of Sir Joseph Banks</i>, London,
Imperial, 2000, p 323</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote51">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote51anc" name="sdendnote51sym">li</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Account of a Peculiar
Arrangement in the Arteries</i>, London, Phil
Trans, 1803, p 19</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote52">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote52anc" name="sdendnote52sym">lii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>The Croonian Lecture on
Muscular Motion</i>, London, Phil Trans, Read
November 8, 1804, p 25</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote53">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote53anc" name="sdendnote53sym">liii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>The Croonian Lecture on Muscular Motion</i>,
read 8 November, 1804, p 19-20</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote54">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote54anc" name="sdendnote54sym">liv</a><span style="font-style: normal;">
Burns, William E</span><i>, Science in the Enlightenment,</i> W
Santa Barbara, Calif, ABC-CLIO's, 2003, p 130 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote55">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote55anc" name="sdendnote55sym">lv</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Practical Observations on the Preservation of
Health</i>, London, John Churchill, 1838, p xxxiv</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote56">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote56anc" name="sdendnote56sym">lvi</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>The Croonian Lecture on Muscular Motion</i>,
read 8 November, 1804, p 20 - 21</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote57">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote57anc" name="sdendnote57sym">lvii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>The Croonian Lecture on Muscular Motion</i>,
read 8 December, 1805</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote58">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote58anc" name="sdendnote58sym">lviii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>The Croonian Lecture on Muscular Motion</i>,
read 17 December, 1807, reported in Bradley, T, and Batty, R, <i>The
Medical and Physical Journal</i>, London, Richard Phillips, 1809, p
191</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote59">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote59anc" name="sdendnote59sym">lix</a>
Tilloch, Aleaxnder, <i>The Philosophical Magazine</i><span style="font-style: normal;">,
London, Richardson, 1807, p 368</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote60">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote60anc" name="sdendnote60sym">lx</a>
Davy, John, in <i>Philosophical Transactions for 1814</i>, London,
1814, p 590</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote61">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote61anc" name="sdendnote61sym">lxi</a>
Abernathy, John, <i>An enquiry</i><i>,</i> London, Longmans, 1814, p
26 and p 39</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote62">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote62anc" name="sdendnote62sym">lxii</a>
MacDonald, Helen, <i>Human Remains,</i> London .YUP, 2006, p 18-19</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote63">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote63anc" name="sdendnote63sym">lxiii</a>
<i>New Monthly Magazine</i>, London, Henry Colburn, 1815, p 439</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote64">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote64anc" name="sdendnote64sym">lxiv</a>
Dougan, Andy, <i>Raising the Dead,</i> Edinburgh, Birlinn, 2008</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote65">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote65anc" name="sdendnote65sym">lxv</a>
Crosse, Andrew, <i>Memorials, Scientific and Literary,</i> London,
Longmans, 1857, p 298</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote66">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote66anc" name="sdendnote66sym">lxvi</a>
Uwins, David, <i>The London medical repository, monthly journal, and
review</i>, London, Underwoods, 1818, p 43</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote67">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote67anc" name="sdendnote67sym">lxvii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>An Essay on the Disorders of Old Age,</i>
London, Longmans, 1818, p 109-110
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote68">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote68anc" name="sdendnote68sym">lxviii</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, to Parr, Samuel, quoted in <i>The
works of Samuel Parr,</i> Vol VII, London,
Longmans, 1828, p 188 </span>
</div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote69">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote69anc" name="sdendnote69sym">lxix</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, quoted in Clarke, C C, <i>Readings in Natural
Philosophy</i>, London, Whittaker, 1830, p 591</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote70">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote70anc" name="sdendnote70sym">lxx</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, <i>Practical Observations on the Preservation of
Health,</i> London, John Churchill, 1838, p xxxv</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote71">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote71anc" name="sdendnote71sym">lxxi</a>
Aitken, William, <i>The Science and Practice of Medicine</i>,
Philadelphia, Lindsay & Blakiston, 1866, p 771</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote72">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote72anc" name="sdendnote72sym">lxxii</a>
Christison, Robert, and Lizars, William Home, <i>A Treatise on
Poisons</i>, London, A and D Black, 1836, p 853</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote73">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote73anc" name="sdendnote73sym">lxxiii</a>
Bostock, John, <i>An Elementary System of Physiology</i>, London,
Baldwin and Craddock, 1838, p 82, p 93-94, p 401</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote74">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote74anc" name="sdendnote74sym">lxxiv</a>
Todd, Robert Bentley, <i>The Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology,</i>
Vol 4, London, Longmans, 1852, p 219</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote75">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote75anc" name="sdendnote75sym">lxxv</a>
<i>The Medical Times</i>, Vol I, October 1839 to March 1840, London,
Sydney Smith, 1840 p 112</span></div>
</div>
<div id="sdendnote76">
<div class="sdendnote-western">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a class="sdendnotesym" href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=1011681182245722621#sdendnote76anc" name="sdendnote76sym">lxxvi</a>
Carlisle, Anthony, in <i>The Retrospect of Practical Medicine</i>,
New York, Adee, 1845, p 5</span></div>
</div>
Don Sheltonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01981381449429373197noreply@blogger.com0